Chapter

p 5

The Peripheral Nervous System:

Afferent Division;; Special
p Senses
Peripheral Nervous System
• C
Consists
i off nerve fibers
fib that
h carry information
i f i b between
the CNS and other parts of the body
• Afferent division
– Detects, encodes, and transmits peripheral signals
to the CNS (sends information from internal and
external environment to CNS)
– To maintain homeostasis
• Visceral afferent
– Incoming pathway for information from internal viscera
(organs in body cavities)
• Sensory afferent
– Somatic (body sense) sensation
» Sensation arising from body surface and proprioception
– Special senses
» Vision, hearing, taste, smell
 Receptors
• Structures at peripheral endings of afferent neurons
• Detect stimuli (change detectable by the body)
• Convert forms of energy into electrical signals
(action potentials)
– Process is called transduction

Chapter 6 The Peripheral Nervous System: Afferent Division; Special Senses

Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood ©2010 Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning
 Types of Receptors
• Photoreceptors
Photoreceptors a photosensitive cell in the retina, which contains
two types of photoreceptors: rods and cones.
cones Which are
responsible for detecting light and, therefore, enable us to see.
These p photoreceptors
p are arranged
g in certain waysy to helpp us
recognize different objects. Some photoreceptors are activated
when they detect light (Cones), while others are activated when
is they do not detect light (Rods).
 Types of Receptors
• Mechanoreceptors
– Sensitive to mechanical energy

Skeletal muscle Fine hairs in the Blood pressure-

receptors sensitive to ear sensitive to monitoring
stretch sound waves baroreceptors

Chapter 6 The Peripheral Nervous System: Afferent Division; Special Senses

Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood ©2010 Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning
 Types of Receptors
• Thermoreceptors • Osmoreceptors
– Detect changes in concentration
of solutes in body fluids and
– Sensitive
S iti tto heat
h t and
d cold
ld
resultant changes in osmotic activity
 Types of Receptors
• Nociceptors
• Chemoreceptors
– Pain receptors that are – Sensitive to specific chemicals
sensitive
iti tot tissue
ti d
damage
– Include receptors for smell and
or distortion of tissue
taste and receptors that detect O2
and CO2 concentrations in blood
and chemical content of digestive
tract

Receptors that
detect O2 and CO2

Receptors for
smell and taste
Uses For Perceived Information
• Afferent input is essential for control of efferent output
• Processing of sensory input by reticular activating
system in brain stem is critical for cortical arousal and
consciousness
• Central processing of sensory information gives rise
to our perceptions of the world around us
• Selected information delivered to CNS may be
stored for
f further
f reference
f

• Sensory stimuli can have profound impact

on our emotions

Chapter 6 The Peripheral Nervous System: Afferent Division; Special Senses

Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood ©2010 Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning
 Receptors
• May be
– Specialized ending of an afferent neuron
– Separate
S t cellll closely
l l associated
i t d with
ith peripheral
i h l ending
di off
a neuron
• Stimulus alters receptor’s
receptor s permeability which leads to graded
receptor potential
• Usually causes nonselective opening of all small ion channels

• This change in membrane permeability can lead to the influx of

sodium ions.
ions This produces receptor (generator) potentials
potentials.
• The magnitude of the receptor potential represents the
intensity of the stimulus.
stimulus
• A receptor potential of sufficient magnitude can produce an
action potential
potential. This action potential is propagated along an
afferent fiber to the CNS.
Conversion of Receptor and Generator
Potentials into Action Potentials
Conversion of Receptor and Generator
Potentials into Action Potentials
Conversion of Receptor and Generator
Potentials into Action Potentials
Action potential in afferent
never are initiated at the
peripheral
i h l end d near th
the
sensor receptor

Action p
potential in
interneuron and efferent
neuron are initiated at the
axon hillock near the cell
body.

