Essentials of

Nutrition and
Biochemistry
for BSc Nursing Students
[As per the syllabus of INC for BSc Nursing]

Third Edition

HARBANS LAL PhD, FIAO, FACBI, FSOBSI

Former Senior Professor & Head, Department of Biochemistry
Maharaja Agrasen Medical College, Agroha (Hisar), Haryana, India
Former Sr. Professor, PGIMS, Rohtak, Haryana, India
Ex WHO Fellow

CBS Publishers & Distributors Pvt Ltd

• New Delhi • Bengaluru • Chennai • Kochi • Kolkata • Lucknow
• Mumbai • Hyderabad • Nagpur • Patna • Pune • Vijayawada
 Preface to Third Edition

Lots of encouragement and support of the faculty members and the students of several Nursing Colleges
motived and inspired me to write this book. Extraordinary success of my books entitled “Food & Nutrition”
and “Essentials of Biochemistry for BSc Nursing Students” encouraged me to present the new edition of
Essentials of Nutrition and Biochemistry for BSc Nursing Students.
A major goal is to provide the basics of Nutrition as well as Biochemistry to the BSc Nursing students in
a concise and interesting manner. All the chapters which have been divided under various Units have been
written in a lucid manner. The text in each chapter has been supplemented with suitable tables, outlined
flowcharts and figures. Some important questions have also been included at the end of each chapter under
the segment Assess Yourself.

HARBANS LAL
hl.biopgimsr@gmail.com
 Special Features of the Book

Chapter Outline is given in the beginning of every chapter to make

the reader go through the topics covered in a particular chapter.
C h apter Outl i n e

• Nutrition • Role of Nutrition in Maintaining Health

ƒ History • Nutritional Problems in India
ƒ Concepts • National Nutrition Policy

Fig. 2.2. A eukaryotic cell.

Studded with 200+ fully colored Images and Illustrations for easy grasp of the relevant topics.
xiv Essentials of Nutrition and Biochemistry for BSc Nursing Students

Numerous Tables are used to clarify the concepts A number of Clinical Correlation boxes have been
and make the reading enjoyable and informative. included in-between the text from the clinical point
of view.
TABLE 7.4: Biological importance of proteins
Clinical Correlation
Biological Importance of Examples Zellweger Syndrome
protein Absence of the functional peroxisomes results in a rare
As structural proteins Collagen, keratins, etc. autosomal recessive disease referred to as Zellweger
syndrome. It is characterized by abnormalities of the
As enzymes Pepsin, amylase, etc.
several organs due to the decreased levels of plasmalogens.
As hormones Insulin
As transporters Hemoglobin
As receptors Hormone receptors
As storage molecules Ferritin
In immune response g-globulin

At the end of every chapter Assess Yourself covering

subjective and objective Qs provided for self assessment.
Assess Yourself
Long and Short Answer Questions
1. Define carbohydrate. Classify carbohydrates.
2. Write short notes on:
a. Inulin
b. Homopolysaccharides
Multiple Choice Questions
1. Which of the following is a non-reducing sugar?
a. Sucrose b. Maltose
c. Glucose d. Lactose
2. Sucrose has glucose and ………………
a. Maltose b. Fructose
c. Glycogen d. Galactose
 Syllabus

NUTRITION
Placement: First Year Time: Theory 60 hours
Course description: The Course is designed to assist the students to acquire knowledge of nutrition for
maintenance of optimum health at different stages of life and its application for practice of nursing.

Unit Time (Hrs) Learning Content Teaching Learning Evaluation

Objectives Activities
Th. Pr.
I 4 • Describe the Introduction • Lecture discussion • Short
relationship • Nutrition: • Explaining using answers
between ƒ History charts • Objective
nutrition and ƒ Concepts • Panel discussion type
health • Role of nutrition in maintaining
health
• Nutritional problems in India
• National nutritional policy
• Factors affecting food and nutrition:
socioeconomic, cultural, tradition,
production, system of distribution,
life style and food habits, etc.
• Role of food and its medicinal value
• Classifications of foods
• Food standards
• Elements of nutrition: macro and
micro
• Calorie, BMR
II 2 • Describe the Carbohydrates • Lecture discussion • Short
classification, • Classification • Explaining using answers
functions, • Caloric value charts • Objective
sources and • Recommended daily allowances type
recommended • Dietary sources
daily allowances • Functions
(RDA) of • Digestion, absorption and storage,
carbohydrates metabolism of carbohydrates
• Malnutrition: Deficiencies and over
consumption
Contd…
xvi Essentials of Nutrition and Biochemistry for BSc Nursing Students

Unit Time (Hrs) Learning Content Teaching Learning Evaluation

Objectives Activities
Th. Pr.
III 2 • Describe the Fats • Lecture discussion • Short
classification, • Classification • Explaining using answers
functions, • Caloric value charts • Objective
sources and • Recommended daily allowances type
recommended • Dietary sources
daily allowances • Functions
(RDA) of fats • Digestion, absorption and storage,
metabolism
• Malnutrition: Deficiencies and over
consumption
IV 2 • Describe the Proteins • Lecture discussion • Short
classification, • Classification • Explaining using answers
functions, • Caloric value charts • Objective
sources and • Recommended daily allowances type
recommended • Dietary sources
daily allowances • Functions
(RDA) of proteins • Digestion, absorption, metabolism
and storage
• Malnutrition: Deficiencies and over
consumption
V 3 • Describe the Energy • Lecture discussion • Short
daily calorie • Unit of energy–Kcal • Explaining using answers
requirement • Energy requirements of different charts • Objective
for different categories of people • Exercise type
categories of • Measurements of energy • Demonstration
people • Body mass index (BMI) and basic
metabolism
• Basal metabolic rate (BMR)–
determination and factors affecting
VI 4 • Describe the Vitamins • Lecture discussion • Short
classification, • Classification • Explaining using answers
functions, • Recommended daily allowances charts • Objective
sources and • Dietary sources type
recommended • Functions
daily allowances • Absorption, synthesis, metabolism
(RDA) of vitamins storage and excretion
• Deficiencies
• Hypervitaminosis
Contd…
 Syllabus xvii

Unit Time (Hrs) Learning Content Teaching Learning Evaluation

Objectives Activities
Th. Pr.
VII 4 • Describe the Minerals • Lecture discussion • Short
classification, • Classification • Explaining using answers
functions, • Recommended daily allowances charts • Objective
sources and • Dietary sources type
recommended • Functions
daily allowances • Absorption, synthesis, metabolism
(RDA) of minerals storage and excretion
• Deficiencies
• Over consumption and toxicity
VIII 3 • Describe Water and Electrolytes • Lecture discussion • Short
the sources, • Water: Daily requirement, • Explaining using answers
functions and regulation of water metabolism, charts • Objective
requirements distribution of body water, type
of water and • Electrolytes: Types, sources,
electrolytes composition of body fluids
• Maintenance of fluid and
electrolyte balance
• Over hydration, dehydration and
water intoxication
• Electrolyte imbalances
IX 5 15 • Describe the Cookery Rules and Preservation of • Lecture discussion • Short
cookery rules and Nutrients • Demonstration answers
preservation of • Principles, methods of cooking and • Practice session • Objective
nutrients serving type
• Prepare and ƒ Preservation of nutrients • Assessment
serve simple • Safe food handling-toxicity of practice
beverages and • Storage of food sessions
different types of • Food preservation, food additives
foods and its principles
• Prevention of Food Adulteration
Act (PFA)
• Food standards
• Preparation of simple beverages
and different types of food
X 7 5 • Describe the Balanced Diet • Lecture discussion • Exercise
balanced diet • Elements • Explaining using on menu
for different • Food groups charts planning
categories of • Recommended daily allowance • Practice session
people • Nutritive value of foods • Meal planning
• Calculation of balanced diet for
different categories of people
• Planning menu
• Budgeting of food
• Introduction to therapeutic diets:
naturopathy–diet
Contd…
xviii Essentials of Nutrition and Biochemistry for BSc Nursing Students

Unit Time (Hrs) Learning Content Teaching Learning Evaluation

Objectives Activities
Th. Pr.
XI 4 • Describe Role of Nurse in Nutritional Programs • Lecture discussion • Short
various national • National programs related to • Explaining with answers
programs related nutrition slide/films shows • Objective
to nutrition ƒ Vitamin A deficiency program • Demonstration type
• Describe the ƒ National iodine deficiency of assessment of
role of nurse in disorders (IDD) program nutritional status
assessment of ƒ Midday meal program
nutritional status ƒ Integrated child development
and nutrition scheme (ICDS)
eduction • National and International agencies
working towards food/nutrition
ƒ NIPCCD, CARE, FAO, NIN, CFTRI
(Central food technology and
research institute) etc.
• Assessment of nutritional status
• Nutrition educational and role of
nurse
 Syllabus xix

BIOCHEMISTRY
Placement: First Year Time: Theory-30 Hours

Course descriptions: The Course is designed to assist the students to acquire knowledge of the normal
biochemical composition and functioning of human body and understand the alterations in biochemistry in
diseases for practice of nursing.

Unit Time Learning Content Teaching Learning Assessment Methods

(Hrs) Objective Activities
I 3 • Describe the Introduction • Lecture • Short answer questions
structure, • Definition and discussion using • Objective type
composition and significance in nursing charts, slides
functions of cell • Review of structure, • Demonstrate use
• Differentiate composition and of microscope
between functions of cell
prokaryote and • Prokaryote and
eukaryote cell eukaryote cell
• Identify organization
techniques of • Microscopy
microscopy
II 6 • Describe the Structure and Functions • Lecture • Short answer questions
structure and of Cell Membrane discussion • Objective type
function of cell • Fluid mosaic model
tight junction,
cytoskeleton
• Transport mechanism:
diffusion, osmosis,
filtration, active
channel, sodium pump
• Acid base balance-
maintenance and
diagnostic tests
• PH buffers
III 6 • Explain the Composition and • Lecture • Short answer questions
metabolism of Metabolism of discussion • Objective type
carbohydrates Carbohydrates • Demonstration
• Types, structure, of blood glucose
composition and uses monitoring
ƒ Monosaccharides,
disaccharides,
polysaccharides,
oligosaccharides
Contd…
xx Essentials of Nutrition and Biochemistry for BSc Nursing Students

Unit Time Learning Content Teaching Learning Assessment Methods

(Hrs) Objective Activities
• Metabolism
ƒ Pathways of glucose:
Š Glycolysis
Š Gluconeogenesis:
Cori’s cycle,
tricarboxylic acid
(TCA) cycle
Š Pentose phosphate
pathways (Hexose
mono phosphate)
Š Regulation of
blood glucose level
Investigations and their
interpretations
IV 4 • Explain the Composition and • Lecture • Short answer questions
metabolism of Metabolism of Lipids discussion using • Objective type
lipids • Types, structure, charts
composition and uses of • Demonstration of
fatty acids laboratory tests
ƒ Nomenclature, roles
and prostaglandins
• Metabolism of fatty acid
ƒ Breakdown
ƒ Synthesis
• Metabolism of
triacylglycerols
• Cholesterol metabolism
ƒ Biosynthesis and its
regulation
Š Bile salts and
bilirubin
Š Vitamin D
Š Steroid hormones
• Lipoproteins and their
functions:
ƒ VLDLs-IDLs, LDs and
HDSs
ƒ Transport of lipids
ƒ Athrosclerosis,
Investigations and
their interpretations
Contd…
 Syllabus xxi

Unit Time Learning Content Teaching Learning Assessment Methods

(Hrs) Objective Activities
V 6 • Explain the Composition and • Lecture • Short answer questions
metabolism of Metabolism of Amino discussion using • Objective type
amino acids and Acids and Proteins charts
proteins • Types, structure, • Demonstration of
composition and uses laboratory test
of amino acids and
proteins
• Metabolism of amino
acids and proteins
ƒ Protein synthesis,
targeting and
glycosylation
ƒ Chromatography
ƒ Electrophoresis
ƒ Sequencing
• Metabolism of nitrogen
ƒ Fixation and
assimilation
ƒ Urea cycle
ƒ Hemes and
chlorophylls
• Enzymes and co-
enzymes
ƒ Classification
ƒ Properties
ƒ Kinetics and
inhibition
ƒ Control
Investigations and their
interpretations
VI 2 • Describe types, Composition of Vitamins • Lecture • Short answer questions
composition and Minerals discussion using • Objective type
and utilization • Vitamins and minerals: charts
of vitamins and ƒ Structure • Demonstration of
minerals ƒ Classification laboratory tests
ƒ Properties
ƒ Absorption
ƒ Storage and
transportation
ƒ Normal concentration
Investigations and
their interpretations
Contd…
xxii Essentials of Nutrition and Biochemistry for BSc Nursing Students

Unit Time Learning Content Teaching Learning Assessment Methods

(Hrs) Objective Activities
VII 3 • Describe Immunochemistry • Lecture • Short answer questions
immunochemistry • Immune response, discussion • Objective type
• Structure and • Demonstrate
classification of laboratory tests
immunoglobins
• Mechanism of antibody
production
• Antigens: HLA typing.
• Free radical and
antioxidants
• Specialised protein:
collagen, elastin,
keratin, myosin, lens
protein.
• Electrophoretic
and quantitative
determination of
immunoglobins–ELISA
etc.
Investigations and their
interpretations
 Unit
II
Carbohydrates

LEARNING OBJECTIVE
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
Describe the classification, functions, sources and recommended daily allowances (RDA) of carbohydrates

UNIT OUTLINE
Chapter 2 Carbohydrates and their Significance
 C hapter 2

Carbohydrates and
their Significance
C hapter Outline
• Carbohydrates • Digestion, Absorption and Storage
• Classification • Metabolism
• Calorie Value • Malnutrition
• Recommended Daily Allowances ƒ Deficiencies
• Dietary Sources ƒ Overconsumption
• Functions

Carbohydrates are macronutrients and are one of the three main sources of energy. They are called
carbohydrates, because at the chemical level, they contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, where the last two
are present in the ratio of 2:1. For example, glucose (C6H12O6) contains 6 carbons, 12 hydrogens and 6 oxygen
(CH2O)6.