Chapter 6 The Peripheral Nervous System: Afferent Division; Special Senses

Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood ©2010 Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning
Magnitude of receptor potential

The more rapidly and

larger areas an afferent
fiber fires resulted in the
more neurotransmitter it
releases

Rate of neurotransmitter
release is direct ratio
with the stimulus
strength and the number
of receptors stimulated
Types of Receptors
(according to their speed of adaptation
– Tonic receptors – Phasic receptors
• Do not adapt at all or adapt slowly • Rapidly adapting receptors
– Ex: Muscle stretch receptors, • No longer responds to maintained
joint proprioceptors stimulus
• CNS must continually get info. about • Important to signal a change in
degree of muscle length & joint position stimulus intensity, rather than relay
– So, these receptors must status quo information
continue to ggenerate APs to – Tactile (touch) receptors in skin
relay information to CNS

Chapter 6 The Peripheral Nervous System: Afferent Division; Special Senses

Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood ©2010 Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning
Tactile receptors in the skin
Shaft of hair inside follicle Skin surface
Epidermis

Meissner’s
Dermis corpuscle: ligh,
ligh
flutring touch

Myelinated neuron

Subcutaneous tissue Ruffini endings:

deep pressure

Hair receptor: Merkel’s disc: Pacinian corpuscle:

hair movement light, sustained vibrantions and deep
and very gentle touch pressure
touch
Somatosensory Pathways 3. Second-
order sensory
– First-order sensory neuron neuron

• Afferent neuron with its

peripheral receptor that first
detects stimulus Midbrain
• Synapses on Second-order
neuron Cerebellum

– Second-order sensory neuron

• Either in spinal
p cord or medulla
Medulla
• Synapses with third-order neuron

– Third-order sensory neuron

• Located in thalamus
2. Second
2 Second-
order sensory 1. First-order
neuron sensory
neuron
 Perception
p
• Conscious interpretation of external world
derived from sensory input
– From a pattern of nerve impulses delivered to brain
• Why sensory input does not give true reality
perception
– Humans have receptors that detect only a limited
number of existing energy forms
– Information channels in our brains are not high-
fidelity
y recorders
– Cerebral cortex further manipulates the data

Chapter 6 The Peripheral Nervous System: Afferent Division; Special Senses

Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood ©2010 Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning
What Do You Perceive?

Variable perceptions from the

same visual input.
Do you “see” a Do yyou see two faces in p
profile,
hit square that
white th t or a wineglass?
is not really
there?

Chapter 6 The Peripheral Nervous System: Afferent Division; Special Senses

Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood ©2010 Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning
 Pain
• Primarily a protective mechanism meant to bring a
conscious awareness that tissue damage is occurring or
is about to occur
• Storage of painful experiences in memory helps us avoid
potentially harmful events in future
• Stimulation of nociceptors elicits perception of pain
• Sensation of pain is accompanied by motivated
b h i l responses and
behavioral d emotional
ti l reactions
ti
• Subjective perception can be influenced by other past
or present experiences

Chapter 6 The Peripheral Nervous System: Afferent Division; Special Senses

Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood ©2010 Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning
 Pain
• P
Presence off prostaglandins
t l di (lower(l nociceptors
i t
threshold for activation) greatly enhances receptor
response to noxious stimuli
• Nociceptors do not adapt to sustained or repetitive
stimulation
• 3 categories of nociceptors
– Mechanical nociceptors
• Respond to mechanical damage such as cutting,
crushing, or pinching
– Thermal nociceptors
• Respond to temperature extremes
– Polymodal nociceptors
• Respond equally to all kinds of damaging stimuli
– Irritating chemicals released from injured tissues
Characteristics of Pain
 Pain
• 2 best known pain neurotransmitters
– Substance P
• Activates ascending pathways that transmit nociceptive
signals to higher levels for further processing
– Glutamate
Gl t t
• Major excitatory neurotransmitter
• Binds AMPA and NMDA receptors result in generation
of APs, which transmit pain message to higher centers
• Brain has built in analgesic system
– Suppresses
pp transmission in p
pain p
pathways
y as
they enter spinal cord
– Depends
epe ds o
on p
presence
ese ce of
o op
opiate
ate receptors
ecepto s
• Endogenous opiates – endorphins, enkephalins,
dynorphin
 S b t
Substance P pain
i pathway
th

Chapter 6 The Peripheral Nervous System: Afferent Division; Special Senses

Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood ©2010 Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning
Analgesic
g pathway
p y

Chapter 6 The Peripheral Nervous System: Afferent Division; Special Senses

Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood ©2010 Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning
 Eye: Vision

Chapter 6 The Peripheral Nervous System: Afferent Division; Special Senses

Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood ©2010 Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning
 Eye
• Sensory organ for vision
Eyelashes Eyelids
• Protective mechanisms that help
protect eyes from injury
– Eyeball is sheltered by bony
socket in which it is positioned
– Eyelids
y
• Act like shutters to protect eye from
environmental hazards
– Eyelashes
• Trap fine, airborne debris such as dust
before it can fall into eye
– Tears
Tears
• Continuously produced by lacrimal glands
• Lubricate, cleanse, bactericidal
 Eye
• Spherical, fluid-filled structure enclosed by 3 tissue layers
– Sclera/cornea
• Sclera – tough outer layer of connective
tissue; forms visible white part of the eye
• Cornea – anterior,
anterior transparent outer layer
through which light rays pass into interior of eye
– Choroid/ciliary
y body/iris
y
• Choroid - middle layer underneath sclera which
contains blood vessels that nourish retina
• Choroid layer is specialized anteriorly to form
ciliary body and iris
– Retina
• Innermost coat under choroid
• Consists of outer pigmented layer and inner nervous-tissue layer
– Rods and cones
» Photoreceptors that convert light energy nerve impulses
 Eye
Interior consists of 2 fluid-filled
cavities separated by the lens
– Posterior cavity
• Larger cavity between lens and retina
• Contains
C t i semifluid,
ifl id jellylike
j ll lik
substance = vitreous humor
– Important in maintaining the
spherical shape of eyeball
– Anterior cavity
• Anterior cavity between cornea and lens
• Contains clear, watery fluid = aqueous humor
– Carries nutrients for cornea and lens
– Produced by capillary network
within ciliary body
 Eye
• Iris
– Controls amount of light
entering eye
– Contains 2 sets of smooth Iris
muscle networks
Circular
• Circular (or constrictor) muscle body
• Radial (or dilator) muscle
– Pigment in iris is responsible
for eye color
– Varied flecks and lines are Iris
unique
i ffor each
h iindividual
di id l Circular
Ci l
muscle
• Basis for latest identification
t h l
technology
Chapter 6 The Peripheral Nervous System: Afferent Division; Special Senses
Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood ©2010 Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning
Eye
The amount of light entering the eye is controlled by the iris
 Eye
• Pupil
– Round opening through
which light enters the eye

– Size of opening is adjusted

by variable contraction of the
iris muscles to admit more or
less light as needed
Pupil

Chapter 6 The Peripheral Nervous System: Afferent Division; Special Senses

Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood ©2010 Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning
 Eye
Formation and Drainage of Aqueous Humor
Aqueous humor is produced
at a rate of 5 ml/day and
Carries nutrients for cornea
and lens.
If aqueous humor is
not drained as
rapidly as it forms,
causing the pressure
to rise within the eye.
y
This resulted in
glaucoma.

Aqueous humor is formed by capillary network in ciliary body, then

drains into the canal of Schlemm, and eventually enters the blood.
Chapter 6 The Peripheral Nervous System: Afferent Division; Special Senses
Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood ©2010 Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning
 Eye
• Convex structures of eye produce convergence of
diverging
g g light
g rays
y that reach eye
y

Chapter 6 The Peripheral Nervous System: Afferent Division; Special Senses

Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood ©2010 Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning
 Eye
• 2 structures most important in eye’s refractive ability are

– Cornea
C
• Light rays pass through
cornea and into interior of eye
Cornea
• Contributes most extensively
to eye
eye’ss total refractive ability
Lens
• Refractive ability remains constant
because curvature never changes
– Lens
• Refractive ability can be adjusted
by changing curvature as needed
for near or far vision

Chapter 6 The Peripheral Nervous System: Afferent Division; Special Senses

Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood ©2010 Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning
 Eye