CLASSIFICATION OF CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates can be classified into different types, according to the size of the molecules and their structure
as well as according to their nutritional significance.

According to the Size of the Molecule and their Structure

According to the size of the molecule and their structure, carbohydrates are classified into four groups, i.e., as
monosaccharide, disaccharide, oligosaccharides and polysaccharide.
• Monosaccharides: Monosaccharides are also called simple sugars. Common monosaccharides include
glucose, galactose and fructose. They share the same molecular formula, i.e., as C6H12O6. Because of their
six carbon atoms, each is a hexose:
◆ The most important being glucose, as blood sugar. It is the immediate source of energy for cellular
respiration.
◆ Galactose, a sugar in milk (and yogurt)
◆ Fructose, a sugar found in honey
Monosaccharides, in a closed-chain form, can form glycosidic bonds with other monosaccharides,
creating disaccharides (such as sucrose) and polysaccharides (such as starch). Monosaccharides may
22 Textbook of Nutrition and Biochemistry for KUHS

Fig. 2.1: Classification of carbohydrates

be further converted into structural polysaccharides such as cellulose and pectin for cell wall
construction, or into energy reserves in the form of storage polysaccharides, such as starch and
glycogen.
• Disaccharides: Disaccharides are formed by linking two monosaccharides with the removal of a molecule
of water (Fig. 2.1). Commonly available disaccharides include lactose, maltose and sucrose.
◆ Lactose is formed when a molecule of glucose is linked to galactose. It is also called milk sugar,
since it is found naturally in milk. Lactose is synthesized in the mammary glands during lactation
and is secreted into the milk. During digestion, lactose is hydrolyzed to its monosaccharide units,
i.e., glucose and galactose by the intestinal enzyme referred to as lactase.
◆ Maltose is formed when a molecule of glucose is linked to another molecule of glucose. It is obtained
during hydrolysis of starch. During digestion, maltose is hydrolyzed to its monosaccharide units, i.e.,
glucose and glucose by the intestinal enzyme referred to as maltase.
◆ Sucrose is formed when a molecule of glucose is linked to fructose. It is also referred to as table
sugar since it is commonly used on the table for routine use in home-made drinks. Sucrose is also
referred to as cane sugar since it is obtained from the stems of sugarcane and roots of sugar beet.
During digestion, sucrose is split into its constituent monosaccharides glucose and fructose by the
enzyme sucrase (also called invertase).
Sucrose is used by people as a sweetener for foods (e.g., toast and cereal) and beverages (e.g., coffee
and tea).
• Polysaccharides: Polysaccharides are made up of many monosaccharide molecules. Examples of
polysaccharides are starch, glycogen (the form in which glucose is stored in the body), and cellulose and
pectin (components classed as dietary fiber), etc.
◆ Starches: Starch or amylum is a polymeric carbohydrate consisting of numerous glucose units joined
by glycosidic bonds. This polysaccharide is produced by most green plants as energy storage.
Starch molecules arrange themselves in the plant in semi-crystalline granules. Each plant species
has a unique starch granular size, e.g., rice starch is relatively small while potato starches have larger
granules. Starch content of different foods varies, e.g., potatoes 15%, wheat 55%, corn 65% and
rice 75%.
 Chapter 2 Carbohydrates and their Significance 23

Starch is a mixture of two polymers, i.e., amylose and amylopectin. Natural starches consist of about
10–30% amylose and 70–90% amylopectin.
■ Amylose is a linear polysaccharide, composed entirely of D-glucose units joined by the α-1,4-
glycosidic linkages.
■ Amylopectin is a branched-chain polysaccharide, composed of glucose units linked primarily
by α-1,4-glycosidic bonds but with occasionally α-1,6-glycosidic bonds, which are responsible
for the branching. A molecule of amylopectin may contain many thousands of glucose units with
branch points occurring after about every 25–30 units.
In the human body, several enzymes known collectively as amylases degrade starch sequentially
into usable glucose units. Alpha-amylases are found in plants and animals. Human saliva is rich
in amylase and the pancreas also secretes the enzyme.
The complete hydrolysis of starch yields, in successive stages, glucose:

Starch → Dextrin → Maltose → Glucose

Starch is the most common carbohydrate in the human diet and is contained in many staple
foods. The major sources of starch intake worldwide are the cereals (rice, wheat and maize) and
the root vegetables (potatoes and cassava). Widely used prepared foods containing starch are
bread, pancakes, cereals, noodles and pasta.
◆ Glycogen: Glycogen is the energy reserve carbohydrate of animals including humans, hence is
also referred to as animal starch. Like starch in plants, glycogen is found as granules in liver (4–
8% by weight of tissue) and in skeletal muscle cells (0.5–1.0%). When fasting, humans draw on
these glycogen reserves during the first day without food to obtain the glucose needed to maintain
metabolic balance.
Glycogen is structurally quite similar to amylopectin, however glycogen is more branched (8–12
glucose units between branches) and the branches are shorter. Enzyme phosphorylase catalyzes
the breakdown of glycogen to glucose, when energy is needed, by a process called glycogenolysis.
◆ Cellulose: Cellulose is a polysaccharide (homopolysaccharide) like amylose, but it differs from
amylose in the way that glucose molecules, in cellulose are linked together by β-1,4-glycosidic
linkages instead of α-1,4-glycosidic linkages present in amylose. Cellulose is found in plants, as
a structural component of their cell wall. We are, however, unable to digest cellulose due to the
reason that human beings do not contain enzyme β-amylase, which is required for the digestion
of cellulose.

Classification of Carbohydrates According to Nutritional Significance

According to their significance in nutrition, carbohydrates are classified as simple sugars and complex
carbohydrates including fiber.

Simple Sugars
• Intrinsic sugars, which are incorporated into the cellular structure of foods, e.g., glucose, fructose,
pentoses, etc., i.e., the sugars found in whole fruits and vegetables.
• Extrinsic sugars, which are not bound into a cellular structure, e.g., lactose (milk sugar) found in dairy
products, sucrose (table sugar) found in confectionery, etc.
24 Textbook of Nutrition and Biochemistry for KUHS

Complex Carbohydrates
• Starch: It is found in potatoes, bread, rice and pasta.
• Dietary fiber: These are the carbohydrate polymers, which are neither digested nor absorbed in the small
intestine, e.g., cellulose, pectin, etc.

DIETARY FIBER
Dietary fiber refers to indigestible carbohydrates, such as cellulose and hemicellulose, pectin, lignin, gums
and mucilage. Pectin, gums, mucilages and some of the hemicelluloses are soluble in water and hence, are also
called soluble fibers. On the other hand, cellulose, various hemicelluloses and lignin are insoluble in water
and are referred to as insoluble fibers.
Fiber cannot be digested by human beings due to the absence of the required digestive enzymes but is
essential for digestion. Fiber promotes healthy bowel movement and decreases the risk of chronic diseases,
such as coronary heart disease and diabetes. However, unlike sugars and starches, fiber is not absorbed in the
small intestine and is not converted to glucose. Instead, fiber passes into the large intestine, relatively intact,
where it is converted to hydrogen, carbon dioxide and fatty acids. Sources of fiber include fruits, grains and
vegetables, especially, legumes.

Significance of Dietary Fiber

High intake of dietary fiber has many health benefits. For example, diets rich in fiber decreases risk of obesity,
type 2 diabetes, colon cancer, cardiovascular disease and gastrointestinal disorders:
• Diets rich in fiber are usually, low in fat and provide lesser calories since such a diet forms bulk of the
food, which takes longer to eat, and gives a feeling of fullness. Dietary fiber not only regulates body
weight but also lowers the risk of obesity.
• Higher intake of soluble fiber also delays stomach emptying and thus, regulates blood glucose level. This
in turn also reduces the risk of type 2 diabetes.
• Diet rich in fiber also lowers the risk of certain types of cancer. It is due to the reason that food with large
amounts of fruits and vegetables, provides antioxidants, which protect our body against cell damage and
cancer.
• Soluble fiber also lowers serum cholesterol, thus, reduces the risk of a cardiovascular disease.
• Diet rich in insoluble fiber also adds bulk to feces and softens stool for its easy passage. Thus, dietary fiber
helps in prevention of constipation and hemorrhoids, particularly, when fluid intake is high.
• Excess of fiber in the diet may, however, cause deficiency of some minerals, such as zinc, calcium,
magnesium and iron. It is due to the reason that dietary fiber binds these minerals and thus reduces their
absorption.

Good Carbohydrates versus Bad Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates form the basis of most diets, making up half of total energy (calorie) intake. Dietary carbohydrates
can be separated into two types, as complex (good) carbohydrates and simple (bad) carbohydrates.
• Good carbohydrates: Carbohydrates, usually, considered to be good includes complex carbohydrates
such as those obtained from whole grains, fruits, vegetables, beans and legumes. They contain larger
 Chapter 2 Carbohydrates and their Significance 25

Fig. 2.2: Sources of good carbohydrates Fig. 2.3: Sources of bad carbohydrates

chains of sugar molecules and take longer to digest than processed grains. They are not only processed
slowly, but also contain a bounty of other nutrients (Fig. 2.2).
Good carbohydrates are:
◆ Low or moderate in calories
◆ High in nutrients
◆ Devoid of refined grains and sugar
◆ High in naturally occurring fiber
◆ Low in sodium
◆ Low in saturated fat
◆ Very low in, or devoid of, cholesterol and trans fat
• Bad carbohydrates: Carbohydrates, usually, considered bad include refined sugars, such as those obtained
from pastries, white sugar, honey, fruit juices and soda, highly processed foods, white rice, white bread and
other white-flour foods (Fig. 2.3).
 They are digested more quickly by the body. This makes them a faster source of energy. Also, these
types of carbohydrates do not offer as many additional nutrients.
Bad carbohydrates are:
◆ High in calories ◆ Low in fiber
◆ Full of refined sugars ◆ High in sodium
◆ Low in many nutrients ◆ High in saturated fat, cholesterol and trans fat

Calorific Value of Carbohydrates

Calorific value or caloric value of the food is the amount of heat produced by combustion of one gram of
fuel. It is expressed in terms of calories per gram or joules per kilogram. Calorific value of carbohydrate is
4 kcal/g.

Recommended Daily Allowances

Carbohydrates intake, for most people, should be such that it provides nearly 45 – 65% of total calories. Since,
one gram of carbohydrate provides 4 calories, so a diet to provide 1,800 calories per day, should have between
200 and 300 grams of carbohydrates. However, people with diabetes should not eat more than 200 grams,
26 Textbook of Nutrition and Biochemistry for KUHS

while pregnant women need at least 175 grams of

carbohydrates per day.

Dietary Sources
Main dietary sources of carbohydrates include
grains, vegetables and fruits. Complex carbohydrates
are present in whole grains (such as cereals and rice),
bran, beans, bread and pasta. Milk and milk products
provide lactose, while beverages, jams, jellies and
candies provide refined sugar, such as glucose and
fructose (Fig. 2.4). Fig. 2.4: Dietary sources of carbohydrates
Foods which are rich in carbohydrates include:
• Dairy: Milk, yogurt and ice cream
• Fruits: Whole fruits and fruit juice
• Grains: Cereal grains, bread and rice
• Legumes: Beans and pulses
• Starchy vegetables: Potatoes and corn
• Sugary sweets: Soda (when fluid intake is high), candy, cookies and other desserts.

Functions of Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are necessary for good health and give a variety of benefits:
• Brain health: Carbohydrates are important for brain functions. They are a quick source of energy and
have influence on mood and memory.
• Weight loss: Although, carbohydrates are often blamed for weight gain, the right kind of carbohydrate
can actually help to maintain a healthy weight. This can happen due to the consumption of many good
carbohydrates, especially, whole grains and vegetables with skin, which contain fiber.
• Good sources of nutrients: Whole, unprocessed fruits and vegetables are well known for their nutrients
contents. Due the same reason, some of the food stuffs are even considered as super foods, such as the
green leafy vegetables, sweet potatoes, berries, citruses and apples. Whole grains also have significantly
higher amounts of fiber, energy and polyunsaturated fats, as well as all micronutrients (except vitamin B12
and sodium). Further, whole grains have also been shown to contain antioxidants.
• Heart health: Fiber also helps to lower cholesterol. This is due to the reason that the digestive process
requires bile acids, which are made, partly, from cholesterol. As the digestion improves, liver pulls
cholesterol from blood, to form more bile acid, thereby, reducing the amount of LDL (the bad cholesterol).

DIGESTION, ABSORPTION AND STORAGE

DIGESTION OF CARBOHYDRATES
• Digestion of carbohydrates begins in the mouth, where salivary amylase hydrolyses starch into small
polysaccharides (dextrins) and maltose.
• Chewing stimulates production of saliva and mixes the enzyme, salivary amylase with food. Only about
5% of the dietary starch is hydrolyzed, in the mouth.
 Chapter 2 Carbohydrates and their Significance 27

• When dietary contents enter the stomach, Hcl (present in the gastric juice) stops the action of salivary
amylase.
• After dietary contents enter small intestine, pancreas starts secreting pancreatic amylase, which further
hydrolyses starch, and converts it to maltose, isomaltose, oligosaccharides and dextrins.
• Thereafter, brush border disaccharidases ridases hydrolyze disaccharides monosaccharides (Table 2.1).
TABLE 2.1: Effect of various digestive enzymes on dietary carbohydrates

Enzyme Site of action Catalytic action

Salivary amylase Mouth Starch/glycogen → Partially hydrolyzed dextrins, oligosaccharides.
isomaltose and maltose
Pancreatic amylase Small intestine Partially hydrolyzed dextrins/oligosaccharides → Dextrins, maltose,
isomaltose and maltotriose
α-Dextrinase Small intestine α-Limit dextrins → maltotriose and glucose
Disaccharidases Small intestine
Sucrase Sucrose → Glucose and fructose
Lactase Lactose → Glucose and galactose
Maltase Maltose/maltotriose → Glucose
lsomaltase lsomaltose → Glucose

ABSORPTION OF MONOSACCHARIDES
All the dietary carbohydrates are absorbed into mucosal cell linings the small intestine, as monosaccharides,
by two mechanism as fructose is absorbed by facilitated diffusion, glucose and galactose are absorbed by
secondary active transport, by sodium-linked glucose transporter-1 (SLGT- l).
After their absorption, all the mono-saccharides pass through the intestinal mucosal cells in the villi, and
enter liver, via portal vein. In the liver, most of the galactose and fructose are further converted to glucose.
Thereafter glucose is either stored in the liver or is oxidized for the generation of energy.

STORAGE OF GLUCOSE
Carbohydrates, mainly glucose, are stored as glycogen in the liver and muscle. Liver glycogen is hydrolyzed
to glucose during fasting, whereas muscle glycogen is used as a source of energy during exercise. Excess of
glucose is also converted to fat and is stored in the adipose tissue as triacylglycerols (fat).

METABOLISM OF CARBOHYDRATES
Metabolic Fates of Glucose
Glucose is metabolized in the liver and is utilized in various
organs of the body, by different processes.
• Glucose is oxidized to produce energy, where it is converted
to pyruvate, by the process of glycolysis. Thereafter,
pyruvate is converted to acetyl CoA, which enters citric
acid cycle, and produces energy (ATP) through electron
transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation. Fig. 2.5: Metabolic fates of glucose
28 Textbook of Nutrition and Biochemistry for KUHS

• Glucose is also converted to glycogen, and is stored in the liver and muscle, by the process of
glycogenesis. When blood glucose level is low, glycogen is converted to glucose, by the process of
glycogenolysis (Fig. 2.5).

Glvcolysis
Glycolysis is also called Embden Meyerhof glycolysis). Various reactions of glycolysis are outlined in Figure 2.6.
In this process, firstly, glucose is converted to glucose-6-phosphate.

Fig. 2.6: Outline of glycolysis

 Chapter 2 Carbohydrates and their Significance 29

Thereafter, via fructose-6-phosphate, it is converted to fructose-I,

6-bisphosphate. In the next step, fructose-I, 6-bisphosphate
(a hexose) is cleaved to two trioses, i.e., 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde
and dihydroxyacetonephosphate. Finally, these are converted, via
phosphoenolpyruvate, to pyruvate, which has two fates:
Under aerobic conditions, pyruvate is transported into
mitochondria, and is oxidatively decarboxylated to acetyl CoA.
Via Krebs cycle and oxidative phosphorylation, a molecule of
glucose provides 38 ATP.
Under anaerobic conditions, such as in the muscle during
exercise, a molecule of glucose, however, provides only 2ATP.

Glycogenesis
Glycogenesis, also referred to as glycogen synthesis, is the
process of the conversion of glucose to glycogen, mainly in the
liver and muscle. Various reactions of glycogenesis are outlined
in Figure 2.7.

Regulation of Blood Glucose Level

Blood glucose level is maintained within the normal physiological Fig. 2.7: Glycogenesis
range of 60–90 mg/100 mL, even in the fasting (post-absorptive)
state. If blood glucose level falls below the normal range, it is referred to as hypoglycemia. If blood glucose
level rises above the normal range, it is referred to as hyperglycemia.
Blood glucose level is regulated by several hormones. Besides, some of the food stuffs also help in this
process.

Regulation of Blood Glucose Level by Hormones

Insulin lowers blood glucose level, while several others, like glucagon, epinephrine (adrenaline), glucocorticoids,
growth hormone and thyroxine increase blood glucose level (Fig. 2.8).

Fig. 2.8: Effects of hormones on blood glucose

During hyperglycemia (when blood glucose level is increased, such as after a meal), β-cells release
insulin, which, in turn, increases glucose uptake by the cells and stimulates glycogen synthesis.
During fasting, when blood level falls, α-cells release glucagon, which, in turn, stimulates the breakdown
of liver glycogen and forms glucose (Fig. 2.9).
30 Textbook of Nutrition and Biochemistry for KUHS

Fig. 2.9: Regulation of blood glucose by insulin and glucagon

During stress, epinephrine is released by the adrenal glands. It exhibits effects similar to glucagon and ensures
that all the cells have adequate energy during emergency. Thus, epinephrine is also called fight-or-flight
hormone.

Effect of The Type of Food

Type of the food also exhibits its effect on blood glucose level. Foods which are rich in simple carbohydrates or
starch, but low in fiber and fat, are digested and absorbed rapidly. As a result of it, they cause large and rapid
rise in blood glucose concentration. Body reacts to the rising blood glucose level and releases insulin, which,
in turn, lowers blood glucose level and brings it to normal. Other foods, especially, those, which are rich in
dietary fiber, resistant starch or fat, cause lesser response to blood glucose with small alterations.

Glycemic Index
Glycemic index (GT) refers to the effect of a particular type of food stuff on blood glucose level, i.e., it is a
measure of how quickly the glucose is released into the bloodstream, after eating it. Glycemic index, thus,
measures how quickly, and how much, a carbohydrate raises blood sugar. High-glycemic foods, like pastries,
raise blood sugar rapidly, whereas low-glycemic foods raise it gently and to a lesser degree. Low GI foods, that
are rich in fiber, should form an important component of a healthy diet.
 Chapter 2 Carbohydrates and their Significance 31

MALNUTRITION

DEFICIENCY OF CARBOHYDRATES
When a person is on a carbohydrate-free diet, protein and fat are used as alternate sources of energy. Excessive
breakdown of these substances, in turn, leads to the excessive formation of ketone bodies. Such individuals
exhibit symptoms, similar to those seen during starvation, i.e., abnormal fat metabolism, breakdown of tissue
proteins, increased sodium excretion, loss of energy and fatigue. Small amount of carbohydrates (50–100 g)
prevent these symptoms. Not getting enough carbohydrate can cause problems, such as:
• Without sufficient fuel, body gets no energy.
• Additionally, without sufficient glucose, central nervous system suffers, which may cause dizziness, and
mental and physical weakness.
• If body has insufficient carbohydrates intake, or stores, it will consume protein, as a source of fuel.
This is problematic, because the body needs protein to make muscles. Using protein for fuel, instead of
carbohydrates, also puts stress on the kidneys leading to the passage of painful by-products, such as urea,
in the urine.
• People, who do not consume enough carbohydrates, may also suffer from deficiency of dietary fiber,
which can cause digestive problems and constipation.

Overconsumption of Carbohydrates
Overconsumption of carbohydrates, in turn, leads to increased calories intake and causes obesity. This can
also lead to diabetes mellitus and a cardiac disorder.
• Weight gain and obesity: Carbohydrates are the preferred source of energy for the body. When we eat
any type of carbohydrate, our body breaks it to glucose, which is released into the blood stream and
causes a rise in blood glucose level. If we eat moderate amount of carbohydrates, body’s cells use, what
they need for energy and store excess of it as glycogen. However, glycogen stores are limited, and once
stores are saturated, excess of glucose is stored as fat. Thus, over consumption of carbohydrates, for a
longer period, results in weight gain and obesity.
• Poor appetite control: Eating too much of carbohydrates, in one sitting, causes large increase in blood
glucose level. This, in turn, causes pancreas to release a large amount of insulin, which leads to an equally
large decrease in blood glucose level. When blood glucose level suddenly falls, brain sends hunger
signals, meaning that one demands more food. Thus, the overall result is poor appetite control, as one is
constantly craving for food, despite eating regularly.
• Fatigue: As overconsumption of carbohydrates causes a rapid surge and thereafter, a rapid fall in blood
glucose level. This has a direct effect on overall energy levels. As a result of it, one will suddenly feel
full of energy, and thereafter, shortly the energy level will crash. Fluctuating energy levels affect proper
functioning of the body, since one will be constantly switching between the feelings of too much energy
and not enough energy.
• Dental caries: Dental caries is the progressive destruction (demineralisation) of teeth, by the acids
produced by bacteria acting on sugars and other fermentable carbohydrates on the tooth’s surfaces.
Longer a carbohydrate remains in the mouth, more likely it will promote dental caries. Foods that stick to
the teeth, such as candies, cookies and beverages like cola, are more likely to cause dental caries. The most
32 Textbook of Nutrition and Biochemistry for KUHS

important way to protect dental caries is regular brushing of teeth with a fluoride containing toothpaste
(twice daily). Fluoride strengthens tooth enamel and provides resistance to decay.
• Risk of type 2 diabetes: Level of glucose in blood is carefully monitored and maintained within the
narrow limits, by the action of the hormone insulin. Over consumption of carbohydrates cause pancreas
to produce, and release, increased amount of insulin. Pushing the pancreas to over exert, ultimately,
interferes with its ability to produce insulin. Both, insulin resistance and pancreas failing to produce
enough insulin, are characteristics of type 2 diabetes. This, in turn, also causes permanent damage to the
body and affects all major organs and vessels including heart, kidneys, eyes, nerves and blood vessels.
• Risk of a cardiovascular disease (CVD): A high blood cholesterol level is also associated with increased
risk of CVD. Some forms of complex carbohydrates, such as pectin in fruits and beta-glucan in oats, may,
slightly, reduce the level of cholesterol in blood. These are the forms of soluble fiber. There is also some
evidence that resistant starch may have a slight beneficial effect on the risk CVD. Regular consumption of
wholegrain foods has also been linked with heart health, possibly, as a result of the breakdown products
(e.g., short chain fatty acids), which are formed and absorbed in large bowel.
• Risk of cancer: Some studies suggest that population with a high intake of fiber-rich foods, experiences
lower incidence of large bowel cancer than the population with low intakes of these foods.

Assess Yourself
Long and Short Answer Questions
1. Define carbohydrate. Describe the classification of carbohydrates.
2. Describe calorific value, RDA, dietary sources and functions of carbohydrates.
3. Describe various disorders which may occur as a result of overconsumption of carbohydrates.
4. Define glycolysis. Outline the process of glycolysis.
5. Define glycogenolysis. Outline reactions of this pathway.
6. What is glycogenesis? Give reactions of glycogenesis.
7. Differentiate between
a. Simple sugars and complex carbohydrates
b. Good carbohydrates and bad carbohydrates
c. Anaerobic and aerobic glycolysis
8. Discuss briefly:
a. Digestion of carbohydrates
b. Absorption of monosaccharides
c. Hormonal regulation of blood glucose
d. Gluconeogenesis
9. Write notes on:
a. Dietary fiber e. Calorific value of carbohydrates
b. Starches f. Dental caries
c. Cellulose g. Glycemic index
d. Functions of carbohydrates
 C hapter 2

Cell and its Structure

C hapter Outline
• Prokaryotic Cells • The Golgi Apparatus
• Eukaryotic Cells • The Mitochondria
Structure and Functions of Intracellular Components • The Lysosomes
• The Nucleus • The Peroxisomes
• The Endoplasmic Reticulum • The Cytosol
• The Ribosomes • The Plasma Membrane

The cell is a structural and functional unit of life. All animals and plants are made up of a large number of
such units, in a manner to the utilization of bricks in the construction of a building.
Living cells are divided into two groups, i.e., the prokaryotic cells and the eukaryotic cells. As their name
suggests (pro = prior to; karyot = nucleus; eu = true), the fundamental difference between them is the absence
or presence of a true nucleus.

PROKARYOTIC CELLS
The simplest form of the cell is a prokaryotic cell. Prokaryotes, e.g., bacteria are unicellular and have one of
the three basic shapes, viz. spheroidal (Cocci), rodlike (Bacilli) and helically-coiled (Spirilla).
• A prokaryotic cell is small in size (1 to 10 nm), relatively simple in structure and has only a single
membrane, called cell membrane, which is usually surrounded by a rigid cell wall of characteristic
structure.
• There may or may not be a surrounding capsule.
• Besides, there is a single chromosome comprised of a molecule of double helical DNA which is densely
coiled to form a nuclear zone.
• Reproduction is by asexual division. The best characterized prokaryotic cell is Escherichia coli.
• Some prokaryotes possess pili and flagella for adhesion and movement, respectively (Fig. 2.1).
232 Textbook of Nutrition and Biochemistry for KUHS

Fig. 2.1. A prokaryotic cell.

Organelles of Prokaryotic Cell

Cell Wall
• Found only in prokaryotic cells
• Surrounds the plasma membrane
• Gives the cell its shape
• Prevents bursting when turgid pressure is high
• Helps anchor appendages like pili and flagella
• Composed of cellulose microfibers which form a thick wall
• Grows with the cell
• Helps the cell maintain osmotic balance.

Plasma Membrane
• Found in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
• Encloses the interior of the cell
• Regulates the flow of material in and out of the cell.

Ribosomes
• 70S ribosome is made up of 50S and 30S components
• Translates the genetic code from the DNA to make proteins
• They can be either free or attached to endoplasmic reticulum.

Organelles not found in Prokaryotic Cells

Nucleoid
• Endoplasmic reticulum
• There is no clear nuclear cytoplasmic difference • Golgi apparatus
• Not a membrane bound nucleus • Mitochondria
• An area of the cytoplasm where the strands of DNA are found. • Nucleus
 Chapter 2 Cell and its Structure 233

Pili
• Small hairlike projections emerging from the outside cell surface
• Assists in the cell attaching to other cells and surfaces. Thus helps in pathogenic organisms to stick to the
surface.

Flagella
• Flagella are hairlike structures that allow the cell to move by beating in a propeller-like motion
• They help bacterium to move towards nutrients, away from toxic chemicals, etc.

EUKARYOTIC CELLS
Animals, plant, fungi and protozoa are called eukaryotes which may be unicellular or multi­cellular.
• Eukaryotic cells are one to ten thousand times large in size and are more complex in structure than the
prokaryotic cells.
• They may vary from one tissue to another with respect to their functions, e.g., the liver parenchymal
cell, adipose cell, nerve cell, renal tubular cell, white blood cell, etc.
• Generally, a eukaryotic cell has a well-defined membrane-bound nucleus containing several chromosomes.
• Their chromosomes undergo replication of DNA during mitosis and get separated into daughter
chromosomes, i.e., these cells reproduce by cell division.
• A typical eukaryotic cell contains various organelles such as nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi
apparatus, mitochondria, etc. (Fig. 2.2).

Differences between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cell Structures

Major differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell structures are given in Table 2.1.

Fig. 2.2. A eukaryotic cell.

234 Textbook of Nutrition and Biochemistry for KUHS

TABLE 2.1. Major differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell structures

Parameters­ Prokaryotic cells­ Eukaryotic cells­

Cell size­ Small­ Large
Overall organization­ Simple­ Complex­
Boundary­ Cell membrane and cell wall, sometimes Cell membrane­
surrounded by a capsule
Subcellular entities­ Few­ Many­
Nucleus­ They have a single nucleus which contains Well defined nucleus with a
double helix DNA that is present in a poorly membrane and multiple DNA double
defined region called nucleoid­ helices organized into chromatin­
Reproduction­ Asexual Sexual­
Examples­ Bacteria and blue-green algae­ Plant and animal cells­

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF INTRACELLULAR COMPONENTS

THE NUCLEUS
• The nucleus is the largest component of the cell, containing DNA organized into separate chromo­somes
and is surrounded by a membrane called nuclear membrane.
• The nuclear membrane consists of two layers which are separated by an intermembrane space termed as
perinuclear space (cisterns). The outer membrane though is continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum
but the two layers of the nuclear membrane are fused together at several places producing nuclear pores
for the exchange of materials between the nucleus and the cytoplasm.
• The nucleus is filled with the nucleoplasm which has a discrete body called nucleolus and a thread-like
structure called chromatin (Fig. 2.3).

Fig. 2.3. The nucleus.

 Chapter 2 Cell and its Structure 235

• Nucleolus: The number of nucleoli may vary from one cell type to another. The genes for three of the
four ribosomal RNA molecules are located in the nucleolus. Nucleoli are rich in RNA and disappear
during cell division.
• Chromatin: It contains most of the cellular DNA in association with basic proteins, termed histones. At
the time of cell division, the chromatin is organized into small thread-like structures called chromosomes.
Human somatic cell contains 23 pairs of chromosomes.

Important Functions of the Nucleus~

Important functions of the nucleus include:
• Control of cell division (DNA replication)
• Protein synthesis (by controlling the synthesis of RNA)
The regulation of DNA synthesis and other functions of the nucleus are severely disturbed in some
pathological conditions such as cancer.
DNA and DNA polymerase are the markers of the nucleus.

THE ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

Endoplasmic reticulum is a system of membranes (lipid bilayer structures) with a net­work of vesicular spaces.
This network is present throughout the cytoplasmic matrix and grows by its own synthesis. These membranes
run parallel to each other creating channels which are called cisternae. The interior of the endoplasmic
reticulum thus is well connected with perinuclear spaces and through pores on the cell surface, with the
extracellular space. Cisternae have a role in the exchange of materials between the cell and the extracellular
fluid. The surface of the endo­plasmic reticulum may or may not bear ribo­somes. Accordingly, endoplasmic
reticulum is of two types:
1. Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER): It is also called the granular type of endoplasmic reticulum since
it has small granules attached to it. These granules are termed as ribosomes.
2. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER): It is also called the agranular type of endo­plasmic reticulum
since it consists of the membranous structure only and does not contain ribosomes on its outer surface.
The SER has enzymes for the biosynthesis of lipids and glycoproteins. Further, SER are very important in
hepatocytes where these are primarily concerned with oxidative meta­bolism and for the detoxification of
many drugs and other toxic organic molecules.
Glucose-6-phosphatase is a marker enzyme for the endoplasmic reticulum.

THE RIBOSOMES
• Ribosomes consist of ribonucleoprotein particles of two sizes, i.e., 50S and 30S in prokaryotes or 60S and
40S in eukaryotes. Because of their high RNA content, ribosomes are the site of protein synthesis.
• Ribosomes on the RER are associated with the synthesis of proteins for export from the cell.
• Free ribosomes, on the other hand, are present in the cytoplasm and synthesize proteins for use within
the cell.
• RNA is used as a marker for the ribosomes.
236 Textbook of Nutrition and Biochemistry for KUHS

THE GOLGI APPARATUS

• The Golgi apparatus is a smooth membrane system with vacuoles. It is rich in lipids and is considered to
be the site where secretions from other organelles are brought and assembled.
• The newly synthesized proteins are also transferred from RER and stored in the Golgi apparatus,
temporarily.
• Some of the synthesized proteins also undergo post-translational modifications within the Golgi
apparatus and thereafter, are transported to different destinations. The Golgi apparatus is thus, especially
active in cells which produce proteins for export. They form secretory granules for the proteins after their
synthesis on the ribosomes.
• Galactosyl transferase is a marker enzyme for the Golgi apparatus.

THE MITOCHONDRIA
The mitochondria are the major organelle of
a eukaryotic cell lacking any direct structural
relationship with other organelles and contain its
own DNA (Fig. 2.4).
• A mitochondrion produces energy in the
form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate) for
the cellular functions and is thus, called
power house of the cell. Thus, depending
upon energy requirement of the cell, mito­ Fig. 2.4. A mitochondrion.
chondria may vary in size, shape and number, from cell to cell.
• Besides producing energy, mitochondria also help to control the level of calcium in the cytoplasm.
• Most of the cells contain several hundred mitochondria.

Mitochondrial Membrane
It is a double-layered structure where the two layers are separated from each other by 50–100 Å intermembrane
space. Several enzymes especially those involved in the nucleotide metabolism are located here.
• The outer membrane of the mitochondria has a smooth structure. It is composed of both lipids and
proteins and is freely permeable to most of the small molecules. Several enzymes involved in lipid
metabolism, such as the enzymes for fatty acid elongation, glycerol phosphate acyltransferase and
phospholipase A, are associated with the outer membrane of the mitochondria.
• The inner membrane of the mitochondria has a denser structure. It has more proteins than lipids. The
inner membrane has extensive irregular foldings, called cristae. Cyto­chromes, the enzymes of electron
transport chain and flavoproteins are localized within the inner membrane of the mitochondria.

Matrix
The intra-mitochondrial space (enclosed within the inner membrane) is called mitochondrial matrix. This
chamber contains enzymes for β-oxidation of fatty acids, citric acid cycle and glutamate dehydrogenase. In
addition, mito­chondria also have DNA, referred to as mtDNA (mitochondrial DNA).
 Chapter 2 Cell and its Structure 237

TABLE 2.2. Comparison between nuclear DNA and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)

Parameters Nuclear DNA­ mtDNA­

Location­ Nucleoplasm­ Mitochondrial matrix­
Inheritance­ Both paternal and maternal­ Maternal­
Shape­ Linear­ Circular­
Base pairs­ 3 x 109­ 16 x 103
Introns­ Present­ Absent­
Histones­ Present­ Absent­
Encoded proteins­ Used within the cell as well as exported­ Used within mitochondria­
Repair mechanisms­ Well developed­ Poorly developed­
Mutation rate­ Low­ High­

Mitochondrial DNA: Mitochondria are the only cellular organelles that contain their own chromosomal
DNA (mtDNA), which is maternally inherited. Human mtDNA is a small double stranded circular molecule
(about 16,000 base pairs), encoding 13 polypeptides that are integrated into the inner mitochondrial membrane
along with other polypeptides encoded by nuclear genes. In addition, it encodes 2 rRNAs and 22 tRNAs that are
used in protein synthesis within the organelle. mtDNA differs from nuclear DNA in several aspects.

Comparison between Nuclear DNA and mtDNA

Comparison between nuclear DNA and mtDNA is given in Table 2.2.
In contrast to nuclear DNA, the mtDNA is exposed to high levels of mutagenic free radicals and is not
protected by the usual DNA repair mechanisms. This results in mutations in mtDNA that affect mitochondrial
structure and function, leading to various muscular and neurological disorders, such as Leber’s hereditary
optic neuropathy, mitochondrial encephalopathy, chronic progressive external opthalmoplegia, mitochondrial
encephalopathy lactic acidosis and stroke like episode (MELAS), etc.
Succinate dehydrogenase and glutamate dehydrogenase are marker enzymes for mitochondria.

THE LYSOSOMES
Lysosomes (derived from the Greek words lysis, meaning to loosen and soma, body) are the membrane-
bound cell organelle found in animal cells. They are absent in red blood cells. Lyso­somes are structurally and
chemically spherical vesicles containing hydrolytic enzymes which are capable of breaking down all kinds of
biomolecules including proteins, lipids, carbo­hydrates, nucleic acids and cellular debris.
• Lysosomes are known to contain more than fifty different enzymes which are all active at an acidic
environment of about pH 5. Thus, lysosomes act as waste disposal system of the cell by digesting
unwanted materials in the cytoplasm both from outside of the cell and obsolete components inside the
cell.
• Further, lysosomes are responsible for cellular homeostasis for their involvements in secretion, plasma
membrane repair, cell signaling and energy metabolism, which are related to health and diseases.
• Depending on their functional activity their sizes can vary.
• Acid phosphatase is a marker enzyme of the lysosomes.
238 Textbook of Nutrition and Biochemistry for KUHS

Suicide Bags Clinical Correlation

Lysosome is a bag (oval, rounded) that is loaded Lysosomal Storage Diseases
with digestive enzymes which, when activated, act Lysosomes are responsible for a group of genetically
upon cellular structures and demolish them leading inherited disorders called lyso­somal storage diseases (LSD).
They are a type of inborn errors of metabolism caused by
to cell death. They are referred to as suicide-bags malfunction of one of the enzymes. The rate of incidence is
due to their role in autolysis, a process by which a estimated to be 1 in 5,000 live births.
biological cell self-destructs, i.e., during the period
The primary cause is deficiency of an acidic hydrolase while
of starvation it engulfs or eats the whole cell. there are conditions of defects in lysosomal membrane
proteins that fail to transport the enzyme or non-enzymatic
Residual Bodies soluble lysosomal proteins. The initial effect is accumulation
of specific macro­molecules or monomeric compounds inside
Cytoplasmic vacuole containing the leftover the endosomal–autophagic–lysosomal system. This results
products of digestion (e.g., membrane fragments or in abnormal signaling path­ways, calcium homeostasis, lipid
ferritin-like particles) after fusion with the contents bio­synthesis and degradation and intracellular trafficking,
of a lysosome is referred to as a residual body. ultimately leading to pathogenic disorders. The organs
most affected are brain, viscera, bone and cartilage. There
Residual bodies are either secreted by the cell via is no direct medical treatment to cure LSDs.
exocytosis (generally in macrophages) or become
Gaucher’s disease: Gaucher’s disease is due to deficiency of
lipofuscin granules that remain in the cytosol
the enzyme gluco­cerebro­sidase. Consequently, the enzyme
indefinitely. Longer-living cells like neurons and substrate, the fatty acid glucosylceramide accumulates,
muscle cells usually have a higher concentration particularly in white blood cells. This in turn affects spleen,
of lipofuscin than other more rapidly proliferating liver, kidneys, lungs, brain and bone marrow. The disease
cells. is characterized by bruises, fatigue, anemia, low blood
platelets, osteoporosis and enlargement of the liver and
spleen.
THE PEROXISOMES
• Peroxisomes, also called microbodies, contain
Clinical Correlation
certain oxidative enzymes, e.g., uric acid oxidase,
Zellweger Syndrome
D-amino acid oxidase and catalase, etc.
Absence of the functional peroxisomes results in a rare
• The major function of the peroxisomes is autosomal recessive disease referred to as Zellweger
in hepatocytes where they are involved in syndrome. It is characterized by abnormalities of the
the oxidation of fatty acids by a modified several organs due to the decreased levels of plasmalogens.
α-oxidation pathway.
• Besides, peroxisomes also represent a very primitive cellular organelle which provides protection to the
cell from the toxicity of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2).
• Catalase and uric acid oxidase are marker enzymes of the peroxisomes.

THE CYTOSOL
• The cytosol or cell-sap is a structureless material filling the cell (aqueous matrix) in which all the cellular
organelles float.
• It is a colloidal solution of proteins containing nearly 70% water.
 Chapter 2 Cell and its Structure 239

• Besides proteins, the cytosolic fraction also contains various enzymes for glycolysis, gluco­neogenesis and
HMP shunt (Hexomono phosphate shunt), and a variety of organic as well as inorganic substances such
as glucose, potassium and magnesium.
• The cytosol is in contact with all the cellular organelles and an important vehicle for the transport of
metabolites from one organelle to the other.
• The cytosol of all eukaryotic cells also contains a network of fibers, collectively called cyto­skeleton,
which includes microtubules, inter­mediate filaments and microfilaments.
• Lactate dehydrogenase is a marker enzyme of the cytosol fraction of the cell.

THE PLASMA MEMBRANE

Plasma membrane or cell membrane is the outer membrane of the cell. It is in contact with the extracellular
matrix.
240 Textbook of Nutrition and Biochemistry for KUHS

Assess Yourself
Long and Short Answer Questions
1. Describe structure, functions and biochemical markers of various subcellular entities of a eukaryotic
cell.
2. Explain:
a. Mitochondria as a power house of the cell.
b. Functions of the rough endoplasmic reticulum.
c. Differences between nuclear and mitochon­drial DNA.
3. Write short notes on:
a. The nucleus b. Ribosomes
c. The Golgi apparatus d. Matrix
e. Suicide bags f. Age-pigments
g. Lysosomal storage diseases h. Lysosomes and peroxisomes

Multiple Choice Questions

1. Protein synthesis takes place mainly in:
a. Ribosomes b. Mitochondria
c. Centrosome d. Golgi apparatus
2. In Lysosomal storage disorders, true is:
a. The lysosomes are deficient in enzyme hydrolase
b. There is a defect in fusion of lysosomes and phagosomes
c. There is a defect in lysosomal membrane
d. There is increased degradation of hetero­glycans
3. False about Mitochondria is:
a. Absent in RBCs
b. Powerhouse of the cell
c. Electron transport chain enzymes are present in outer membrane
d. Cytochrome P450 in inner membrane
4. Mitochondrial DNA is:
a. Closed circular b. Nicked circular
c. Linear d. Open circular