Focusing on
Di t t and
Distant dN
Near
Light Sources

Chapter 6 The Peripheral Nervous System: Afferent Division; Special Senses

Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood ©2010 Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning
 Eye
• Accommodation:
– Ability
Abilit tto adjust
dj t strength
t th off lens
l
– Increases strength of lens for near vision
– Change in strength and shape of lens
– Strength
g of lens depends
p on its shape,
p which is
regulated by ciliary muscle
– Accomplished
p byy action of ciliaryy muscle and
suspensory ligaments
– Ciliaryy muscle: p part of ciliaryy body
y
– Age-related reduction in accommodation ability -
presbyopia
p y p
Chapter 6 The Peripheral Nervous System: Afferent Division; Special Senses
Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood ©2010 Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning
Eye
y Mechanics of Accommodation

Chapter 6 The Peripheral Nervous System: Afferent Division; Special Senses

Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood ©2010 Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning
Eye
y Emmetropia, Myopia, and Hyperopia

Emmetropia

Myopia

Hyperopia
 Eye
• Retina – receptor containing portion is actually an
extension of the CNS
• Neural portion of retina consists of 3 layers of excitable
cells
– Outermost layer containing rods and cones
– Middle
Middl layer
l off bipolar
bi l cellsll
– Inner layer of ganglion cells
• Axons of ganglion cells join to form optic nerve
– Point on retina at which optic nerve leaves is the optic disc
» Region often called the blind spot because no image can be
detected here because of lack of rods and cones

Chapter 6 The Peripheral Nervous System: Afferent Division; Special Senses

Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood ©2010 Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning
Eye
Retinal Layers
 Eye
• Fovea
– Pinhead-sized depression
p in exact center of
retina
– Point of most distinct vision
– Has only cones
• Macula lutea
– Area immediately surrounding fovea
– Fairly high acuity
• Macular degeneration
– Leading g cause of blindness in western
hemisphere
– “doughnut” vision

Chapter 6 The Peripheral Nervous System: Afferent Division; Special Senses

Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood ©2010 Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning
 Eye
Ph t
Photoreceptors
t
• Rod and cone cells
• Consist of 3 parts
– Outer segment
• Detects light stimulus
– Inner segment
• Contains metabolic machinery of cell
– Synaptic terminal
• Transmits signal
g g
generated in photoreceptor
p p on light
g
stimulation to next cells in visual pathway

Chapter 6 The Peripheral Nervous System: Afferent Division; Special Senses

Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood ©2010 Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning
Eye
Photoreceptors

Chapter 6 The Peripheral Nervous System: Afferent Division; Special Senses

Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood ©2010 Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning
 Eye
Photopigments

• Undergo chemical alterations when activated by

light
• Consists of 2 components
p
– Opsin
• Protein that is integral
g p part of disc membrane
– Retinene
• Derivative of vitamin A
• Light-absorbing part of photopigment

Chapter 6 The Peripheral Nervous System: Afferent Division; Special Senses

Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood ©2010 Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning
 Eye
Photopigments
• 4 different photopigments
– Rod pigment
pg
• Provide vision only in shades of gray
• Rhodopsin
– Absorbs all visible wavelengths
– Cone pigments
• Respond selectively to various wavelengths of light
• Make color vision possible
– Red cones
– Green cones
– Blue cones
Chapter 6 The Peripheral Nervous System: Afferent Division; Special Senses
Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood ©2010 Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning
Eye
y
Eye
Properties of Rod Vision and Cone Vision
 Eye
The sensitivity of the eyes varies through
dark and light
g adaptation.
p
•Dark adaptation
•Can gradually distinguish objects as you enter a dark area
area.
•Due to the regeneration of rod photopigments that had
been b
bee broken
o e dodown by pprevious
e ous light
g teexposure.
posu e

•Light adaptation
•Can gradually distinguish objects as you enter an area with
more light.
•Due to the rapid breakdown of cone photopigments.
photopigments

Chapter 6 The Peripheral Nervous System: Afferent Division; Special Senses

Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood ©2010 Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning