E-COMPENDIUM

ON
CROP IMPROVEMENT-II (Rabi)
(GPB - 321)

2020-21

Compiled by

Dr. L.L. Panwar Dr. Abhay Dashora

Professor (GPB) Assistant Professor (GPB)
College of Agriculture, Bhilwara Rajasthan College of Agriculture, Udaipur

Dr. P.B. Singh Dr. N.S. Dodiya

Assistant Professor (GPB) Professor & Head (GPB)
Rajasthan College of Agriculture, Udaipur Rajasthan College of Agriculture, Udaipur

Dr. K.L. Jeengar

DEAN
College of Agriculture, Bhilwara

Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding

College of Agriculture, Bhilwara
(Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture & Technology, Udaipur)
 CONTENTS
S. No. Topic Page
No.
1. Centers of origin, distribution of species, wild relatives in different 1-12
cereals; pulses; oilseeds; fibers; fodders and cash crops; vegetable
and horticultural crops
2. Plant genetic resources, its utilization and conservation 13-25
3. Important concepts of breeding self pollinated, cross pollinated and 26-30
vegetatively propagated crops
4. Major breeding objectives and procedures including conventional 30-68
and modern innovative approaches for development of hybrids and
varieties of Rabi crops for yield, adaptability, stability, abiotic and
biotic stress tolerance and quality (physical, chemical, nutritional)
4A Cereals – Wheat, oat and barley - Centers of origin, Distribution of 31-34
species, wild relatives, Floral biology, Major breeding objectives
and procedures including conventional and modern innovative
approaches for development of hybrids and varieties for yield,
abiotic and biotic stress tolerance and quality (physical, chemical,
nutritional)
4B Pulses – Chickpea- Centers of origin, Distribution of species, wild 35-36
relatives, Floral biology, Major breeding objectives and procedures
including conventional and modern innovative approaches for
development of hybrids and varieties for yield, abiotic and biotic
stress tolerance and quality (physical, chemical, nutritional)
4C Oilseeds – Sunflower, Safflower, Linseed, Rapeseed and Mustard - 37-43
Centers of origin, Distribution of species, Wild relatives, Floral
biology, Major breeding objectives and procedures including
conventional and modern innovative approaches for development
of hybrids and varieties for yield, abiotic and biotic stress tolerance
and quality (physical, chemical, nutritional)
4D Fodder crops – Napier, Bajra, Sorghum, Maize and Berseem - 44-52
Centers of origin, Distribution of species, wild relatives, Floral
biology, Major breeding objectives and procedures including
conventional and modern innovative approaches for development
of hybrids and varieties for yield, abiotic and biotic stress tolerance
and quality (physical, chemical, nutritional)
4E Cash crop – Sugarcane - Centers of origin, Distribution of species, 53-55
wild relatives, Floral biology, Major breeding objectives and
procedures including conventional and modern innovative
approaches for development of hybrids and varieties for yield,
abiotic and biotic stress tolerance and quality (physical, chemical,
nutritional)
4F Vegetable crops – Potato and Field pea - Centers of origin, 56-61
Distribution of species, wild relatives, Floral biology, Major
breeding objectives and procedures including conventional and
 modern innovative approaches for development of hybrids and
varieties for yield, abiotic and bioticstress tolerance and quality
(physical, chemical, nutritional)
4G Horticultural crops – Mango, Aonla and Guava- Centers of origin, 62-68
Distribution of species, wild relatives, Floral biology, Major
breeding objectives and procedures including conventional and
modern innovative approaches for development of hybrids and
varieties for yield, abiotic and biotic stress tolerance and quality
(physical, chemical, nutritional)
5. Adaptability and stability 69-73

6. Hybrid seed production technology in Rabi crops -Sunflower, 74-80

Safflower, Castor, Rabi Sorghum
7. Ideotype concept and climate resilient crop varieties for future - 81-86
Wheat, Maize, Barley and Cotton
PBG-321 Crop Improvement – II (Rabi ) Credit hours: 2(1+1)
Centers of origin, distribution of species, wild relatives in different cereals; pulses;
oilseeds; fodder crops and cash crops; vegetable and horticultural crops; Plant genetic
resources, its utilization and conservation; Floral biology, study of genetics of
qualitative and quantitative characters; Important concepts of breeding self pollinated,
cross pollinated and vegetatively propagated crops; Major breeding objectives and
procedures including conventional and modern innovative approaches for
development of hybrids and varieties for yield, adaptability, stability, Ideotype
concept and climate resilient crop varieties for future-abiotic and biotic stress
tolerance and breeding for quality (physical, chemical, nutritional); Seed production
technology in self pollinated, cross pollinated and vegetatively propagated crops.
Hybrid seed production technology of rabi crops.

Suggested Readings:
Bahl, P.N. and Salimath, P.M. 1996. Genetics, Cytogenetics and Breeding of Crop
Plants. Vol 1 Pulses and Oilseeds. Oxford & IBH Publishing Co Pvt Ltd, New Delhi.
Chopra,V. L. 2001. Breeding Field Crops. Oxford IBH publication, New Delhi.
Gill, K.S. 1991. Pearl Millet and its Improvement. Indian Council of Agricultural
Research, New Delhi.
IRRI. 2000. Rice Genetics IV. Proceedings of the International Rice Genetics
Symposium, Philippines.
Jennings, P.R., Coffman, W.R. and Kauffman, H.E. 1979. Rice Improvement. IRRI,
Philippines. 186p.
Kumar, N. 2006. Breeding of Horticultural Crops – Principles and Practices. New
India Publishing Agency, New Delhi.
Murty, D.S., Tabo, R. and Ajayi, O. 1994. Sorghum Hybrid Seed Production and
Management. ICRISAT, Patancheru
Nanda, J.S. 1997. Manual on Rice Breeding. Kalyani Publishers, Ludhiana. 120p.
Poehlman, J.M. and Borthakur, D. 1995. Breeding Asian Field Crops. Oxford and
IBH Publishing Co., New Delhi
Ram, H. H. 2006. Crop Breeding & Genetics. Kalyani Publishers, Ludhiana
Singh, H.G., Mishra, S.N., Singh, T.B., Ram, H.H. and Singh, D.P. (Eds). 1994. Crop
Breeding in India. International Book Distributing Co., Chandigarh.
Singh, O. 2020. Crop Improvement- II (Rabi Crops). Rama Publishing House. Meerut
 Chapter : 1
Centers of Origin of Crop Plants

Centers of Origin of Crop Plants

A center of origin (or center of diversity) is a geographical area where a group of
organisms, either domesticated or wild, first developed its distinctive properties.
They are also considered centers of diversity. Centers of origin were first identified
in 1924 by Nikolai Ivanovich Vavilov.
The origin of crop plants is now basic to plant breeding in order to locate wild
relatives, related species, and new genes (especially dominant genes, sources of
disease resistance). Knowledge of the origins of crop plants is vitally important in
order to avoid genetic erosion, the loss of germplasm due to the loss of ecotypes and
landraces, loss of habitat (such as rainforests), and increased urbanization.
Germplasm preservation is accomplished through gene banks (largely seed
collections but now frozen stem sections) and preservation of natural habitats
(especially in centers of origin).

VAVILOVIAN CENTRES OF DIVERSITY:

Nikolai Ivanovich Vavilov [November 13, 1887 – January 26, 1943) was a
prominent Russian and Soviet agronomist, botanist and geneticist best known for
having identified the Centres of origin of cultivated plants. He devoted his life to
the study and improvement of wheat, corn, and other cereal crops that sustain the
global population. Based on his studies of global exploration and collection.
Vavilov proposed eight main centres and three subsidiary centres of diversity.
The concept of centers of Origin was given by N.I. Vavilov in 1926. He identified
eight main centres and three sub-centres of diversity. He proposed Law of Parallel
variation.
Law of Parallel variation: The concept of Parallel variation or law of Homologous
series of variation was developed by N.I. Vavilov (1951) based on his study of crop
diversity and centres of origin.
Law of Homologous series of variation states that a particular variation observed
in a crop species is also expected to available in another related species also Vavilov
1
used principle of homologous series of variation as a clue for discovering similar
characters in related species.

Locating the origin of crop plants is basic to plant breeding. This allows one to
locate wild relatives, related species, and new genes (especially dominant genes,
which may provide resistance to diseases). Knowledge of the origins of crop plants
is important in order to avoid genetic erosion, the loss of germplasm due to the loss
of ecotypes and landraces, loss of habitat (such as rainforests), and increased
urbanization. Germplasm preservation is accomplished through gene banks (largely
seed collections but now frozen stem sections) and preservation of natural habitats
(especially in centers of origin).

Vavilov centers of Origin

Vavilov centers of origin: (1) Mexico-Guatemala, (2) Peru-Ecuador-Bolivia, (2A)

Southern Chile, (2B) Paraguay-Southern Brazil, (3) Mediterranean, (4) Middle East,
(5) Ethiopia, (6) Central Asia, (7) Indo-Burma, (7A) Siam-Malaya-Java, (8) China
and Korea.

A Vavilov Center (of Diversity) is a region of the world first indicated by Nikolai
Vavilov to be an original center for the domestication of plants. For crop
plants, Nikolai Vavilov identified differing numbers of centers : three in 1924, five
in 1926, six in 1929, seven in 1931, eight in 1935 and reduced to seven again in
1940.

Vavilov argued that plants were not domesticated somewhere in the world at

2
 random, but that there were regions where domestication started. The center of
origin is also considered the center of diversity.

Vavilov centers are regions where a high diversity of crop wild relatives can be
found, representing the natural relatives of domesticated crop plants. Later in 1935
Vavilov divided the centers into 12, giving the following list:

I. Chinese center
II. Indian center
III. Indo-Malayan center
IV. Central Asiatic center
V. Persian center
VI. Mediterranean center
VII. Abyssinian center
VIII. South American center
IX. Central American center
X. Chilean center
XI. Brazilian-Paraguayan center
XII. North American center

The Eight Vavilovian Centers : Old World

I. Chinese Center: The largest independent center which includes the mountainous
regions of central and western China, and adjacent lowlands. A total of 136
endemic plants are listed, among which are a few known to us as important crops.
Cereals and Legumes
1. Broomcorn millet, Panicum miliaceum
2. Italian millet, Panicum italicum
3. Japanese barnyard millet, Panicum frumentaceum
4. Kaoliang, Andropogon sorghum
5. Buckwheat, Fagopyrum esculentum
6. Hull-less barley, Hordeum hexastichum
7. Soybean, Glycine max
8. Adzuki bean, Phaseolus angularis
9. Velvet bean, Stizolobium hassjoo

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 Roots, Tubers, and Vegetables
1. Chinese yam, Dioscorea batatas
2. Radish, Raphanus sativus
3. Chinese cabbage, Brassica chinensis, B. pekinensis
4. Onion, Allium chinense, A. fistulosum, A. pekinense
5. Cucumber, Cucumis sativus
Fruits and Nuts
1. Pear, Pyrus serotina, P. ussuriensis
2. Chinese apple, Malus asiatica
3. Peach, Prunus persica
4. Apricot, Prunus armeniaca
5. Cherry, Prunus pseudocerasus
6. Walnut, Juglans sinensis
7. Litchi, Litchi chinensis
Sugar, Drug, and Fiber Plants
1. Sugarcane, Saccharum sinense
2. Opium poppy, Papaver somniferum
3. Ginseng, Panax ginseng
4. Camphor, Cinnamomum camphora
5. Hemp, Cannabis sativa
II. Indian Center : This area has two sub centers.
A. Main Center (Hindustan) : Includes Assam and Burma, but not Northwest
India, Punjab, and Northwest Frontier Provinces. In this area, 117 plants were
considered to be endemic.
Cereals and Legumes
1. Rice, Oryza sativa
2. Chickpea or gram, Cicer arietinum
3. Pigeon pea, Cajanus indicus
4. Urd bean, Phaseolus mungo
5. Mung bean, Phaseolus aureus
6. Rice bean, Phaseolus calcaratus
7. Cowpea, Vigna sinensis

4
 Vegetables and Tubers
1. Eggplant, Solanum melongena
2. Cucumber, Cucumis sativus
3. Radish, Raphanus caudatus (pods eaten)
4. Taro, Colocasia antiquorum
5. Yam, Dioscorea alata
Fruits
1. Mango, Mangifera indica
2. Orange, Citrus sinensis
3. Tangerine, Citrus nobilis
4. Citron, Citrus medica
5. Tamarind, Tamarindus indica
Sugar, Oil, and Fiber Plants
1. Sugar cane, Saccharum officinarum
2. Coconut palm, Cocos nucifera
3. Sesame, Sesamum indicum
4. Safflower, Carthamus tinctorius
5. Tree cotton, Gossypium arboreum
6. Oriental cotton, Gossypium nanking
7. Jute, Corchorus capsularis
8. Crotalaria, Crotalaria juncea
9. Kenaf, Hibiscus cannabinus
Spices, Stimulants, Dyes, and Miscellaneous
1. Hemp, Cannabis indica
2. Black pepper, Piper nigrum
3. Gum arabic, Acacia arabica
4. Sandalwood, Santalum album
5. Indigo, Indigofera tinctoria
6. Cinnamon tree, Cinnamomum zeylanticum
7. Croton, Croton tiglium
8. Bamboo, Bambusa tulda
B. Indo-Malayan Center : Includes Indo-China and the Malay Archipelago. Fifty-five
plants were listed, including :

5
 Cereals and Legumes
1. Job’s tears, Coix lacryma
2. Velvet bean, Mucuna utilis
Fruits
1. Pummelo, Citrus grandis
2. Banana, Musa cavendishii, M. paradisiaca, H. sapientum
3. Breadfruit, Artocarpus communis
4. Mangosteen, Garcinia mangostana
Oil, Sugar, Spice, and Fiber Plants
1. Candlenut, Aleurites moluccana
2. Coconut palm, Cocos nucifera
3. Sugarcane, Saccharum officinarum
4. Clove, Caryophyllus aromaticus
5. Nutmeg, Myristaca fragrans
6. Black pepper, Piper nigrum
7. Manila hemp or abaca, Musa textilis
III. Central Asiatic Center : Includes Northwest India (Punjab, Northwest Frontier
Provinces and Kashmir), Afghanistan, Tadjikistan, Uzbekistan, and western Tian-
Shan. Forty-three plants are listed for this center, including many wheats.
Grains and Legumes
1. Common wheat, Triticum vulgare
2. Club wheat, Triticum compactum
3. Shot wheat, Triticum sphaerocoecum
4. Pea, Pisum sativum
5. Lentil, Lens esculenta
6. Horse bean, Vicia faba
7. Chickpea, Cicer arientinum
8. Mung bean, Phaseolus aureus
9. Mustard, Brassica juncea
10. Flax, Linum usitatissimum (one of the centers)
11. Sesame, Sesamum indicum
Fiber Plants
1. Hemp, Cannabis indica
2. Cotton, Gossypium herbaceum

6
 Vegetables
1. Onion, Allium cepa
2. Garlic, Allium sativum
3. Spinach, Spinacia oleracea
4. Carrot, Daucus carota
Fruits
1. Pistacia, Pistacia vera
2. Pear, Pyrus communis
3. Almond, Amygdalus communis
4. Grape, Vitis vinifera
5. Apple, Malus pumila
IV. Near-Eastern Center: Includes interior of Asia Minor, all of Transcaucasia, Iran,
and the highlands of Turkmenistan. Eighty-three species including nine species of
wheat were located in this region.
Grains and Legumes
1. Einkorn wheat, Triticum monococcum (14 chromosomes)
2. Durum wheat, Triticum durum (28 chromosomes)
3. Poulard wheat, Triticum turgidum (28 chromosomes)
4. Common wheat, Triticum vulgare (42 chromosomes)
5. Oriental wheat, Triticum orientale
6. Persian wheat, Triticum persicum (28 chromosomes)
7. Triticum timopheevi (28 chromosomes)
8. Triticum macha (42 chromosomes)
9. Triticum vavilovianum, branched (42 chromosomes)
10. Two-row barleys, Hordeum distichum, H. nutans
11. Rye, Secale cereale
12. Mediterranean oats, Avena byzantina
13. Common oats, Avena sativa
14. Lentil, Lens esculenta
15. Lupine, Lupinus pilosus, L. albus
Forage Plants
1. Alfalfa, Medicago sativa
2. Persian clover, Trifolium resupinatum
3. Fenugreek, Trigonella foenum graecum

7
 4. Vetch, Vicia sativa
5. Hairy vetch, Vicia villosa
Fruits
1. Fig, Ficus carica
2. Pomegranate, Punica granatum
3. Apple, Malus pumilo (one of the centers)
4. Pear, Pyrus communis and others
5. Quince, Cydonia oblonga
6. Cherry, Prunus cerasus
7. Hawthorn, Crataegus azarolus
V. Mediterranean Center : Includes the borders of the Mediterranean Sea. Eighty-
four plants are listed for this region including olive and many cultivated
vegetables and forages.
Cereals and Legumes
1. Durum wheat, Triticum durum expansum
2. Emmer, Triticum dicoccum (one of the centers)
3. Polish wheat, Triticum polonicum
4. Spelt, Triticum spelta
5. Mediterranean oats, Avena byzantina
6. Sand oats, Avena brevis
7. Canarygrass, Phalaris canariensis
8. Grass pea, Lathyrus sativus
9. Pea, Pisum sativum (large seeded varieties)
10. Lupine, Lupinus albus, and others
Forage Plants
1. Egyptian clover, Trifolium alexandrinum
2. White Clover, Trifolium repens
3. Crimson clover, Trifolium incarnatum
4. Serradella, Ornithopus sativus
Oil and Fiber Plants
1. Flax, Linum usitatissimum, and wild L. angustifolium
2. Rape, Brassica napus
3. Black mustard, Brassica nigra
4. Olive, Olea europaea

8
Vegetables
1. Garden beet, Beta vulgaris
2. Cabbage, Brassica oleracea
3. Turnip, Brassica campestris, B. napus
4. Lettuce, Lactuca sativa
5. Asparagus, Asparagus officinalis
6. Celery, Apium graveolens
7. Chicory, Cichorium intybus
8. Parsnip, Pastinaca sativa
9. Rhubarb, Rheum officinale
Ethereal Oil and Spice Plants
1. Caraway, Carum carvi
2. Anise, Pimpinella anisum
3. Thyme, Thymus vulgaris
4. Peppermint, Mentha piperita
5. Sage, Salvia officinalis
6. Hop, Humulus lupulus
VI. Abyssinian Center : Includes Abyssinia, Eritrea, and part of Somaliland. In this
center were listed 38 species. Rich in wheat and barley.
Grains and Legumes
1. Abyssinian hard wheat, Triticum durum abyssinicum
2. Poulard wheat, Triticum turgidum abyssinicum
3. Emmer, Triticum dicoccum abyssinicum
4. Polish wheat, Triticum polonicum abyssinicum
5. Barley, Hordeum sativum (great diversity of forms)
6. Grain sorghum, Andropogon sorghum
7. Pearl millet, Pennisetum spicatum
8. African millet, Eleusine coracana
9. Cowpea, Vigna sinensis
10. Flax, Linum usitatissimum
Miscellaneous
1. Sesame, Sesamum indicum (basic center)
2. Castor bean, Ricinus communis (a center)
3. Garden cress, Lepidium sativum

9
 4. Coffee, Coffea arabica
5. Okra, Hibiscus esculentus
6. Myrrh, Commiphora abyssinicia
7. Indigo, Indigofera argente
New World
VII. South Mexican and Central American Central : Includes southern sections of
Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras and Costa Rica.
Grains and Legumes
1. Maize, Zea mays
2. Common bean, Phaseolus vulgaris
3. Lima bean, Phaseolus lunatus
4. Tepary bean, Phaseolus acutifolius
5. Jack bean, Canavalia ensiformis
6. Grain amaranth, Amaranthus paniculatus leucocarpus
Melon Plants
1. Malabar gourd, Cucurbita ficifolia
2. Winter pumpkin, Cucurbita moshata
3. Chayote, Sechium edule
Fiber Plants
1. Upland cotton, Gossypium hirsutum
2. Bourbon cotton, Gossypium purpurascens
3. Chayote, Sechium edule
Miscellaneous
1. Sweetpotato, Ipomea batatas
2. Arrowroot, Maranta arundinacea
3. Pepper, Capsicum annuum, C. frutescens
4. Papaya, Carica papaya
5. Guava, Psidium guayava
6. Cashew, Anacardium occidentale
7. Wild black cherry, Prunus serotina
8. Cochenial, Nopalea coccinellifera
9. Cherry tomato, Lycopersicum cerasiforme
10. Cacao, Theobroma cacao
11. Nicotiana rustica

10
VIII. South American Center : (62 plants listed) Three sub centers are found.
A. Peruvian, Ecuadorean, Bolivian Center: Comprised mainly of the high
mountainous areas, formerly the center of the Megalithic or Pre-Inca civilization.
Endemic plants of the Puna and Sierra high elevation districts included:

Root Tubers
1. Andean potato, Solanum andigenum (96 chromosomes)
2. Other endemic cultivated potato species. Fourteen or more species with
chromosome numbers varying from 24 to 60.
3. Edible nasturtium, Tropaeolum tuberosum. Coastal regions of Peru and non-
irrigated subtropical and tropical regions of Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia included:
Grains and Legumes
1. Starchy maize, Zea mays amylacea
2. Lima bean, Phaseolus lunatus (secondary center)
3. Common bean, Phaseolus vulgaris (secondary center) Root Tubers
1. Edible canna, Canna edulis
2. Potato, Solanum phureja (24 chromosomes) Vegetable Crops
1. Pepino, Solanum muricatum
2. Tomato, Lycopersicum esculentum
3. Ground cherry, Physalis peruviana
4. Pumpkin, Cucurbita maxima
5. Pepper, Capsicum frutescens
Fiber Plants
1. Egyptian cotton, Gossypium barbadense
Fruit and Miscellaneous
1. Passion flower, Passiflora ligularis
2. Guava, Psidium guajava
3. Heilborn, Carica candamarcensis
4. Quinine tree, Cinchona calisaya
5. Tobacco, Nicotiana tabacum
B. Chiloe Center (Island near the coast of southern Chile)
1. Common potato, Solanum tubersum (48 chromosomes)
2. Wild strawberry, Fragaria chiloensis

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C. Brazilian-Paraguayan Center
1. Manioc, Manihot utilissima
2. Peanut, Arachis hypogaea
3. Rubber tree, Hevea brasiliensis
4. Pineapple, Ananas comosa
5. Brazil nut, Bertholletia excelsa
6. Cashew, Anacardium occidentale
7. Purple granadilla, Passiflora edulis

Micro centres: Small areas within the centres of diversity exhibit tremendous
genetic diversity of some crop plants. These areas referred as micro-centres.
Microcentres are important source of collecting valuable plant forms and also for the
study of evolution of cultivated species.

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 Chapter : 2
Plant genetic resources, its utilization and conservation
Plant Genetic Resources:

The sum total of genes in a crop species is referred to as genetic resources. or Gene pool

refers to a whole library of different alleles of a species. or

Germplasm may be defined as the sum total of hereditary material i.e., all the alleles of

various genes present in a crop species and its wild relatives. It is also known as gene pool

or genetic stock or germplasm or genetic resources.

Germplasm or gene pool is the basic material with which a plant breeder has to initiate his

breeding programme.

Important features of plant genetic resources are -

Gene pool represents the entire genetic variability or diversity available in a crop species.

Germplasm consists of land races, modern cultivars, obsolete cultivars, breeding stocks,

wild forms and wild species of cultivated crops.

Germplasm includes both cultivated and wild species or relatives of crop plants.

Germplasm is collected from the centres of diversity, gene banks, gene sanctuaries, farmers

fields, markets and seed companies.

Germplasm is the basic material for launching a crop improvement programme.

Germplasm may be indigenous (collected within country) or exotic (collected from foreign

countries)

AIMS OF PGR : Prevent genetic erosion by

1. Collection

2. Conservation
3. Study of documentation and
4. Utilization

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The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) defines genetic resources as genetic
material of actual or potential value. The term ‘Genetic material’ means any material of

plant, animal, microbial or other origin containing functional units of heredity. The value of
any functional units of heredity can be captured in two dimensions: which is the genetic
structure per se can be utilized; or the information encapsulated in the nucleotide sequence
of the genetic material can be read. FAO (1989) used the term to mean any economic,
scientific or societal value of the heritable materials contained within and among plant
species. According to IPGRI (1993), PGR include the following categories of plants:
i) Cultivated varieties (cultivars) in current use;
ii) Newly developed varieties;
iii) Obsolete cultivars;
iv) Primitive cultivars (land races);
v) Wild and weedy relatives of cultivated varieties and
vi) Special genetic stocks (including elite and current breeders’ line and mutants)

Kinds of Germplasm :
The germplasm consists of various plant materials of a crop such asland races, advanced
(homozygous), breeding materials,obsolete cultivars, wild forms of cultivated species ,
modern cultivars, wild relatives, mutants.
These are briefly discussed below:
1. Land races :
These are nothing but primitive cultivars which were selected and cultivated by the farmers
for many generations without systematic plant breeding efforts. Land races were not
deliberately bred like modern cultivars. They evolved under subsistence agriculture. Land
races have high level of genetic diversity which provides them high degree of resistance to
biotic and abiotic stresses. Land races have broad genetic base which again provides them
wider adoptability. The main drawbacks of land races are that they are less uniform and low
yielders. Land races were first collected and studied by N.I. Vavilov in rice.

2. Obsolete Cultivars
These are the varieties developed by systematic breeding effort which were popular earlier
and now have been replaced by new varieties. Improved varieties of recent past are known
as obsolete cultivars. Obsolete varieties have several desirable characters they constitute an
important part of gene pool. Example: Wheat varieties K65, K68, pb 591 were most popular

14
traditional tall varieties before introduction of high yielding dwarf Mexican wheat varieties.
Now these varieties are no more cultivated. They are good genetic resources and have been
widely used in wheat breeding programmes for improvement of grain quality. Now such
old varieties are found in the gene pool only.

3. Modern cultivars :
The currently cultivated high yielding varieties are referred to as modern cultivars. They are
also known as improved cultivars or advanced cultivars. These varieties have high yield
potential and uniformity as compared to obsolete varieties land races. They constitute a
major part of working collections and are extensively used as parents in the breeding
programmes. As these are good sources of genes for yield and quality, can be introduced in
a new area and directly released. However, these have narrow genetic base and low
adoptability as compared to land races.

4. Advanced breeding lines

These are pre -released plants which have been developed by plant breeders in modern
scientific breeding programmes. These are known as advanced lines, cultures and
stocks.This group includes, nearly homozygous lines, lines derived from biotechnology
programmes i.e. transgenic plants and mutant lines etc. These lines which are not yet ready
for release to farmers. They often contain valuable gene combinations.

5. Wild forms of cultivated species

Wild forms of cultivated species are available in many crop plants. Such plants have
generally high degree of resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses and are utilized in breeding
programmes. They can easily cross with cultivated species. Wild forms of many crop
species are extinct.

6. Wild Relatives
Those naturally occurring plant species which have common ancestry with crops and can
cross with crop species are referred to as wild relatives or wild species. Wild relatives
include all other species, which are related to the crop species by descent during their
evolution. Both these groups are sources of valuable genes for biotic and abiotic stress and
for quality traits and yield.

7. Mutants
Mutation breeding is used when the desired character is not found in the genetic stocks of
cultivated species and their wild relatives. Mutations do occur in nature as well as can be
induced through the use of physical and chemical mutagens. The extra variability which is

15
created through induced mutations constitutes important components of gene pool. Mutant
for various characters sometimes may not be released as a variety, but they are added in the
gene pool. The germplasm includes those carrying gene mutations, chromosomal
aberrations and markers genes etc. are considered special genetic stocks. They are useful in
breeding programmes.

The gene pool system of classification :

The pool of a crop includes all cultivars, wild species and wild relatives containing all the
genes available for breeding use.
Based on degree of relationship, the gene pool of crops can be divided into three groups
(Harland and Dewet, 1971), viz.,
 Primary gene pool
 Secondary Gene pool
 Tertiary gene pool

These are briefly discussed below :

Primary gene pool (GP1) : This is also known as gene pool one (GP1). The gene pool in
which intermating is easy and leads to production of fertile hybrids is known as primary
gene pool. It includes plants of the same species or of closely related species which produce
completely fertile offspring on intermating. In such gene pool, genes can be exchanged
between lines simply by making normal crosses. This is the material of prime breeding
importance.
Secondary gene pool (GP2) : This type of gene pool is also known as gene pool two (GP2).
The genetic material that leads to partial fertility on crossing with GP1 is referred to as
secondary gene pool. It includes plants that belong to related species. Such material can be
crossed with primary gene pool, but usually the hybrids are sterile and some of the progeny
to some extent are fertile. Transfer of gene from such material to primary gene pool is
possible but difficult.
Tertiary gene pool (GP3) : The genetic material which leads to production of sterile
hybrids on crossing with primary gene pool is termed as tertiary gene pool or gene pool
three (GP3). It includes material which can be crossed with GP1, but the hybrids are sterile.
Transfer of genes from such material to primary gene pool is possible with the help of
special techniques.

16
Types of seed collections
Based on the use and duration of conservation, seed collections are of three types -
 Base collections
 Active collections
 Working collections

Base collections : It is also known as principal collection. These consist of all the
accessions present in the germplasm of a crop. They are stored at about -18 0C or -20 0C
with 5 + 1% moisture content; they are distributed only for regeneration. When the
germination of an accession falls below, usually, 95% of its germination at the start of
storage, the accession is regenerated. For reasons of safety, duplicates of base collections
should be conserved in other germplasm banks as well. High quality orthodox seeds can
maintain good viability upto 100 years.

Active collections : The accessions in an active collection are stored at temperatures below
150C (often near 0 0C), and the seed moisture is kept at 5%. The storage is for medium
duration, i.e., 10-15 years. These collections are actively utilized in breeding programme.
These collections are used for evaluation, multiplication and distribution of the accessions.
They are usually maintained by multiplying the seeds of their own accessions. But from
time to time, base collection material should be used for regeneration of these collections.
Germination test is carried out after every 5-10 years to assess the reduction in seed
viability.

Working collections : The accessions being actively used in crop improvement

programmes constitute working collection. Their seeds are stored for 3-5 years at less than
15 0C and they usually contain about 10% moisture. These collections are maintained by the
breeders using them.

Core collection
The concept of core collection was proposed by Franked it refers to a subset of base
collection which represents the large collection or a limited set of accessions derived from
an existing germplasm collections.

17
Germplasm activities :
There are six important activities related to plant genetic resources.

1. Exploration and 4. Documentation

collection
2. Conservation 5. Multiplication
and Distribution
3. Evaluation 6. Utilization

I. Exploration and collection

Exploration refers to collection trips and collection refer to tapping of genetic diversity
from various sources and assembling the same at one place. The exploration and collection
is a highly scientific process. This process takes into account six important items, viz, (1)
sources of collection, (2) priority of collection, (3) agencies of collection, (4) methods of
collection, (5) methods of sampling and (6) sample size.

Merits and Demerits

There are several merits and demerits of exploration and collection of germplasm, some of
which are as discussed below:
Merits:
1. Collection helps in tapping crop genetic diversity and assembling the same at one
place.
2. It reduces the loss of genetic diversity due to genetic erosion.
3. Sometimes, we get material of special interest during exploration trips.
4. Collection also helps in saving certain genotypes from extinction.
Demerits:
1. Collection of germplasm especially from other countries, sometimes leads to entry
of new diseases, new insects and new weeds.
2. Collection is a tedious job.
3. Collector, sometimes has encounter with wild animals like elephants, tigers etc.
4. Transportation of huge collections also poses difficulties in the exploration and
collection.

II. Germplasm conservation

Conservation refers to protection of genetic diversity of crop plants from genetic erosion.

18
There are two important methods of germplasm conservation or preservation. or
Germplasm conservation refers to maintain the collected germplasm in such a state that
there is minimum risk for its loss and that either it can be planted directly in the field or it
can be prepare for planting with relative ease when ever necessary. There are two important
methods of germplasm conservation or preservation viz., 1. In situ conservation and
2. Ex situ conservation

i. In situ conservation
Conservation of germplasm under natural habitat is referred to as in situ conservation. This
is achieved by protecting this area from human interference : such an area is often called as
natural park, biosphere reserve or gene sanctuary. A gene sanctuary is best located within
the centre of origin of crop species concerned, preferably covering the microcenter with in
the centre of origin. NBPGR, New Delhi is making attempts to establish gene sanctuaries in
Meghalaya for Citrus and in the North-Eastern region for Musa, Citrus, Oryza, Saccharum
and Mangifera.

This method of preservation has following main disadvantages

Each protected area will cover only ve ry small portion of total diversity of a crop species,
hence several areas will have to be conserved for a single species.

The management of such areas also poses several problems. This is a costly method of
germplasm conservation

Merits : Gene sanctuaries offer the following two advantages.

A gene sanctuary not only conserves the existing genetic diversity present in the population,
it also allows evolution to continue. As a result, new alleles and new gene combinations
would appear with time.
The risks as sociated with ex situ conservation are not operative.

ii. Ex situ conservation

Conservation of germplasm away from its natural habitat is called ex situ germplasm
conservation. This method has following three advantages.
It is possible to preserve entire genetic diversity of a crop species at one place.
Handling of germplasm is also easy.

19
This is a cheap method of germplasm conservation
Preservation in the form of seed is the most common and easy method, relatively safe,
requires minimum space and easy to maintain. Glass, tin or plastic containers are used for
preservation and storage of seeds. The seed can be conserved under long term, medium
term and short term storage conditions.

Roberts in 1973 classified seeds on the basis of their storability, into two major groups.viz.,

1. Orthodox seeds 2. Recalcitrant seeds

Orthodox Seeds : Seeds of this type can be dried to low moisture content of 5% and stored
at a low temperature without losing their viability are known as orthodox seeds. Most crop
seeds belong to this category. Such seeds can be easily stored for long periods; their
longevity increases in response to lower humidity and storage temperature. Eg. Wheat, Rice,
Corn, Chickpea, Cotton, Sunflower.

Recalcitrant seeds : The viability of this group of seeds drops drastically if their moisture
content is reduced below 12-30%. Seeds of many forest and fruit trees, and of several
tropically crops like Citrus, cocoa, coffee, rubber, oil palm, mango, jackfruit, etc. belong to
this group. Such seeds present considerable difficulties in storage. They require in situ
conservation.

III. Evaluation
Evaluation refers to screening of germplasm in respect of morphological, genetical,
economic, biochemical, physiological, pathological and entomological attributes.
Evaluation requires a team of specialists from the disciplines of plant breeding, physiology,
biochemistry, pathology and entomology. First of all a list of descriptors (characters) for
which evaluation has to be done is prepared. This task is completed by a team of experts
from IPGRI, Rome, Italy. The descriptors are ready for various crops. The evaluation of
germplasm is down in three different places, viz., (1) in the field, (2) in green house, and
(3) in the laboratory.

IV. Documentation
It refers to compilation, analysis, classification storage and dissemination of information. In
plant genetic resources, documentation means dissemination of information about various

20
activities such as collection, evaluation, conservation, storage and retrieval of data. Now the
term documentation is more appropriately known as information system. Documentation is
one of the important activities of genetic resources. Large number of accessions are
available in maize, rice, wheat, sorghum, potato and other major crops. About 7.3 million
germplasm accessions are available in 200 crops species. Handling of such huge germplasm
information is only possible through electronic computers.

V. Multiplication and Distribution

 The specific germplasm lines are supplied to the users on demand for utilization in
the crop improvement programmes.
 Distribution of germplasm is the responsibility of the gene bank centres
 The germplasm is usually supplied to the workers who are engaged in research work
of a particular crop species.
 Supplied free of cost to avoid cumbersome work of book keeping.
 The quantity of seed samples depends on the availability of seed material and
demands
 Proper records are maintained about the distribution of material.
 It helps in acclimatization and purification of the material.

VI. Utilization

It refers to use of germplasm in crop improvement programmes. The germplasm can be

utilized in various ways. The uses of cultivated and wild species of germplasm are briefly
discussed below:

a) Cultivated Germplasm

It can be used in three main ways: (1) as a variety, (2) as a parent in the hybridization, and
(3) as a variant in the gene pool.

b) Wild Germplasm: it is used to transfer resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses, wider
adaptability and sometimes quality such as fibre strength in cotton.

21
Organizations associated with germplasm

IPGRI – International Plant Genetic Resources Institute

NBPGR – National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources

ROLES OF PLANT GENETIC RESOURCES AND USES :

In order to grasp the importance as well as current challenges in the conservation and
utilization of PGR, there is need to outline some benefits of PGR.
1) Development of new variations through genetic modification techniques.
2) Transfer of a genetic trait, such as a gene for pesticide resistance taken out of one
species and put into another.
3) Production of recombinant cell lines and transgenic plants.
4) Use of in vitro nucleic acid techniques, including recombinant deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA); and direct injection of nucleic acid into cells or organelles
5) Use of fusion of cells beyond the taxonomic family.
6) Sequencing genes or genomes (e.g. identification of genes coding for useful traits;
molecular systematics for understanding evolutionary relations; genotyping
of plants for identification and DNA bar coding of plants for identification;
environmental genomics)
7) Phenotyping of the characteristics of plants, animals and micro-organisms for ecological
and other studies and purposes
8) Experimental evaluation of heritable characteristics
9) Creation of collections of reference specimens in repositories such as museums and
herbarium
10) Isolation of a compound from genetic material for the purpose of characterization and
evaluation.

22
Table 4: Estimates of germplasm holdings in major national PGR systems and international
centres
Country/IARC Categories Total
concerned
USA All crops 557,000
China All crops 400,000
Rice 61,000
(National Rice
Research Institute)
Wheat 40,000
(National Gene Bank)
USSR All crops 325,000
IRRI Rice 86,000
(International Rice Research
Institute, Philippines)
ICRISAT Sorghum, millet, chickpea, 86,000
(International Crops Research peanut, pigeonpea
Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics,
Patancheru, Hyderabad)
ICARDA Cereals, legumes, forages 77,000
(International Center for
Agricultural Research in Dry Areas,
Beirut, Lebanon)
India All crops 76,800
CIMMYT Wheat, maize 75,000
(International Maize and Wheat
Improvement Center, Mexico)
CIAT Common bean, cassava, 66,000
(International Center for Tropical forages
Agriculture, Palmira, Colombia)
IITA Cowpea, rice, 40,000
(International Institute of Tropical root crops
Agriculture, Nigeria)

CIP Potato, sweet 12,000

(International Potato Center, Lima, potato
Peru)

23
There are two broad approaches to PGR conservation and these are : 1) In situ conservation
and 2) Ex situ conservation
A. In situ conservation: Demands the establishment of nature or biosphere reserves,
national parks, or special legislation to protect endangered species. UNEP (1992)
defined it as the conservation of ecosystem and natural habitats, and the maintenance
and recovery of viable population of species in their natural habitats or where they have
developed their distinctive properties.
B. Ex situ conservation: Ex situ conservation is the conservation and maintenance of
samples of living organisms outside their natural habitat, in the form of whole plants,
seed, pollen, vegetative propagules, tissues or cell cultures. Vavilov was the first to
recognize the value of genetic diversity and created first modern seed bank in St
Petersburg. Botanic gardens and arboreta: Botanic gardens are the gardens which
maintain collections of live plants mainly for study, scientific research, conservation
and education. Botanic gardens have a dual mission of conservation and education. It
also play role in recreation and tourist attraction. According to Chakravarthy and
Mukhopadhyay (1990), a botanic garden can broadly be called a living repository or
refugia of plants arranged and maintained on some scientific basis and where the
collections are usually labeled or marked for identification. Botanical gardens are
central in the ex situ conservation and exploration of the global plant biodiversity.

Gene banks : The purpose of gene banks is to collect, conserve and make genetic resources
available. The maintenance of the genetic identity of the accessions is an overriding
objective of gene banks. Gene banks were first established over 50 years ago to conserve
threatened crop diversity in local land races that were being displaced by new improved
varieties and destruction of natural habitats (Jorge et al. 2010). Gene bank management
guidelines for different crops are scanty and hard to find; most are generic. There are
different kinds of gene banks including seed banks, field banks, in vitro banks, cryo banks,
vegetative banks and DNA banks. Genebanks around the world hold collections of a broad
range of plant genetic resources, with the overall aim of long-term conservation and
accessibility of plant germplasm to plant breeders, researchers and other users.

Cryopreservation: Cryopreservation is a technique that ensures safe, long‐term

conservation of genetic resources of plant species with recalcitrant seeds, of vegetatively
propagated species and of biotechnology products such as somatic embryos, cell lines and
genetically transformed material. The technique was implemented at the end of the 20th

24
century and could be used today for routine cryostorage as long as some important factors
were taken into consideration. Tissue culture procedures are usually required to multiply
super cooled material via. axillary shoots or somatic embryogenesis, and were improved
for use with tree species in recent years. In addition, production of transgenic tree species
and molecular breeding procedures require functional cryopreservation protocols. Three
major genetic risks in ex situ collections are genetic drift, adaptation to cultivation and
mutation accumulation.

25
 Chapter : 3
Important Concepts of Breeding Self pollinated, Cross
pollinated and Vegetatively propagated crops

Various approaches (viz., selection, hybridization, mutation, etc) that are used for genetic
improvement of crop plants are referred to as plant breeding methods or plant breeding procedures
or plant breeding techniques. The choice of breeding methods mainly depends on the mode of
pollination, mode of reproduction, gene action and breeding objective of crop species. Plant
breeding methods are generally classified on the basis of application of crop improvement (general
methods, special methods and population improvement approaches) and hybridization (methods
involving hybridization and methods not involving hybridization).

Various breeding procedures that are more commonly used for the genetic improvement of
various crop plants are known as general breeding methods. Such breeding methods include
introduction, selection (pure line selection, mass selection, progeny selection), hybridization
(pedigree, bulk and backcross methods), heterosis breeding, synthetic and composite breeding. On the
other hand, those breeding procedures that are rarely used for improvement of crop plants are referred
to as special breeding methods. Such methods include: mutation breeding, polyploidy breeding, wide
crossing or distant hybridization and biotechnology. Four breeding approaches, viz., recurrent
selection, disruptive matin g and selection, diallel selective mating system and biparental mating are
used mainly for population improvement.

Classification of Plant Breeding

Methods
Basis of classification and Breeding methods included
Types of methods
A. Application in crop improvement
(1) General Methods Plant introduction, Pure line selection, mass
selection, progeny selection, pedigree
method, bulk method, back cross method,
SSD, clonal selection, heterosis
breeding, synthetics and composites.
(2) Special Methods Mutation breeding, Polyploidybreeding,
transgenic breeding, molecular breeding.
26
 (3) Population Improvement Recurrent selection, disruptive selection,
diallel selective approaches mating system,
biparental mating.
B. Hybridization
(1) Methods involving hybridization Pedigree method, bulk method, back
cross method and SSD method
heterosis breeding and population
improvement approaches and molecular
breeding (marker aided selection).
(2) Methods not involving hybridization Plant Introduction, pureline selection, mass
selection, progeny selection, clonal selection,
mutation breeding and
transgenic breeding.
There are some differences in the breeding methods used for self pollinated and cross
pollinated species. Self pollinated species are homozygous, hence we can start hybridization directly.
Cross pollinated species, on the other hand, are highly heterozygous. Hence we can not start
hybridization directly. First we have to develop inbred lines by selfing or inbreeding and then only
hybridization can be taken up. We have to exploit homozygosity in self pollinated crops and
heterozygosity in cross pollinated species. Asexually propagated species such as sugarcane, potato,
sweet potato, etc., are highly heterozygous. Hence, F1 hybrids in such crops exhibit segregation and
selection can be practiced in F1 generation. The superior clones are identified and further multiplied.
The maintenance or conservation of hybrid vigour is easy in such crops because of asexually
propagation.

Methods of Breeding Autogamous species

Plant breeding methods that are used for genetic improvement of self pollinated or autogamous species
include:
1. Plant Introduction
2. Pureline selection
3. Mass selection
4. Pedigree method
5. Bulk method
6. Single seed descent method
27
 7. Backcross method
8. Heterosis breeding
9. Mutation breeding
10. Polyploidy breeding
11. Distant hybridization
12. Transgenic breeding.
Four breeding approaches, viz., recurrent selection, disruptive selection, diallele selective mating, and
biparental mating are used for population improvement.

Methods or Breeding Allogamous species

Breeding methods that are used for genetic improvement of cross pollinated or allogamous species
include
(1) Plant introduction
(2) Mass and progeny selection
(3) Backcross method
(4) Heterosis breeding
(5) Synthetic breeding
(6) Composite breeding
(7) Polyploidy breeding
(8) Distant hybridization
(9) Transgenic breeding
Mutation breeding is rarely used in allogamous species. Three breeding approaches viz., recurrent
selection, disruptive mating and biparental meting are used for population improvement.

Methods of Breeding Asexually Propagated Species

Important breeding methods applicable to asexually propagated species are

(1) Plant Introduction

(2) Clonal selection
(3) Mass selection
(4) Heterosis breeding
(5) Mutation breeding
(6) Polyploidy breeding
(7) Distant hybridization
(8) Transgenic breeding.
28
Mass selection is rarely used in asexually propagated species.

Brief account of breeding methods

Plant introduction is applicable to all three groups of crop plants, viz., self pollinated, cross pollinated
and asexually propagated species. It is an old est and rapid method of crop improvement. The
introduced material may be used in three ways viz.,
(1) Directly as a variety
(2) As a variety after selection
(3) As a parent in the hybridization for development of variety or hybrid

Pureline selection is applicable to self pollinated species. It is also used sometimes in cross pollinated
species for development of inbred lines. A single best pure line is released as a variety. Thus a
pureline variety is homozygous and homogeneous population.
Mass selection is common in cross pollinated species and rare in self pollinated and asexually
propagates species. In self pollinated crops, a mass selected variety is a mixture of several purelines.
Thus it is a homozygous but heterogeneous population. In cross pollinated species, a mass selected
variety is a mixture of several hetero and homozygotes. Thus, it is a heterozygous and heterogeneous
population
Progeny selection is used in cross pollinated species. A variety developed by this method is
heterozygous and heterogeneous population because it consists of several hetero and homozygotes.
Pedigree method is applicable to both self and cross pollinated species. In self pollinated crops
progeny of a single best homozygote is released as a variety. Thus a variety developed by this
method has a homozygous and homogeneous population. In cross pollinated species, it is used for
developed of inbred lines. Bulk and single seed descent methods are used in self pollinated species.
Progeny of a single best homozygote is released as a variety by these methods. Thus, varieties
developed by these methods are homozygous and homogeneous.
Backcross method is applicable in all three groups of crop species. This method is used for transfer
of oligogenic characters from a donor source to a well adapted variety. This method is also used for
development of multilines, Isogenic lines and transfer of male sterility. This method is more effective
in transferring oligogenic characters than polygenic traits. The end product of backcross method is
similar to parent variety expect for the character which has to be transferred from the donor source.
Multiline varieties are developed in self pollinated species. They are mixture of several Isogenic lines,
closely related lines or unrelated lines. Thus a multiline variety is a homozygous but heterogeneous
population.
29
Clonal selection is used in asexually propagated species. In this method progeny of a single best
clone is released as a variety. Such variety has heterozygous but homogeneous population.
Heterosis breeding is used in/all the three groups. However, it is common in cross pollinated and
asexually propagated species and rare in self pollinated species. A hybrid variety has homogeneous
but heterozygous population. Synthetic and composite varieties are developed in cross pollinated
species. Such varieties consist of several homozygotes and heterozygotes and thus constitute a
heterogeneous population.
Mutation breeding is common in self pollinated and asexually propagated species and rare in cross
pollinated species. A mutant variety differs from parent variety in one or few characters. A mutant
differs from a segregant in two main ways. Firstly, the frequency of segregants is very high and that
of mutant is extremely low (0.1%). Secondly, mutant differs from parent variety in one or few
characters, where as a segregant differs from parent material in several characters.
Polyploidy breeding is common in asexually propagated species and rare in self and cross pollinated
species. A polyploidy variety differs from parent variety in chromosome numbers and exhibit gigant
morphological characters.
Distant hybridization is used in all the three types of crop species. However, this method is used for
transferring some desirable genes from wild species to the cultivated ones. Generally, backcross
method is used for transfer of oligogenic characters and pedigree method for transfer of polygenic
characters.
Transgenic breeding is applicable to all three types of crop species. This method is used to solve
specific problems which can not be solved by conventional breeding techniques. This method will
serve as a tool and can not be used as a substitute for conventional breeding methods.

Recurrent selection is common in cross pollinated species and rare in other two groups. It is used
for accumulating favourable genes in a population i.e., for population improvement. Other
approaches which are used for population improvement include disruptive mating, diallel
selective mating (DSM) and biparental mating. DSM is used in self pollinated species and other two
techniques can be used both in self and cross pollinated species.

Chapter : 4
Major breeding objectives and procedures for development of hybrids and
varieties of Major Rabi crops for yield, adaptability, stability, biotic and
abiotic stress tolerance and quality (physical, chemical, nutritional)

30
 4A. CEREALS
1. WHEAT
B. NAME- Triticum aestivum
FAMILY - Poaceae
CHROMOSOME NO. – 2n=42
ORIGIN - South Asia
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES -
Wheat is widely cultivated cereal, spread from 57ºN to 47ºS latitude. Hence, wheat is cultivated and
harvested throughout the year in one country or other. China, India, Russian federation, USA, France,
Canada, Germany, Pakistan, Australia and Turkey are most important wheat growing countries
Wild Relatives T. aethiopicum T. araraticum T. compactum
FLORAL BIOLOGY
1. Inflorescence of wheat is called Ear or Head. In botanical it is called as spike.
2. The unit is called spikelet.
3. Each floret consist of lemma, palea, androecium and gynoecium.
4. Flowers are bisexual and zygomorphic.
5. Each floret has three stamens with large anthers and a pistil bearing bifid feathery stigma.
6. Wheat stamens are small and produce about 1000-4000 pollen grains per anther.
MAJOR BREEDING OBJECTIVES
1. Breeding for high grain yield.
2. Breeding for good quality with high spikletes.
3. Disease and insect resistance and tolerance to abiotic stresses.
4. Mineral, moisture and heat tolerance.

BREEDING PROCEDURES:
1. Introduction :
Semi dwarf wheat from Mexico, Sonara 63, Sonara 64, Mayo 64, Lerma Roja 64
2.Pure line selection :
Earlier varieties like P4, P6, P12 evolved at Pusa institute are result of pure line selection from local
population.
3.Hybridisation and selection
a) Inter varietal:
A number of successful derivatives were developed at IARI New Delhi and Punjab. NP 809 -
New pusa multiple cross derivative.
However all these varieties were lodging and poor yielder when compared to other countries.
Hence the wheat hybridization programme was changed by
b) Inter specific crosses
To get Hessian fly resistance. So also for rust resistance.
c) Back cross method of breeding
Rust resistance in Chinese spring from Thatcher.
4.Hybrid wheat :
At Kansas Agri. Expt. Station USA male sterile lines were identified by crossing

31
T. timophevi x T. aestivum Bison variety By repeated back crossing a male sterile line
resembling
Bison was evolved. At present USA and Canada are doing work on this.
5.Mutation breeding
Dr. M. S. Swamina than did extensive work on this with gamma rays. Sharbati
Sonara with increased protein content was evolved.
6.Development of multilines
Borlaug developed multilines against rust. MLKS 15 was developed at IARI.
Multiline is a mixture of pure lines which are phenotypically similar but genotypically dissimilar.
Each line is produced by separate back cross method of breeding. Each line having resistance against a
particular race of a disease.
BREEDING CENTERS:
- International Maize and Wheat improvement Centre (CIMMYT) Mexico.
- Directorate of Wheat Research (DWR), Karnal.
- All India Coordinated Wheat Improvement Project (AICWIP) – Karnal (earlier New.
Delhi)
PRACTICAL ACHIEVEMENT:
The semi dwarf varieties of wheat have been developed through the use of Japanese line Norin 10 as
a source of dwarfing gene which led to “green revolution” in wheat production.
The
productivity of Semi dwarf varieties is about two and half times more than old tall growing varieties.
More over these varieties are highly resistant to lodging and are highly responsive to
fertilizer doses.

2. OAT
B. NAME - Avena sativa
FAMILY - Poaceae
CHROMOSOME NO. – 2n=42
CENTERS OF ORIGIN - South Asia
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES -
Wheat is widely cultivated cereal, spread from 57ºN to 47ºS latitude. Hence, wheat is cultivated and
harvested throughout the year in one country or other. China, India, Russian federation, USA, France,
Canada, Germany, Pakistan, Australia and Turkey are most important wheat growing countries
WILD RELATIVES - T. aethiopicum T. araraticum T. compactum
FLORAL BIOLOGY
7. Inflorescence of wheat is called Ear or Head. In botanical it is called as spike.
8. The unit is called spikelet.
9. Each floret consist of lemma, palea, androecium and gynoecium.
10.Flowers are bisexual and zygomorphic.
11.Each floret has three stamens with large anthers and a pistil bearing bifid feathery stigma. 12.Wheat
stamens are small and produce about 1000-4000 pollen grains per anther.
MAJOR BREEDING OBJECTIVES

32
5. Breeding for high grain yield.
6. Breeding for good quality with high spikletes.
7. Disease and insect resistance and tolerance to abiotic stresses.
8. Mineral, moisture and heat tolerance.

3. BARLEY
B. NAME - Hordeum vulgare
FAMILY - Graminacae / Poaceae
CHROMOSOME NO. - 2n = 14
Fertility of the lateral spikelets forms the basis of barley classification and the cultivated barley
may be classified into three main groups viz.,
i) Six rowed barley (H. vulgare L. emend, Lam)
ii) Two rowed barley (H. distichum, L. emend, Lam)
iii) Irregular barley (H. irregular, E. Aberg and Wiebe)

CLASSIFICATION
In traditional classifications of barley, these morphological differences have led to different forms of
barley being classified as different species. Under these classifications, two-row barley with shattering
spikes (wild barley) is classified as Hordeum spontaneum K. Koch. Two-row barley with
nonshattering spikes is classified as H. distichum L., six-row barley with nonshattering spikes as H.
vulgare L. (or H. hexastichum L.), and six-row with shattering spikes as H. agriocrithon Åberg.
Because these differences were driven by single-gene mutations, coupled with
cytological and molecular evidence, most recent classifications treat these forms as a single species, H.
vulgare L.
WILD RELATIVES
Wild Hordeum species are distributed through Europe, Asia, Africa and the Americas. Secondary
centers of diversity of cultivated barley are found in Ethiopia and Morocco and parts of Asia. H.
spontaneum
FLORAL BIOLOGY
1. Inflorescence of barley is called Ear or Head. In botanical it is called as spike.
2. The unit is called spikelet.
3. Each floret consist of lemma, palea, androecium and gynoecium.
4. Flowers are bisexual and zygomorphic.
5. Each floret has three stamens with large anthers and a pistil bearing bifid feathery stigma.
6. Barley stamens are small and produce about 1000-4000 pollen grains per anther.
BREEDING OBJECTIVES
i) Yield improvement.
ii) Increased adaptability.
iii) Resistance to yellow rust, aphid and nematode.
iv) Improvement in nutritional quality.
v) Improvement in attributes related to malt industry.

33
 ACHIEVEMENTS OF BARLEY :
Sr. Name Parentage Release Specific area of
No. year adaptation
1. K603 K257/C135 2000 NEPZ
2. BH393 California/ mariout 2001 Haryana
3. NBBNOB(020) Ratna K-425/Jyoti 2001 UP
4. RD3592 RD2503/UBL9 2003 Rajastan
5. K713 RD2540/BH407 2004 NEPZ

IMPROVED VARIETIES / HYBRIDS :

Sr. No. Varieties Features
1 Ratna, Jyoti, Kailas Hulled varieties
2 Karan-750, Amber, Himadri Huskless varieties
3 C-138, RS-6, RD-57, RD-137, Malting varieties
Clipper
4 Karan 16, Karan 18, 19, Jyoti Salt tolerant varieties
karan-3,4 Amber, Azad
5 Kailash, Himani, Dolma, NP-100, Suitable for hilly areas
NP-13, 21, 103
6 Rajkiran Nematode resistant variety
7 Nilam and Karan 19 Better chappati making quality for barley
varieties

34
 4B. PULSES
1. CHICKPEA

B. NAME - Cicer arietnum

FAMILY – Leguminoceae
CHROMOSOME NO. – 2n=16
ORIGIN -
The chickpea is most probably originated in an area of present day south-eastern Turkey and adjoining
Syria.

RELATED SPECIES - C. reticulatum, C. pinnatifidum, C. songaricum

Two main categories of Chickpea are recognized which are distinguished mainly by their seed
characteristics. They are
1) Desi types, which are relatively smaller, angular seeds with rough yellow to brown
coloured testas.
2) Kabuli types, with large, more rounded and cream coloured seeds.

WILD SPECIES
The wild species of Cicer closely related to chickpea are :
i) C. bijugum
ii) C. echinospermum
iii) C. ecticulatum

FLORAL BIOLOGY
1. The flowers are papilionaceous.
2. They are solitary in axillary racemes.
3. Double flowers are rare, but are very much sought after by the breeders as possible
sources of yield increase.
4. The calyx has five deep lancelolate teeth. Peduncle and calyx are hairy.
5. Generally, corolla is white.
6. The vexillum is obovate, 8-11 mm long and 7-10 mm wide.
7. Wings are obovate, 8-9 mm long. The keel is 6-8 mm long.
8. Number of pods/plant is highly variable, generally between 30 and 150 depending on the
year, location, sowing time and other factors.

BREEDING OBJECTIVES
(i) Increased seed yield.
(ii) Increased biomass, tall, erect and compact cultivars
(iii) Resistance to diseases
(a) Ascochyta blight.
(b) Fusarium wilt.
(c) Root rot.
(d) Botrytis grey mould
(iv) Resistance to insect pests:
(a) Pod borer.
(v) Tolerance to stress environments:
(a) Cold

35
(b) Heat
(c) Drought
(d) Saline and alkaline soils.
(vi) Mechanical Harvesting

BREEDING PROCEDURES
1. Pedigree method: for resistance breeding (disease, insect, nematode, orobanche spp)
2. Modified bulk method: for stress situations (drought, cold, heat, iron deficiency)
3. Back cross method: for interspecific hybridization. Limited backcross (one or two) for
desi x kabuli introgression and also for resistance breeding. Resistance to fusarion wild can
be easily transferred from desi to kabuli type
4. Somaclonal variation: through plant tissue culture appears to be a potential tool for
generation and exploitation of useful variability.
IMPROVED VARIETIES / HYBRIDS :
Sr.
No. Varieties Features
1 BDN-9-3 Early, wilt resistant, drought tolerant
2 BDNG-797 Early, wilt resistant and high yielding
3 Phule Vikrant Yellowish brown, medium size seeds, wilt resistant
4 Phule Vikram Tall growth habit, suitable for mechanical harvesting,
medium size, yellowish brown seeds.
5 Himali Extra bold seeded kabuli variety, wilt resistant
6 Kripa Extra large seeded kabuli variety, milky white seed colour
7 Digvijay High yield potential, bold seeds, wilt resistant
8 Rajas Yellowish brown bold seeds, wilt resistant
9 Vihar Extra bold seeded kabuli variety, wilt resistant
10 Virat Extra bold seeded kabuli variety, wilt resistant
11 Vishal Attractive yellowish brown bold seeds, wilt resistant
12 Vijay High yield potential, wilt resistant, drought tolerant
13 BDNG-798 Kabuli, medium bold
14 Jaki-9218 Deshi, high yielding, wilt tolerant
15 ICCV 2 Early, kabuli type
16 Hirwa Chaffa Green seeded, for rainfed and irrigated areas
(AKGS-1)
17 PKV Harita Wilt and drought tolerant, recommended for rainfed
cultivation, green seeded.
18 PKV Kanchan Wilt tolerant, recommended for irrigated condition for
Vidharbha region
19 Gulak 1 Bold seeded, wilt tolerant, pink seeded, suitable for roasted
purpose
20 PKV Kabuli- 4 Extra large seeded, kabuli, wilt tolerant, suitable for export
purpose.

36
 4C. OILSEED CROPS
1. SUNFLOWER

B. NAME – Helianthus annus

FAMILY – Composite
CHROMOSOME NO. – 2n=34
ORIGIN – America
DISTRUBUTUION –
USSR, Romania, Canada, UAS, in India this crop is introdeced in 1969 From USSR.
In India it is cultivated in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Maharastra and Andhra pradesh, Punjab and
Hariyana.
WILD SPECIES -
Helianthus hirsutus, Helianthus rigidus
The genus Helianthus comprises of 67 species. Two species H. annus and H. tuberosus are cultivated
as food plants genus has basic chromosome number of 17 and diploid, tetraploid and hexaploid
species are found.

FLORAL BIOLOGY
 The inflorescence is a capitulum or head, characteristic of composite family.
 The number of flowers in oilseed cultivars may vary from 700 to 3000.
 The flower of the outer whorl of the head are called as ray florets.
 They have five elongated petals which are united to form straplike structures.
 They have vestigeal styles and stigmas and no anthers.
 The other flowers arranged in concentric rings over the remainder of the head are called
as disc flowers.
 Five anthers are united to form a tube with separate filament attached to the base of the
corolla tube.
 Inside the anther tube, there is the style, terminating in a stigma which is divided.
 The receptive surfaces of stigma remain in close contact in bud stage.
 The achene or the fruit of the sunflower consists of a seed often called the kernel.
 The adhering pericarp is usually called the hull.
 The seed consists of seed coat, endosperm and embryo.
 Major part of embryo is in the form of cotyledons.

BREEDING OBJECTIVES
i) High seed yield
ii) Early maturity
iii) Lodging resistant dwarf plant type
iv) Uniformity of plant type
v) High oil percentage
vi) Tolerance to stress conditions
vii) Resistance to bird damage
viii) Resistance to diseases
BREEDING METHODS
1. Introduction : Morden from Canada.

37
2. Mass selection:
Ec 68414 from Russia. Co1 mass selection from Morden. Useful for characters which are highly
heritable. E.g. Plant height, disease resistance.
3. Hybridization and selection
a) Intervarietal
b) Interspecific :
Wild species of North American origin and best Soviet varieties were crossed and number of varieties
were evolved.
They are resistant to Verticillium wilt also
4. Mutation
Co3 (Mutant from Co2 thro’ gamma rays)
5. Head to row and remnant seed method
Developed by Pustovoit in Russia. By this method oil content is increased. In this method the
following are the steps:
a) From open pollinated type a large no (10,000 to 12,000) plants are selected based on Head
size.
b) The selected lines are analysed for oil content and high oil content lines are isolated (1000
plants).
c) Part of the seed reserved and the part is sown in progeny rows along with check to
estimate yield.
d) Second season testing is also done. The best lines are identified.
a. The remnant seed of elite plants which give high yield were raised in isolation and
multiplied for crossing interse next season.
b. The multiplied lines also tested for oil content and high yielding high oil content lines
were raised in isolation and crossed interse.
6. Population improvement
By mass selection, recurrent selection and use of male sterile lines population can be improved
and utilised for breeding.
7. Heterosis breeding :
Development of inbred lines and crossing them to harness heterosis was first done as early as 1920 in
Russia. During 1970 cytoplasmic geneic male sterility was identified in wild types and obsolete
cultivars. Now this system is being extensively used for production of hybrids. First hybrid
BSH 1, APSH – 11
A number of CGMS lines were bred by Government as well as private seed growers and are utilised now.
Male sterility can also be inducted by GA 100 ppm.
Steps
1. Development of inbreds.
2. Evaluation of inbreds for combining ability.
3. Conversion of inbreds into CGMS lines and R lines.
4. Production of hybrids.

BREEDING CENTRE
Directorate of oil seed Research (DOR) Hyderabad.

38
All India coordinated sunflower improvement project (Bangalore)
PRACTICAL ACHIEVEMENTS
Varieties EC 68414, EC 68415, Mordern, Co-1, surya
Hybrids BSH-1, KBSH-1, LSH-1, APSH-1 LDMRSH-1, 3
IMPROVED VARIETIES / HYBRIDS :
Sr. No. Varieties Features
1 LSH-1 Downy mildew resistant, rainfed
2 LSH-2 Downy mildew resistant, rainfed
3. LS-11 High yielding having high oil content
4. SS-56 Suitable for rainfed conditions, oil content 32-35 %
5. Bhanu Tolerant to drought, oil content 35-36 %
6 Phule Raviraj (Hybrid) Oil content 34 %, big head size with central filling head,
tolerant to bud necrosis and alternaria
7 Bhaskar Early maturing, high yield, oil content 37-38 %, dark
black shiny seeds.
8 PKVSH952 92-95 days duration, Black seeded, 38-40 % oil (seeds),
with 15-18 q/ha yield potential.

2. SAFFLOWER
B. NAME - Carthamum tinctorius
FAMILY – Compositae
CHROMOSOME NO. – 2n=24
ORIGIN -
Safflower has been grown for many centuries from Egypt in north Africa eastward to
India. Safflower is believed to have two centers of origin, Ethiopia & Afghanistan.
DISTRIBUTION
Afghanistan, India, Pakistan, USA, Egypt middle east in India, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh,
Karnataka together accounts for more than 90 per cent of country’s area RELATED SPECIES
 The wild species Carthamus oxycanthus is found in many parts of Punjab.
 It is a dwarf bushy plant, very spiny, forming small achenes.
 The oil content is 15 to 16 percent.
CULTIVATED SPECIES - Carthamum tinctorius L (2n = 2X = 24)
WILD SPECIES
C. palaestinus, C. oxycantha, C. lanatus, C. flavenscens
FLORAL BIOLOGY
 It is often cross-pollinated crop.
 Marginal florets open first followed by florets in central (centripetal order).
 It is completed within 1 to 5 days.
 The opening of florets takes place in the morning hours between 9 to 10 a.m.
 The style elongates and stigma emerges from corolla tube.
 At the same time, corolla opens and anthesis takes place.
 However, hairy portion of style is still within tube.

39
 BREEDING OBJECTIVES
1) High seed yield of oil contents
2) Wide adaptability
3) Development of early and non-spiny varieties
4) Tolerance / Resistance to Diseases & Pest
5) Tolerance to abiotic stresses:
6) Development of appraisal type genotypes (to accommodate more plant population)
7) Development of stable GMS lines
8) Improvement in oil quality
(Breeding Methods same as a Sunflower)
ACHIEVEMENTS
1) Pure line selection: N7, N 62-8, Bhima (81), Manjira
2) Pedigree selection after hybridization: Tarea Annegiri 1, Girna
3) Development of Commercial hybrids by using GMS: DSH 129

IMPROVED VARIETIES / HYBRIDS :

Sr. No. Variety Features

1 Bhima Moderately tolerant to aphid and fusarium wilt, oil
content 29-30 %, tolerant to moisture stress.
2 Girna Moderately tolerant to aphid and Fusarium wilt, oil
content 28-30 %.
3 Phule Kusuma Moderately tolerant to aphid, oil content 30 %
4 Phule Chandrabhaga Moderately tolerant to aphid, oil content 29 %
5 SSF-658 (Non Moderately tolerant to aphid and Fusarium wilt, oil
spiny) content 28 %
6 Sharda (PBN-12) High yielding, tolerant to drought Fusarium wilt and
aphids.

40
 3. LINSEED (Flax)
B. NAME- Linum Usitatissimum
FAMILY - Linaceae
CHROMOSOME NO. – 2n=30
ORIGIN – South Western Asia
DISTRIBUTION –
 Linum usitatissimum is now grown widely in many parts of the world, including the tropics.
 Fibre flax is cultivated in cool and humid temperate climates, whereas linseed is grown in
warmer climates.
 Socio-economics also affect the distribution; Eastern Europe and the Russian Federation
produce mainly fibre flax, Canada and the northern United States mainly linseed.

WILD RELATIVES - Linum bienne, Linum floccosum, Linum mysorense, Linum

hirsutum, linum nervosum,

VARIETIES –
Surbhi (KI-1), Nagarkot (KL-31), Jeevan (DPL-21), Janaki (KL-43), Himalini,

FLORAL BIOLOGY -
 Inflorescence - Racemose or cymose, scorpioid (Flax), rarely solitary.
 Flower - Showy, actinomorphic, hermaphrodite, pentamerous, hypogynous.
 Calyx - Sepals 5, polysepalous, or more or less connate, usually persistent, very rarely
caduous, imbricate, quincunical, rarely valvate.
 Corolla - Petals 5, variously coloured, often more or less clawed, polypetalous, Fugucious,
caducous, sometimes with ligule like appendages, usually with pocket like slits above the
bases, imbricate or twisted.
 Androecium - Stamens 10 usually, outer whorl being reduced to staminodes and inner
one united at the base to form a ring, on the inner side of which is a disc or nector
secreting glands, staminodes lie opposite to the petals; anthers elliptic, introrse, bithecal,
connective often apically acute.
 Disc absent or interstaminal, free of adnate to staminal tube or extrastaminal forming a
ring being united with the staminal tube.
 Gynoecium - Carpels 2-5, syncarpous, ovary superior, 2-5, syncarpous, ovary superior, 2-
5 locular each locule further divided by false septum, so ovary cells or locules increased in
number.
 Styles as many as ovary chambers or fewer or more free, axile placentation, ovules are 2
in each chamber; stigma terminal.
 Pollination - Entomophilous, insects are attracted by coloured and honey glands.
BREEDING OBJECTIVES –
1. High yielding varieties with high oil content for rainfed conditions.

41
 2. Devlopment of short duration varieties (105 days).
3. Linseed varieties resistance to pest and Diseases.
4. Screening of Germplasm under abiotic stress.
5. Maintenane, evaluation and utilization of germplasm.

4. RAPESEED
B. NAME – Brsassica napus
FAMILY – Brassicacea
CHROMOSOME NO. – 2n=38
ORIGIN - Europe region
WILD SPECIES - B.oleracea, B.rapa
DISTRIBUTION - Canada, India, China, France, Australia, U.K, etc...
FLORAL BIOLOGY –
1. ConsistsTap rootsystem with succulent, straightand cylindrical stem.
2. The inflorescence is racemose And the flowering is inderterminate with beginning at the
lowest bud of the main raceme.
3. The syncarpous ovary develops into pod with two carpels separated by a false septum.
BREEDING OBJECTIVES –
1. High yield.
2. Early maturity.
3. High oil content.
4. Resistance to diseases.
5. Resistance to pests.
6. Low erucic acid and glucosinolates.

5. MUSTARD
B. Name – Brassica spp
Family - Brassicaceae
Chromosome No. – 2n=36
Origim – India
Distribution:
China, Canada, India, Europe, Pakistan, collectively contribute 90 per cent of the global production. In
India Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Punjab, Assam, Bihar and West Bengal.
Floral Biology –
1. Their presence or absence may be a good taxonomic character.
2. A simple and well known example may be that of B. oleracea, B. nigra and B. campestris
where the first is completed glabrous and the two others hairy.
3. The amphidiploids where one of the parents is B. oleracea (i.e. B. carinata and B. napus)
are only very slightly hairy (Gomez Campo, 1980).
4. The flower has typical cruciferae formula (K2 + 2, C4, A2 + 4, G (2)).
5. The inflorescence is racemose and flowering is indeterminate beginning at the lowest bud
on the main raceme.

42
6. The syncarpous ovary develops into a pod (silique) with two carpels separated by a false
septum.
Breeding objectives
1. High yield
2. Early maturity
3. High oil
4. Low erucic acid and glucosinolates
5. Resistance to diseases
6. Resistance to insects pest
Breeding methods
1. Introduction - Regina from Sweeden
2.Simple selection
3. Hybridization and selection
Intervarietal
a) Bulk method
b) Pedigree method
c) single seed descent
Inter specific
4. Back cross method
5. Population improvement
Recurrent Selection, mass selection
6. Heterosis breeding CMS lines
7.Mutation breeding
8. Tissue culture technique for production of homozygous diploids
Saline resistance screening. Induction of mutation in haploids.
9.Embryo rescue technique for inter
specific crosses. BREEDING CENTRES:
National Research Centre for Mustard (NRCM) – Bharatpur (Rajasthan)
Coordinated project at Bharathpur.
PRACTICAL ACHIEVEMENTS
Varieties Kranti, RLM 198, Krishna, Varun, Pusa Kalyani etc.

43
 4D. FODDER CROPS
1. NAPIER

B. NAME - Pennisetum purpureum

FAMILY - Poaceae
CHROMOSOME NO. - 2n =27,28,56
ORIGIN - Cross land of Africa (Tropical Africa)
WILD RELETIVES - P. polystachion (mission grass)
P. macrourum (sueamp grass)
P. pedicellatum (deenanth grass) P.
benthamii
DISTRIBUSTION :- China,India,USA,Srilanka,Bangladesh
FLOWER BIOLOGY
1. The inflorescence is a stiff terminal bristly spike, up to 15-20 cm in length, yellow-brown
to purplish in colour.
2. Spikelets are arranged around a hairy axis, and fall at maturity.
3. Spikelets are 4-6 mm long and surrounded by 2 cm long plumose bristles.
4. There is little or no seed formation.
5. When seeds are present they are very small (3 million seeds/kg) P. purpureum relies on
wind to achieve cross-pollination, due to asynchrony of male and female flower parts.
6. However, this is also an apomictic species which can produce seed by this asexual
method of reproduction (Brown and Emery, 1958; Stevens, 2012).
7. The species is an inconsistent seed producer and in some habitats it rarely develops seeds,
possibly due to low pollen viability (Tropical Forages, 2013).
8. When seeds are produced they are dispersed by wind (Francis, 1992), but are often off.

BREEDING OBJECTIVE
1. High yeild
2. High protein contain
3. Disease resistance
4. Pest resistance
5. Drawfness
6. High vigrous
7. Abiotic and biotic stress resistance
8. Early maturity
CONVENTIONAL BREEDING
 Napier grass is a cross-pollinating allotetraploid species with a chromosome number of
2n = 4x = 28 (genome A’A’BB).
 Although there is no clear information on the genetic origin of allotetraploidy in Napier
grass, the A’A’ genome has been reported to be homologous to the AA genome of pearl
millet (Pennisetum glaucum (L.)) and the A’ chromosomes are larger than the B
chromosomes, which contribute genes controlling the perennial growth habit .

44
 To date, Napier grass ‘improvement’ has mainly been based on the evaluation and
selection of existing accessions for traits of interest.
 For example, accessions were screened for resistance to diseases, and Napier grass head
smut- and stunt-resistant lines were identified from the existing collections.
 Plant breeding and selection in Napier grass has primarily been aimed at improving
different agronomic traits such as disease resistance, yield, nutritional quality, growth
habit (dwarfing), palatability and abiotic stress tolerance.
 Napier grass is cross-compatible with the closely related species pearl millet (Pennisetum
glaucum) (2n = 2x = 14, genome AA) the resultant hybrids are triploid and sterile and can
only be propagated by vegetative means which, although labour intensive, ensure a true-
to-type variety.
 A number of agronomically important traits, nutritional quality and palatability for
example, have been introgressed into the genome of Napier grass from pearl millet
through conventional plant breeding and hybrids have become a crucial part of the forage
crop value chain in Africa, Asia and South America.

2. BAJRA
B. NAME - Pennisetum glaucum
FAMILY – Poaceae/Graminea
CHROMOSOME NUMBER – 2n=14
ORIGIN - Originated in India or Africa, W. Africa

NEW VARIETIES
NBH-149, VBH-4 developed for Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Gujrat, Maharashtra are capable of
producing 14% higher yield.
ICM4-155 gave higher yield than the standard check and adopted for all growing tracts of India.
Also MH-306, NH-338 and hybrid like MP-204, MP205 have been identified.
DISTRIBUTION:
 Bajra is widely grown in Africa and Asia since pre historic times.
 The important pearl millet growing countries are India, China, Nigeria, Pakistan, Sudan,
Egypt and Arabia India is the largest producer of pearl millet in the world.
 Principal pearl millet growing states are Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Western Uttar
Pradesh, Haryana and Karnataka which accounts for 90 % of the total area and 86% of
production
 In Karnataka, bajra is extensively cultivated as a rainfed crop in red, black and sandy soils
during kharif season.
FLORAL BIOLOGY
1. Inflorescence is a spike, terminal, drooping.
2. The spikelets are oval or eliptical in shape with two to three bristles.
3. The spikelets contain two flowers partially protected by two membranous glumes.
4. Lower floret with L1 and P1, sterile; upper floret with L2, P2, stamens three, styles two,
fruit a caryopsis.

45
 BREEDING OBJECTIVES :
1. Breeding for high grain yield To get high yields the following plant characters are
necessary
a) more number of tillers
b) well filled, compact, long panicle.
c) heavy grains.
d) Uniformity of ripening. 41 Under irrigated conditions photo insensitivity and early
maturity are essential for multiple and relay cropping.
2. Breeding for improved grain quality. .
3. Breeding for drought tolerance.
4. Breeding for disease resistance.
5. Breeding for alternate source of cytoplasm in male sterile lines.
6. Breeding for sweet cumbu to have high forage value.

BREEDING PROCEDURES
1. Introduction : Hybrid bajra from Punjab.
Tift 23 A from USA
2. Selection : Pure line selection : Co 2, Co 3,
3. Hybridisation and selection
Interspecific hybridisation.
Pennisetum glaucum x P.purpureum
Cumbu napier hybrids.
4.Heterosis breeding : Hybrid bajra
In earlier days before the identification of male sterile lines utilising the protogynous nature hybrids
were released. The hybrids were produced by sowing both parents in the ratio of 1:1. After the
discovery of cytoplasmic genic male sterile line Tift 23A by Burton in Tifton, Georgia led to
development of hybrids. Earlier hybrids of India viz., HB1, HB2 to HB5 were produced utilising Tift
23 A. But due to susceptibility to downy mildew they went out of cultivation. Even before the
discovery of CGMS lines by Burton it was discovered by Madhava Menon and his coworkers at
Coimbatore. Unfortunately due to failure of publishing it was not recognised.
To over come the problem of downy mildew male sterile lines L 111A and 732 A were isolated and at
present used in breeding programme.
There are number of CMS lines developed by private agencies like Nath seeds, Mahyco, Mahendra.
5.Population improvement :
ICRISAT entry WCC 75 is an example for population improvement. This was developed from world
composite by recurrent selection method. It was developed from derivatives of numerous crosses
between diverse sources of germplasm and Nigerian early maturing land races known as ‘Gero’
millets. Another example is ICMV 155 of ICRISAT.
6.Synthetic varieties :
Synthetics are produced by crossing in isolation a number of lines tested for their GCA. E.g. ICMS
7703.
It is a result of crossing between 7 inbred lines of India x African crosses.
7.Mutation breeding

46
At IARI Tift 23 A was gamma irradiated and 5071 A resistant to downy mildew was evolved.
With this the hybrid NHB 3 was evolved (5071 A x J 104)
BREEDING CENTERS:
1. International Crops Research Institute for Semi Arid Tropics (ICRISAT,) Hyderabad
2. All Indian Pearl Millet improvement project (AIPIP) Jodhpur (Rajasthan)
PRACTICAL ACHIEVEMENTS
Varieties: PS B – 8, PSB 15, mukta
Hybrids : HHB 45, HHB 50 from Hissan GHB 30, GHB – 27 from Gujarat

3. SORGHUM
B. NAME – Sorghum bicolor L.
FAMILY – Poaceae/Gramneae
CHROMOSOME NUMBER – 2n=20
ORIGIN – Northeastern Africa or at the Egyptian
RELATED VARIETIES
In Tamil Nadu , CO 25 CO26, CO 27 ,K5, K7, CO 19, CO 21, K9, BSR 1, CO 26, K4, K8,
CO 25, APK 1, K 10, Paiyur 1 and 2 are the popular varieties for grain purpose ,while CO 20 and CO
28 is a fodder sorghum

FLORAL BIOLOGY
 Sorghum is an often cross-pollinated crop.
 The extent of out crossing is 6-45% and depends on nature of earhead.
 In loose panicles the cross-pollination is more and less in compact panicle.
 Spikelets occur in pairs on the lateral branches of the panicle.
 One is sessile while the other spikelet is pedicelled.
 Sessile is bisexual and pedicelled spikelet is male or sterile.
 Sessile spikelet is comparatively larger than staminate spikelet and each spikelet has two
florets.
 Flower opening starts after 2 to 4 days of emergence of panicle from the boot leaf.
 Flowering starts from the tip of the panicle and proceeds downwards (basipetal).
 Flowering completes in 7 days.
 The pollen is viable for 10 to 20 minutes under field conditions.
 Fertile pollen will be lemon yellow in colour.
 Older pollen grains will normally turn to orange.
 Receptivity of stigma starts two days before opening and remains for several days ( 5 days).
 Flower opening and anthesis will be from 2.00 am to 8.00 am.

BREEDING OBJECTIVES
1. Breeding for high grain yield To get high yields the following plant characters are
necessary
a) more number of tillers
b) well filled, compact, long panicle.
c) heavy grains.

47
d) Uniformity of ripening. 41 Under irrigated conditions photo insensitivity and early
maturity are essential for multiple and relay cropping.
2. Breeding for improved grain quality. .
3. Breeding for drought tolerance.
4. Breeding for disease resistance.
5. Breeding for alternate source of cytoplasm in male sterile lines.
6. Breeding for sweet cumbu to have high forage value.

BREEDING PROCEDURE
Sorghum is often cross pollinated crop. So to maintain varietal purity isolation distance of 400 meters
is necessary. Compared to other often pollinated crop like red gram, maintenance of inbreds is easy in
sorghum. By putting brown paper and selfing the genetic purity can be maintained.
1. Introduction : Varieties of milo and kafir sorghum introduced from USA are used in
conversion programme to convert the local long duration photo sensitive varieties to short
duration, non-photo sensitive lines.
2. Selection : Old varieties like Co1, Co2, Co4 are all selection made from local land races.
3. Hybridization and selection
a) Inter varietal
(IS 4283 x Co 21) x CS 3541, Three way cross derivative Co 25 (MS 8271 x IS 3691) -
Single cross derivative Co26
b) Inter specific
Co 27 Sorghum. (Co11 x S.halapense)
4. Heterosis breeding :
Use of CMS lines.
CSH 5 2077 A x CS 3541
5. Mutation breeding :
X ray mutant from CSV 5 (148) Co 19 is a natural mutant from Co 2
6. Back cross method :
By following backcross method of breeding sorghum conversion programme was initiated. The long
duration photosensitive germplasm was converted in to photo insensitive short duration sorghums.
This was done at USA Similar programme was done at ICRISAT also.
7. Population improvement :
With the use of cytoplasmic genetic male sterility as well as genic male sterility we can go for
population improvement. The local land races can be used as pollinators and by half sib family
selection, we can isolate lines. We can follow recurrent selection idea to develop superior inbreds.
8. Use of Apomictic lines :
Some apomictic lines have been identified which can be utilised in breeding programme and by
vegetative propagation we can fix up heterosis. E.g. R473 from Hydrabad.
BREEDER CENTERS:
International sorghum improvement work is carried out by ICRISAT (International Crop Research
Institute for Semi Arid Tropics)
In India at Directorate of Sorghum Research (DSR), Hyderabad
PRACTICAL ACHIEVEMENTS:

48
Hybrids are developed by using cytoplasmic genetic smale sterility combined kafir 60
Varieties: CSV1 CSV-2, CSV-4, M35-1, CSV-13
Hybrids: CSH-1, CSH-2, 3 etc for kharif and CSH 7, 12, 13 for Rabi

4. MAIZE
B. NAME - zea mays
FAMILY- Poaceae
CHROMOSOME NUMBER: 2n=20
CENTRE OF ORIGIN: Central America,mexico
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: USA,india,china,france.
WILD RELATIVES
 It has two close relatives,
 Gama grass tripsacum ;(2n=36;72)
 Teosinte (2n=20)
 Teosinte is the closest relatives of maize and crosses readily with it
FLORAL BIOLOGY
Maize is tall determinate annual plant producing large ,narrow ,opposite leaves borne alternately
along the length of a solid stem.
 Maize is a monoceous plant.
 Maize is protoandrous plant.
 Male flower is called as tassel.
 Female flower is called cob.
MAIZE VARIETIES
1. African tall
2. APFM-8
3. J-1006
4. Pratap makka chari 6
BREEDING OBJECTIVES –
1. Reduce internodal Length.
2. Branching habit.
3. Increasing nutrient content in leaves.
4. Resiatance to disease and pest.
5. Fertilize response activity.
6. Non logging.

BREEDING METHODS:
1. Introduction :
Initially the varieties were all introduced one. Sikkim
primitive 1
Sikkim primitive 2.
Mexican line were first introduced during 16th century by Portugeese
2. Mass Selection : Prior to 1945 mass selection was the only method used for maize
improvement.
KT 1 - U. P.
RAS 1 - Rajasthan.
By adopting mass selection technique it is possible to get yield increase by 19% per cycle.

49
3. Ear to Row Selection :
First proposed by Hopkins for improving oil and protein content of maize. This method involves
selection of a number of phenotypically desirable ears out of a population grown in isolation. The
selecte d cobs are harvested on single plant basis and keeping part of the seeds and remaining sown in
rows. Based on the best performing rows during next season the reserve seeds are sown.
This method is suitable for characters having high heritability like oil content and protein content. But
it was not helpful to get increased yield.
4. Modified Ear to Row method :
Proposed by Lonquist.
I. Best ear heads from population selected (100 No.) and harvested on single plant basis. And
threshed individually.
II. The single heads harvested are raised in progeny rows in more than one location
representing different environment with local checks.
III. In the main station the progeny rows are used as crossing block. Pollen from best plants
are collected, mixed and used for crossing the rows.
Select best five plants from each rows and harvest them separately record the yield. On the basis of
performance of over all locations only top 20% progenies are selected.
These 20% will include the five plants selected.
IV. The seeds from 5 plants selected are sown in progeny rows and cycle is repeated.
5. Hybridization and Selection
Not popular since isolation of superior recombinants was not made.
6. Heterosis breeding :
 Instead of using CGMS lines, detasseling the female inbred line is followed in India.
 Since use of CGMS line is costlier compared to detasseling it is not followed.
 Crossing the inbreds of indigenous x exotic origin resulted in release of best hybrids.
 Indian x Indian - 24 to 43% yield increase.
 Indian x U.S. dent – 58 % yield increase.
 Indian dent x Caribbean Flint – 47 to 54 % yield increase.
1. Single cross hybrid
2. Three way cross hybrids - Ganga -5, Trishulatha.
3. Double cross hybrids - COH 3
4. Double top cross hybrid - White kernel hybrids - Ganga safed 2, Histarch, Ganga 4.
7. Population Improvement:
Recurrent selection technique was initiated by Dhawan in 1963. The initial synthesis of composites
were done from high yielding inter varietal crosses which exhibited minimum inbreeding depression.
Kisan, Jawahar, Vikram, Sona, Vijay, Amber.

5. BERSEEM
BOTANICAL NAME - Trifolium alexandrium
FAMILY - Leguminosae
CHROMOSOME NO. - 2n = 16
ORIGIN - Asia minor and from there it was introduced to Egypt

50
CULTIVATED SPECIES - Trifolium which consists of nearly 290 species as most important forage
legumes.
Berseem doesn't have original wild forms.
Shaftal (T. resupinatum)
White clover (T. repens)
Red clover (T. pratense)
Crimson clover (T. incarnatum)
Alsike clover (T. hybridum)
Subterraneum clover (T. subterraneum)

FLORAL BIOLOGY -
 Berseem known as king of fodder crops.
 It is popular among livestock farmers of the world.
 It is a fast growing annual crop with 30-60 cm plant height.
 The stem is hollow and succulent.
 Roots do not extend beyond two feet in general and contains nodules.
 Inflorescence is head and each inflorescence contains around 100 papilionaceous flowers,
white in colour with around 1cm length.
 Seed is egg shaped, yellowish in colour and is of around 2mm in length.
 In berseem white coloured flowers are produced in cluster which are hermaphrodite in
nature with five fused sepals and five free petals.
 The stamens are always ten in number and their filaments are fused in a group of 9+1.
 Berseem is a cross pollinated plant and is entomophilous in nature.

BREEDING OBJECTIVE
 High yield.
 High protein contain.
 Disease resistance.
 Pest resistance.
 Drawfness .
 High vigorous.
 Abiotic and biotic stress resistance.
 Early maturity.
 Regeneration capacity allowing 2-3 cuts.
ACHIEVEMENTS
Variety Features
Mescavi Varieties under this group develop short side branches at the base of the
stem in advanced stage of its growth.
Varieties: Wardan, JB-1, JB-2, JB-3, UPB-103.
Fahl Develop small side branches in the upper portion of the stem very freely.
They give only one cut.
Saidi They develop shoots for a short time. Develops branches at upper portion

51
 less freely then in fahl.
Varieties: Khandwari, pusa giant, ICFRI-99-1, IGFRI-54, Jawahar.

VARIETIES
Diploid varieties like Meskavi, Fahali, Sauidi, Zaidi, BL-1, BL-2, BL-10, BL-22, BL-30, BL-92, JB-3,
JB-4, IGFRI-S-99-1, UPB-101, UPB-103, UPB-104, UPB-1905, and Khadrabi
are very popular but newly evolved high yielding tetraploid varieties like Pusa Giant, T-526, T-724,
T-780, T-529, T-560, T-561, T-674, T-678, T-730 etc. are very promising and give about 50 per cent
higher fodder yield.

52
 4E. CASH CROP
SUGARCANE
B. NAME - Saccharum officinarum
FAMILY: Gramineae
CHROMOSOME NUMBER – 2n=80
ORIGIN – India
DISTRIBUTION : India, Brazil, Cuba, China, USA, Mexico, France, Germany and Australia. In
India, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Haryana, Andhra Pradesh, Tamilnadu, Karnataka, Bihar and
Punjab. India stands first in sugar and sugarcane production in world.
CULTIVATED SPECIES :
There are three cultivated and two wild species of sugarcane. Their brief description is a follows
(Rao et. al. 1983; Purseglove, 1988).
1. Saccharum officinarum (2n = 8x = 80)
2. Saccharum barberi (2 n =90,92)
3. Saccharum sinense (2n = 116, 118).
WILD SPECIES :
1. Saccharum spontaneum (2n = 40 to 128).
2. Saccharum robustum (2n = 60 to 194).
FLORAL BIOLOGY :
 The inflorescence of sugarcane is an open, branched panicle and is called as an arrow due
to its shape which is like an arrow.
 Flowering is seasonal and takes place when the day length decreases.
 In the northern hemisphere the flowering coincides with the onset of winter (Oct.-Nov.)
and in the southern-hemisphere in May-June.
 The spikelets open about sunrise, beginning at the top of the panicle and proceeding
downwards and from the tips of the branches inwards, over a period of 5 – 15 days.
 Approximately1/6 to 1/10th of the panicle opens each day.
 The swelling of the lodicules by water uptake causes the glumes to be pushed apart and
the stigmas come out.
 The anthers dehisce about three hours after the elongation of the filaments.
 High humidity delays an thesis.
 Natural pollination is by wind.

BREEDING OBJECTIVES
1. High cane yield.
2. Moderate high sucrose content
3. Early to full season maturity
4. Resistance to diseases.
5. Resistance / tolerance to insect pests
6. Tolerance to Aboitic stresses
7. Wider adaptability
BREEDING PROCEDURES
53
1. Hybridization: 3 basic types of crosses are made
i) Biparental crosses:- These are the crosses resulting from 2 known parental clones.
This is easily achieved by bringing together the two parents in an isolated area or under lanterns
ii) Area crosses: In this system several male sterile female clones are pollinated by one male
parent in an isolated area.
iii) Melting pot crosses: Melting pot crosses or polycrosses are made by bringing together
arrows of large number of superior / potential parental cultivars in an isolated area.
Natural cross pollination is allowed. This procedure allows the evaluation of breeding behaviour of a
large number of clones at a minimum expense.
2. Breeding for resistance to diseases:-
1. Red rot:- It is a major problem in sub-tropical countries. The major sugarcane varieties which are
found to be resistant to this disease are Co 1148, 1336, 6304, Co 5659, CoS 698 etc.
Smut: Serious disease in many sugarcane growing countries resistant commercial varieties in India
are Co 449, 527, 853, 1148, 1336.
3. Mutation Breeding:
According to Heinz x-ray - Irradiation to induce mutations in sugarcane were carried out in 1927.
Many mutation breeding programmed with x – rays and gamma – rays were started during early
sixties in India.
- Mutation breeding in sugarcane aims at creating economic mutants for higher cane yield,
non – flowering and resistance to various diseases such as redrot, smut, downy mildew and
to various insect borers.
- Gamma-rays as well as chemical mutagens such as EMS are applied mostly on buds.
4. Abiotic stress tolerance / reistance:-
- Common abiotic stresses for sugarcane as in other crops are drought, flooding, salinity,
high temperature freezing temperature
- According to Zobel, they are following 3 basis steps for breeding stress resistance cultivars.
(i) Identifying and characterizing crop traits that are needed for resistance against a particular
stress
(ii) Identifying and characterizing the genotypes that are capable of filling the needs are
determined under step I above.
(iii) Manipulating genes to pr oduce an adapted variety that has the required characteristics
and fills other specific needs.
5. Biotechnology:
- Regeneration of sugarcane plant from callus has been possible.
Breeding centres:-
1. Sugarcane breeding institute, Coimbatore
2. Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research, Lucknow
3. State sugarcane research stations, such as shahjahanpur (UP), Seorali, (Deoria) (UP), Pusa
(Bihar), Padegaon (Maharashtra) and Anakapalli (AP).
Drought : Co 285, Co 740, Co 997, Co 1148
Frost : Co 1148, N Co 310
Salinity : Co 453, Co 62125
Lodging : Co 6304, Co 7117, CoS 7918
Water logging : Co 1157, Co 975, Co 785, Bo 91, Bo 104, Bo 106, Bo 109
Top borer : Co J 67, Co 1158
Inter nodal borer : Co C 671, Co 975

54
Red rot : Co 7627, Co J 64, CoR 8001.
Achievement :
1. Sugarcane breeding institute has been the source of germplasm and genetic variability for
selection of varieties suited to different agro-climatic zones of the country. The spread of
Co canes to foreign countries began when Co 285 was taken to Cuba and USA (Florida)
for cultivation. Varieties bred at Coimbatore are / were being used in 28 other countries
either for commercial cultivation or as parents. Co 419 released in 1933 became the most
popular variety in tropical India and was rightly hailed as the wonder cane the world over.
2. Two outstanding varieties viz., Co 658 for Tamil Nadu and Co 740 for Maharashtra were
released in 1940s. Co 740 continues to be cultivated in Maharashtra even now.
3. Co 997 and Co 1148, released during 1950s, became ruling varieties in Andhara Pradesh
and North India respectively. Co 1148 remained the most predominate variety in sub-
tropical region for over four decades.
4. Co 6304, a high yielder, became the most important variety in Tamil Nadu replacing Co
419.
5. Varietal evaluation for juice quality conduced across seasons helped in the
indemnification of high sucrose varieties viz. Co 7204, Co 7704, CoA 7601, CoC 671, Co
8336, Co 8338 etc.
6. Co 86249, an elite variety with resistance to red rot and high reasonability has been
evolved by the Institute and notified for release in the East Coast zone, It is also serving
as a source of resistance to red rot in the breeding programmes.
7. Co 86032 Combining high yield and quality evolved by the institute and identified by the
AICRP (S) has been notified by the Central Sub-Committee on Crop Standards,
Notification and Release of Varieties of Agricultural Crops and is occupying a major area
in Tamil Nadu (90%), Karnataka, Maharashtra and Gujarat.

IMPROVED VARIETIES / HYBRIDS

Sr. No. Variety Features
1 Co-94012 14-16 duration months with 150 t/ha yield, Drought tolerant,
non breaking of internode when lodge, high sugar 14.24
percentage, moderately resistant to smut and red rot.
2 Phule 265 14-16 months duration, 15-20 % higher sugar than Co86023,
profuse tillering, easy for detrashing, suitable for saline soil,
good ratoonability, moderately resistant smut, red rot and wilt.
3 Co-92005 Suitable for suru planting, 12-14 month duration, 128 t/ha yield
capacity quality jaggery for high recovery with more market
price, recommended for Western Maharashtra.
4 Phule 10001 Suitable for preseason and suru cultivation, yielding 150 t/ha
(preseason), suru 133 t/ha, tolerant salinity, no pith formation,
drought tolerant, excellent ratooability early maturity,
moderately resistant red rot, wilt and smut.
5 COM 09057 Non lodging, suitable for mechanical harvesting, 125-130 t/ha
with best jaggery quality.
6 VSI 08005 Early, good ratoonability, 15-16 % sugar, 135-145 t/ha
productivity, good jaggery quality

55
 4F. VEGETABLE CROPS
1. POTATO
BOTANICAL NAME : Solanum tuberosum L.
FAMILY : Solanaceae
CHROMOSOME NO. : 2n= 48
ORIGIN : Tropical South America
Distribution
 The potato is a native of tropical south American region.
 It is believed that the cultivated potato originated from its wild ancestors near the lake
Tritica basin in Peru Bolivian region in high mountains.
 The potato was introduced in India from Europe in early 17th century .
Floral Biology
 The inflorescence of potato is cymose.
 The flowers are actinomorphic and hypogynous.
 Calyx has 5 lobes & Corolla tube consists of 5 petals.
 The calyx colour may be green or partially or totally pigmented.
 The corolla consists of five petals which are joined at the base by a short corolla tube
each lobe ands in a triangular point.
 Cool wet weather makes flowering more while hot weather depresses flowering
 Pollen production is abundant from early morning to 10am
 Bombus impatiens is very effective in pollinating potatoes in the field
 Stigma receptivity and anther dehiscence are also at the same time
 Wind or gravity has no significance in the pollination
 Diploid species have abundant pollen

Breeding Objective
1. High tuber yield
2. Earliness
3. Photoperiod insensitivity
4. Responsiveness to fertilizer
5. Better keeping quality (resistance/tolerance against shrinkage, rottage etc)
6. Better quality tubers
7. Resistance to
i. Late blight
ii. Early blight
iii. Charcoal rot
iv. Common scab
v. Bacterial wilt

Potato breeding development in India

56
 In India, potato breeding programme was initiated in 1935 at the Potato Breeding Station,
Shimla.
 Regular breeding programme was started in 1949 with the establishment of the Central
Potato Research Institute (CPRI) at Patna, Bihar.
 Headquarter of the CPRI was later on shifted to Shimla (1956) in order to facilitate
hybridization and maintenance of seed health.
 All varieties released by the CPRI carry the prefix ‘KUFRI’ as a memento to the place
of hybridization.

BREEDING METHODS
1. Introduction
The introduced European varieties were long-day adapted
The multiplication of these varieties in Indian conditions was accompanied by progressive accumulation
of degenerative viral diseases
 Earlier varieties
Criags defence
Magnum bonum
Up-to-date
 Secondary introductions –
Hybrid DN-45- Katahdin × President
Kufri kisan is a multiple cross involving Ekishrozn from Japan
 Clonal Selection
 Kufri red from Darjeeling red round
 Kufri safed is selction from phulwa
2. Hybridization technique
 Potato naturally flowers under cool climate and long-day condition of more than 15hrs
light.
 Such conditions are available during long-summer days when potatoes are grown in hills.
 Hills are therefore, ideal for hybridization work.
 Potato flowers are hermaphrodite (bisexual) and therefore emasculation is done in
selected female parents mostly in the evening.
 Flowers from selected fertile male parents are collected a day in advance, shade dried and
pollens extracted next day in the morning in petri- dish or container
 Pollination : In the morning
 Bagging : 2-3 days
 Berry setting : 5-7 days
 Seed extraction : From ripened berries by macerating in water and separating the seeds
from pulp by repeated washing
3. Hybridization and selection
 In hybridization, crosses are made between selected parents.
 Hybridization can be between varieties(intervarietal) or between species(interspecific).
 Since yield and most of the desirable characters are polygenic in nature, the parents for
hybridization are generally selected on the basis of their combining ability.
 Being vegetatively propagated, breeders take advantage of selecting and multiplying
genetically identical individuals in the succeeding generations.

57
  KUFRI KUNDAN-selection from Ekishrozan×katahding
 KUFRI JYOTHI –Selection from A-3069×A-2814

4. Back cross method

 Cultivated potato does not posses resistance to most of the diseases and pests.
 Resistance genes are mostly found scattered in wild and semi-cultivated species available
in centre of origin and diversity in South America.
 In this method the hybridization is done between cultivated and wild or semi cultivated
species with the aim of transferring specific characters like resistance to diseases and pests.
 It is followed by repeated back crossing keeping cultivated type as recurrent parent.
 Selection is practiced in successive back cross generation for the character to be retained
from the wild species.
 However, transfer of the resistant genes from wild species into cultivated potato is a
difficult task.
5. HETEROSIS
 Heterosis is observed for earliness, tuber size and tuber weight
 Pollen sterility is common
 Inbreeding depression is more
 Seed set is poor
 Not exploited
6. BIOTECHNOLOGY
 The application of biotechnology in potato breeding has been found useful in many ways
 Tissue culture technique is used for propagation of virus free plant material
 It can generate somaclonal variation useful for selection
 Protoplast fusion by somatic fusion of leaf mesophyll protoplasts has provided
opportunity to transfer useful genes especially for disease and insect resistance from wild
species and other diverse sources to cultivated potatoes.
 Genetic transformation through Agrobacterium tuminifaciens in genetic engineering,
incorporation of bt gene for insect control and insertion of genes for herbicide resistance,
and high amino acid contents are other applications of biotechnology in potato
 The CPRI has successfully developed protocol for genetic transformation using the
agrobacterium vector
 Transgenics through transformation are being devoloped to have potato lines resistant to
tuber moth,virus,late blight and also for nutritive quality and processing quality
 The first GM potato appeared in the market in 1995 was named “NewLeaf” by
Monsanto®, which was genetically engineered using a toxin Bt gene to generate
resistance against Colorado beetle (Leptinotarsa decemlineata) (Kilman, 2001).
 Another engineered potato variety appeared in March 2010; a GM potato “Amflora,”
developed by BASF Plant Science and aimed at improved amylopectin content (waxy
tuberous starch) for the processing industry, was approved by the European Commission
(Lucht, 2015; Zaheer and Akhtar, 2016).
 FUTURE PROSPECTS
 The potato embodies a unique combination of features; it is tetraploid and heterozygous,
it can be asexually propagated, is amenable to tissue and cell culture methods, possesses

58
 an extremely large gene pool, and can be transformed by Agrobacterium tumefaciens or
other methods.
 Hence holds great promise for the future.
 To extend potato cultivation in non-traditional areas there is need to develop heat tolerant
genotypes.
 Varieties rich in protein & vitamin A need to be developed.
 Varieties for improved processing attributes.
 Varieties resistant to late blight- early blight charcoal rot & mosaic.
COMMERCIAL VARIETIES AND HYBRID
Maturity Varieties Resistant
Earlymaturing Kufri chandramukhi Moderately Resistant to late & early blight
Kufri lauvkar, warmer climate variety
Kufri kuber
Mediummaturing Kufri badshah Late and early blights
Kufri pukhraj Early blight and moderately late blight. Late
Kufri jyoti, and early blights & tolerant to viruses. Late
Kufri kundan, blight
Kufri sheetman Resistant to frost Resistant
Kufri dewa to frost
Kufri jawahar Late blight and ideal for intercropping
Kufri Bahar -
Kufri chipsona-2 Late blight & excellent for chip making
Latematuring Kufri kumar, Late blight
Kufri chamatkar, Early blight
Kufri sindhuri, -

59
 2. FIELD PEA
B. Name - Pisum sativum L.
Family - Fabaceae
Chromosome No. - 2n= 14
Origin - Mediterranean region, western and central Asia and Ethiopia
Distribution –
The first cultivation of peas appears to have been in western Asia, from where it spread to Europe,
China and India.
In classical times, Greek and Roman authors mentioned its cultivation as a pulse and fodder crop.
FLORAL BIOLOGY
 Flowering usually begins 40 to 50 days after planting.
 Flowering is normally two to four weeks, depending on the flowering habit and weather
during flowering.
 The flowers are arranged in the form of an axillary raceme.
 The flowers may be reddish, purple or white.
 They are self-pollinated and develop into 5 cm to 9 cm long, inflated or cylindrical pods
containing five to 11 seeds inside them.
 Calyx: Calyx is the lowermost green tubular part of the flower.
 It consists of five slightly unequal lobes called sepals.
 It protects the other whorls in the bud stage from possible external injuries.
 Corolla: It consist of five petals of different shapes and sizes.
 The outermost petal is the largest and spreading and is known as standard or vexillum
which covers the other petals in the bud stage.
 The next two lateral petals look like wings. Hence they are called wings or alae.
 The two innermost ones unit loosely along their ventral margins to form a boat-like
structure and are known as keel or carina.
 The attractive color and sweet scent of the corolla attract insects for pollination.
BREEDING OBJECTIVE
1. Early maturity
2. Pod characteristics
3. Seed size
4. Shelling percentage
5. Pod yields
6. Suitability for processing
7. Resistance to disease
8. Resistance to insect
9. Resistance to abiotic stress

BREEDING METHODS
1. Breeding for abiotic stress

60
Breeding peas for cold resistance or cold hardiness by recurrent selection and resistance to waterlogging
has been undertaken abroad.
2. Breeding for high protein and sugar content
The wrinkled seeded content 26 -33 per cent protein content and in smooth seed it is 23-31 per cent.
The inheritance of protein content is polygenically controlled and mainly by recessive factor for high
protein content.
The varieties GS 195 and the local cultivar, kinnauri have high soluble protein content due to the
presence of a very high number of dominant alleles.
3. Integration of Biotechnology in Conventional Pea Breeding:
 Transformation and regeneration protocols are now available in peas.
 The most common method involves Agrobacterium tumefacience mediated transformation.
 The major difficulty lies in the fact that this transformation is genotype specific and only
a small portion of cultivars have responded to this technique.
 Somaclonal variation arising from the regeneration of plants from callus, led to the use of
cotyledonary meristem from freshly imbibed seed as a source of tissue for successful
transformation.
 The use of this technology in the pea breeding is limited to proof of concept.
 Partial resistance to alfalfa mosaic virus (AMV) has been reported as a consequence of
transformation with chimeric virus coat protein gene, a-amylase inhibitor (α-A 1) and the
promoter phytohemagglutin, both found in French-bean when transferred to pea, have
shown constitutive expression and resistance to pea weevil.
 The expression of inhibitor (α-amylase) served to block the development of the larvae at
an early stage and this resulted in less seed damage and better seed quality.
 This transgenic pea product could not reach to large scale field testing due to legal issues.
 Transfer of herbicide resistance both as a reportable marker and a trait have also been
reported, but not carried through to commercial release.
 While GM crops are on increase in many parts of world with global acreage of 134
million hectares in 2009, the adverse reaction to GM crops in Europe and low rates of
transfer have all contributed to the pea breeding industry not engaging in the development
and release of GM peas till date.

61
 4G. HORTICULTURAL CROPS
1. MANGO
B. NAME - Mangifera indica L.
FAMILY – Anacardaceae
CHROMOSOME No. - (2n=4x=40)
ORIGIN - Indo-Burma Region.
WILD RELATIVES –
M. laurina, M. gedebe, M. grifith, M. pentandra, M.minor, M.odorata, M.foetida,
M.zeylanica, M.pajang
DISTRIBUTION:
It is extensively cultivated in India, Indo-China warm parts of Australia, Philippines, Pacific Islands,
Himalayas. In India Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Karnataka, Maharashtra, West Bengal and
Gujarat.
BREEDING OBJECTIVES:
 Dwarfness
 Precocity
 Profuse and regular bearing
 Attractive, good sized and quality fruit
 Absence of physiological disorders
 Disease and pest resistance and improved shelf life
 High Productivity

BREEDING METHODS
1. Introduction:
Name of the variety Country from where introduced
Sweet Thailand
Sensation USA
Tomy Atkins Brazil
Early Gold USA

2. Selection:
a. Chance seedlings:
Mango was previously propagated through seeds and hence the old orchards in India were mostly of
seedling origin. Some seedling progenies gave rise to varieties such as 'Chinnaswarnarekha' and
'Mundappa'. The popular, salt tolerant rootstock (13-1) was identified in Israel by this technique.
b. Clonal selection:
Extensive survey of Dashehari orchards around Maliabad in Uttar Pradesh has resulted in the isolation
of best clone viz Dashehari -51 with higher yield and regular bearer.
3. Hybridization:
 Since a large number of male and perfect flowers are borne on a mango panicle, it
requires a special crossing technique.
 The panicle should be bagged with a muslin bag (60 cm x 30cm) fully stretched and field
with two rings and a rod made of spliced bamboo.

62
 A piece of thick in wire can also be made into a good frame for stretching the muslin bag
Staminate flowers of the selected panicle to be used as female parent should be removed
daily before dehiscence.
 Panicles of the variety selected as male parent should also be bagged before their flowers
begin to open.
 Freshly dehisced male flowers should be carried in a small petridish lined trth a filter
paper and covered with another petridish to protect the flower to avoid contamination
with foreign pollen carried by insects.
 The conventional method of pollination is time consuming, cost intensive and inefficient
because of tallness and difficult to handle trees poor fruit set.
 'Caging technique' for crossing, developed at IARI following the discovery of self
incompatibility in Dashehari, Langra, Chausa and Bombay Green, involves planting of
grafted plants of the self incompatible varieties along with those of male parents enclosed
in an insect proof cage and allowing pollination by freshly reared house flies and thus ting
away with the tedious hand pollination.
 In hybridization on mango, work taken up in post independence period laid emphasis on
regular and precocious bearing, dwarfness, high percentage of pulp, fibreless flesh, large
fruits with red blush, good keeping quality and freedom from spongy tissue.
 Few of these such as Mallika and Ratna have received commercial recognition.
 The cultivar 'Sindhu' evolved through intensive back crossing between Ratna and
Alphonso develops fruits parthenocarpically under natural temperature conditions.
 The average size Sindhu fruits has been reported to be 215 g.
 It may be observed that the parents used in hybridization programme were of the best
commercial varieties, superior in most of the traits but lacking in few qualities, which
may be available in the other parents.
 Though in some cases (e.g. the hybrids at Sangareddy), the parents were the same the
hybrids were differently named, due to the heterozygous nature of parents resulting in
heterogeneous hybrid population.
The constraints encountered in mango hybridization are:
1. High fruit drop: In early stages, many young fruits drop after pollination and fertilization.
2. Only one seedling can be obtained from one fruit (since the varieties are monoembryonic).
3. The heterozygous nature and cross fertilization makes it difficult to predict the qualities of
the hybrids.
4. Complex nature of panicle and flower and excessive fruit drop.
5. Large area of land is required for hybrid seedlings.
6. Polyembryony - Difficulty in accurately identifying the zygotic seedling: polyembryonic
varieties in Israel show that weight of zygotic seedling is higher than the nucellar seedling.
Use of polymorphic enzyme systems (isozyme) has been used to identify zygotic seedling
since the nucellar seedlings have the same isozyme alleles as in the maternal parent.
4. Mutation Breeding:
No variety has been developed so far by mutation breeding. Some attempts at IAR!, New Delhi using
physical mutagens showed that the LD so for Neelum, Dashehari and Amrapali was between 2 and 4
Kr of gamma rays. LD so values has been found to be around 2 to 3 Kr for Neelum and Alphonso at
Coimbatore.

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 2. AONLA
B. NAME – Phyllanthus emblica
FAMILY – Euphorbiaceae
CHROMOSOME NO. – 2n=28
ORIGIN - Indo – china
VARIETIES
The most popular cultivable varieties of amla are Banarasi, NA 7, Krishna, Kanchan, Chakaiya,
BSR 1.
It is also called ‘Indian Gooseberry’, ‘Amla’, ‘Nalli’, ‘Amali’, ‘Ambala’.
DISTRIBUTION
 Grown in various agroedaphic situation.
 Indigenous to tropical South –Eastern Asia particularly Central and Southern India.
 Wild and cultivated species available in the region extending from the base of Himalayan
to sri lanka and from Malasia to South China.
 In India, it is widely grown in UP, Gujarat, Rajasthan, MP and TN.
FLORAL BIOLOGY
 Flowers, unisexual, pale green, 4 to 5 mm in length, borne in leaf-axils in clusters of 6 to
10.
 Staminate flowers, tubular at the base, having a very small stalk, gamosepalous, having 6
lobes at the top; stamens 1 to 3, polyandrous, filaments 2 mm long.
 Pistillate flowers, fewer, having a gamopetalous corolla and two-branched style.
 Female flowers take about 72 hours to open fully. Pedicel is very short.
 Disc is a lanceolate cup with 3 carpels.
 Style is short, connate, twice bifid and distally dilated.
 The new shoot emerge out during first week of April.
 The flowering period varied in different varieties from 17-26 days.
 Flowering period twice in a year February- March and June-July.
BREEDING OBJECTIVES
 To breed var. having wider geographic adaptability.
 To develop var. suitable for export.
 To evolve colored var. based on market demand.
 To breed var. resistant to frost.
 To breed var. resistant to biotic and abiotic stresses.
 Exploitation of available hybrid vigour (heterosis) for yield and quality.
 To breed var. having high yield with good quality fruits.
 Varieties with less fibre content.
 Good pollinating var.
 Var. with hight sex ratio with more number of female flowers.

BREEDING METHODS
1. Introduction
 It is one of the oldest method for improvement of fruit crops. It is bringing or exchange of
germplasm / genetic material from one place where it is not known previously.
 Presently, germplasm exchange is being done in different crop through NBPGR, new delhi.

64
 This method may be an important tool to bring exotic materials from foreign country for
further evaluation and incorporation of specific gene lacking in indigenous aonla.
2. Selection
 While selecting new ideotypes, plant height, vigour, growth habit, precocity, fruiting
intensity, fruit size etc are kept in mind.
 There are sufficient variation in fruit size and number of fruit / determinate shoots, which
directly affect the fruit yield and provide ample scope for selecting superior type.
 Major work done at NDUAT, Faridabad (NA-4, 5, 6 ,7 10) GAU (Anand-1, 2 and 3)
RBS, college, Agra (Balwant)
 Recently some coloured and cluster bearing genotypes have been identified through
exploitation in Rajasthan, which will be further evaluated at national repository of aonla
at CIAH, Bikaner.
3. Polypoidy
 Exact ploidy level is not known in aonla but it is realized by the scientists that aonla is
characterized by polyploidy behavior in composition of chromosome.
 The structural and numerical changes in chromosome can be made through application of
colchicines, which is found to be useful for getting small seeded fruit or seedlessness.
 Keeping in view the usefulness of polypoidy breeding, these principles may be applied in
aonla to obtain desirable economic attributes.
4. Mutation
 Mutation is sudden heritable change in a character of plant.
 In India, research work related to application of mutation in aonla is almost negligible but
there is greater prospects to develop coloured varieties through induced mutation and
selection from bud sport.
5. Biotechnological Tools
 Incorporation of desirable gene in aonla is possible only with the application
biotechnological approach.
 In fact, there is absolute dearth of information on biotechnological approaches.
 Tissue culture, cell culture and genetic manipulation through molecular technique may
 be useful to get early result in varietal improvement programme.
 This technique can also be helpful to modify particular traits and in turn provide new
avenue for improving both the colour and quality of the fruit available for industrial and
domestic uses.
6. Hybridization
 Hybridization is crossing of two parents which are genetically dissimilar.
 Not a single variety has been bred so far through this method.
 Occurance of xenia effect between Chakaiya x Krishna, Banarasi x NA-9, Francis x NA- 7,
kanchan x NA-6 and NA-6 x NA-9 for fruit size and weight were reported from crosses.
BREEDING PROBLEMS
 Since, aonla is highly heterozygous plant, therefore, large size of population is required
for selection.
 It has long generation cycle i.e. 2-8 years, depending upon sp. and var.
 Lack of recombination.
 Long juvenile phase prohibiting early assessment of strain.

65
 Precedence of self incompatibility.
 Frost susceptibility.
 Lack of knowledge on inheritance pattern.

3. GUAVA
B. NAME - Psidium guajava
FAMILY - Myrtaceae
CHROMOSOME NO. - 2n=22
ORIGIN - Tropical America / West Indies
DISTRIBUTION
America, Canada, Australia, India, Burma, Indonesia, Bangladesh etc. In India Uttar Pradesh,
Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka etc.
BREEDING OBJECTIVES
1. Development of seedless variety
2. Less pectin content for edible purpose
3. More pectin content for processing
4. Uniform ripening
5. High keeping quality
6. Resistance to tea mosquito bug and wilt.
FLORAL BIOLOGY
 Guava bears flower solitary or in cyme of two to three flowers, on the current season
growth in the axil of the leaves.
 About one month is required from flower bud differentiation to complete development
upto calyx cracking stage.
 Peak time of Anthesis is between 5.00-6.30 AM in most of the varieties of guava.
 The dehiscence of anthers starts 15- 30 minutes after Anthesis and continues for two hours.
 The pollen fertility is high in almost all the cultivars.
 The pollen fertility is 78% and 91% in Allahabad Round and Lucknow Safed, respectively.

BREEDING METHODS
1. Clonal Selection
 Improvement work in guava was started for the first time in the country in 1907 at
Ganesh khand fruit Research Station, Pune primarily with the collection of seeds of
varieties, grown in different places to isolate superior strains.
 At Horticultural Research Station, Saharanpur, evaluation of seedling types resulted in a
superior selection, S-1, having good fruit shape, few seeds, sweet taste and high yield.
 At IIHR, Bangalore, from 200 open pollinated seedlings of variety Allahabad Safeda
collected from Uttar Pradesh, one seedling selection, selection-8, was found to be
promising
2. Hybridization
 At IIHR, Bangalore, as a result of hybridization among Allahabad Safeda, Red Flesh
Chittidar, Apple color, Lucknow-49 and Bananas, 600 F1 hybrids were raised.

66
 One hybrid Arka Amulya has been released recently.
 It is a progeny from the cross Allahabad Safeda x Triploid.
 Hybrid 16-1 (Apple color x Allahabad safeda) has been developed.
 At Fruit Research Station, Sangareddy (Telangana), inter-varietal hybridization resulted
in the isolation of two superior hybrids.
 Safed Jam: This is a hybrid between Allahabad Safeda and Kohir (a local collection from
Hyderabad – Karnataka region).
 It is similar to Allahabad Safeda in growth habit and fruit quality.
 The fruits are bigger in size with good quality and few soft seeds.
 Kohir Safeda: It is a hybrid between Kohir x Allahabad Safeda, Tree is vigorous, fruits
are larger with few soft seeds and white flesh.
 CISH, Lucknow isolated two hybrids H-136 for red pulp and Soft seeler with high TSS.
 Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar has released two hybrid varieties.
 Hisar Safeda: It is a cross between “Allahabad Safeda” x ‘Seedless’, which has upright
growth with a compact crown.
 Its fruits are round, weighing about 92g each, pulp is creamy – white with less seeds,
which are soft, TSS is 13.4% and ascorbic acid 185 mg/100g.
 Hisar Surkha: It is a cross between ‘Apple Color’ x ‘Banarasi Surkha’. Tree is medium
in height with broad to compact crown, fruit is round weighing 86g each.
 Pulp is pink having 13.6% TSS.0.48% acidity and 169 mg/100g ascorbic acid. Yield is 94
kg/tree/year.

3. Polyploidy Breeding
 Producing triploids will be futile since the fruit shape in triploid is highly irregular and
misshapen because of differential seed size.
 However, in order to evolve varieties with less seeds and increased productivity, crosses
were made at IARI, New Delhi, between seedless triploid and seeded diploid variety
Allahabad Safeda.
 Of the 73 F1 hybrids raised 26 were diploids, 9 trisomics 5 double trisomics and 13
tetrasomics.
 Distinct variation in tree growth habit and leaf and fruit characters was observed.
 Three trisomic plants had dwarf growth habit and normal shape and size of fruits with
few seeds.
 The imbalance in chromosome numbers in aneuploids imparted sterility resulting in seed
reduction in fruits.

VARIETIES -
Sr.No. Varieties Character
1 L.49 Developed at GFES, Pune, Seedling selection of
Allahabad Safeda, Semi dwarf tree, high yielding
2 Banarsi Surkha It is a selection from local red fleshed type, heavy
bearer, large fruits, flesh soft and pink.
3 CISHG-1 Developed at CISH, Lucknow. Fruit skin color is deep
red, TSS 15° Brix, soft seeds.

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4 Bangalore Local It is a local selection, with white flesh and soft
seeds, fruit is large
5 Arka Mridula (Sel Developed at CISH, Lucknow, it is a selection from
-8) apple color seedling, skin and flesh color is pink with
good acid sugar blend.
6 6 Plant prabhat Seedling selection from GBPUAT, Pantnagar, Prolific
bearer, soft seed with good quality

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 Chapter : 5
Adaptability and Stability
Adaptability & Stability –
The success of crop improvement activities largely depend on the identification of superior
varieties for mass propagation. A variety can be considered superior if it has potential for high yield
under favourable environment and the same time great deal of phenotypic stability. Stability of a
genotype refers to its performance with respect to changing environment factor over time within a
given location.
Adaptation and Adaptability:
Adaptation:-
It refers to those changes in structure or function of an individual/population which lead to better
survival in a given environment is known as adaptation.
Adaptability:
Ability to genotype to exhibit relatively stable performance in different environment or capacity
of a genotype or population for genetic change in adaptation.

Types of Adaptability –
Adaptation

Genotypic Adaptation Population Adaptation

It is associated with the individual It is related with the heterozygous
genotype whether homozygous (inbred) population in a specified environment
or heterozygous (hybrid) in as specific
environment
1. Specific genotype adaptation 1. Specific population adaptation
2. General genotypic adaptation 2. General population adaptation

1. Specific genotype adaptation – It is the close adaptation of genotype to a limited

environment.
2. General genotypic adaptation – It is refers to the capacity of a genotype to produce a
wide range of phenotypes compatible with a wide range of environmental conditions.
3. Specific Population adaptation – It refers to the capacity of heterogeneous population to
adapt to specific environment.
4. General population adaptation – It is the capacity of heterogeneous population to adapt
to the variety of environment.

FACTOR AFFECTING ADAPTABILITY-

1. Heterogeneity – The heterogeneous population have broad genetic base, Such
population have greater capacity to stabilize production over a wide range of changing
environment.
2. Heterozygosity – It has been observed that heterozygous individual such as F1
hybrids are more stable than their homozygous parents to environmental variation.

69
 3. Genetic polymorphism – The regular occurrence of several phenotypes in a genetic
population is known as genetic polymorphism.
4. Mode of Pollination – The cross pollination species have better buffering capacity
that self pollination species because of more heterozygosity.
STABILITY ANALYSIS
It refers to the suitability of variety for general cultivation over wide range of environments.
 Stability refers to the performance with respective changing environmental factors
overtime within given location.
 Selection for stability is not possible until a biometrical model with suitable parameters is
available to provide criteria necessary to rank varieties / breeds for stability.
 Low magnitude of G.E interaction involves the consistent performance of a population
over variable environments.
 It consists of following steps: Location / environment wise analysis of variance. pooled
analysis of variance for all the locations/ environments.
 If G.E interaction is found significant ,stability analysis can be carried out using one of
the four methods:
1.Finlay and Wilkinson model (1963)
2.Eberhat and Russell model(1966) 3.Perkins
and Jinks model(1968) 4.Freeman and Perkins
model (1971)
1. Finlay and Wilkinson model (1963)
 Used two parameters
1)Mean performance over environments. 2)Regression
performance in different environments. The following
inferences can be drawn:
1) The regression coefficient of unity indicates average stability.
2) If the regression coefficient is >1,it means below average stability.
3) If the regression coefficient is <1, it means above average stability
4) Regression coefficient of 0 would express absolute stability.
MERITS
 Analysis of this model is simple.
 2 parameters- mean yield over locations and regression coefficient are used to asses the
phenotypic stability.
DEMERITS
 The deviations from the regression line are not estimated which are important for the
stability analysis.
 Greater emphasis is given on mean performance over environments than regression
coefficients.
2. Eberhat and Russell model(1966)
 It is the most popular and useful model.
 In 1966 both made further improvement in stability analysis by partitioning the G.E
interaction of each variety into 2 parts. one is slope of the regression line , second is
deviation from regression line.
 In this model total variance is first divided into 2 components: -genotypes -environment
plus interaction (E+G*E)
 The second component is further divided in to 3 components.

70
 I. Environment linear
II. G.E linear
III. Pooled deviations
 Sum of squares due to pooled deviations are further divided into sum of squares due to
individual genotype.
MAIN FEATURES OF THIS MODEL
 This model consists of three parameters
a) mean yield over locations b)regression
coefficient =bi C)Deviation from regression
=s²di
 Analysis of stability parameters is simple as compared to other models of stability
analysis.
 The degree of freedom for environment is 1.
 It requires less area hence less expensive when compared to other models.
 It does not provide independent estimation for mean performance and environmental
index
ANOVA TABLE
Source of variation Degrees of freedom
Genotypes g-1
E+ G*E interaction g(e-1)
environment (linear) 1
G.E linear g-1
pooled deviations g(e-2)
genotype-1 e-2
genotype-2 e-2
Pooled error ge(r-1)

Merits:
It measures three parameters of stability
A=mean yield over environments
B=regression coefficient
C=deviation from regression line
 It provides more reliable information on stability than Finlay and Wilkinson model.
 Analysis is simple.
Demerits:
 Estimation of mean performance and environment index is not independent.
 There is a combined estimation of sum of squares of environment and interactions which
is not proper.
 Eberhart and Russell (1956) defined stable variety as one with a regression coefficient of
unity(b=1) and a minimum deviation from the regression lines(s²d=0).

3. Perkins and Jinks model(1968)

 In this model total variance is first divided into 3 components.
1)genotypes
2) environments

71
3) genotypes x environment
G-E variance is sub divided into
a) heterogeneity due to regression
b) sum of square due to remainder
 This model is less expensive than Freeman and Perkins.
 It requires less area for experimentation.
 The degree of freedom for environment is e-2
 Analysis is more difficult than Eberhart and Russell model.
 It does not provide independent estimation of mean performance and environmental
index.
ANOVA TABLE
Source of variation Degrees of freedom
Genotypes g-1
Environment e-1
Genotype x environment (g-1)(e-1)
Heterogeneity among regressions g-1
Remainder (g-1)(e-2)
Error ge(r-1)

4. Freeman and Perkins model (1971)

 In this model total variance is first divided into 3 components.
1)Genotypes
2) environment
3) G*E
 The environmental s.s is sub divided into 2 components
a) combined regression
b) residual 1 The interaction variance is also subdivided into two parts
a)homogeneity of regression b) residual 2
 This model also includes 3 parameters like Eberhart and Russell model and provides
independent estimation of mean performance and environmental index.
 The degree of freedom for environment is e-2 like perkins and jinks model.
 Analysis of this model is more difficult and expensive as compared to earlier two models.
Source of variation D

ANOVA TABLE
Source of variation Degrees of freedom
Genotypes g-1
Environment e-1
Combined regression 1
residual (1) e-2
Interaction(GxE) (g-1)(e-2)
Heterogeneity of regressions g-1
residual (2) (g-1)(e-2)
error ge(r-1)

72
Applications of Stability Analysis –
1. Stability analysis is helps in understand the adaptability of crop varieties over wide range
of environment conditions and in the identification of adaptable genotype.
2. The use of adaptable genotype for general cultivation over wide range of environmental
conditions helps in achieving stabilization in crop production over locations and year.
3. Use the stable genotypes in the hybridization programme will lead to development of
phenotypically stable high potential cultivars of crop species
4. Stability analysis is an important tool for plant breeders in predicting response of various
genotypes over changing environments.

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 Chapter : 6
Hybrid seed production technology in Rabi crops - Sunflower,
Safflower, Castor, Rabi Sorghum
1. HYBRID SEED PRODUCTION IN SUNFLOWER :
 Hybrids are produced by employing cytoplasmic genetic male sterility.
 The male sterile female and male parents are raised in BSH 3, 1:6, KBSH 1, 1:4 ratio
under 400 m isolation.
 Seeds are produced by transferring the pollen of male parent to the female parent with the
help of honeybees reared at 5 hives / ha.
HYBRIDS
BSH -1 = CMS 234 A x RHA 274
KBSH 1 = " x 6 DI
MSFH 1 = MHS 71 x MHR 48
MSFH 8 MSFH -17
TCSH 1 = CMS 234 A x RHA 272
Season: June - July, October - November
Isolation distance: Foundation seed Certified seed Hybrids 600 m 400 m
SEEDS AND SOWING
Seeds are sown in ridges and furrows
Seed rate: Female 12 kg /ha and Male 4 kg/ha.
Spacing 60 x 30 cm (hybrids)
Planting ratio : 8:1 or 4:1
Border row : two
Manures and fertilizers
Compost : 12.5 t/ha
NPK : 60:45:45 kg /ha
Supplementary pollination
1. As in varieties In hybrids, the palm is first gently rubbed on the male parent flowers and
then on the female line to transfer the pollen.
2. Keeping of bee hives 5 ha-1 .
ROGUING
Plants are rogued based on plant height, head size and colour of seeds during pre-flowering stage upto
harvest.
Field standards
Foundation seeds Certified seeds
Off types 0.1 % 0.2%
Harvesting
The change of head colour from green to lemon yellow is the indication of physiological
maturity.
The heads are harvested separately first in male and then in female.
The graded seed should possess the following characters for certification and sale as certified/
truthfully labelled seeds

74
Physical purity (min) % 98 98
Inert matter (max) % 2 2
Germination (min)% 60 60
Moisture content (max)%
(a) Open storage 8 8
(b) Moisture vapour proof 5 5
Storage

2. HYBRID SEED PRODUCTION IN SAFFLOWER :

Varieties – Manjira, Sgaramuthyalu (APRR – 3), Parbhani Kusum, Phule Kusum, A-1 (National
Check)
Hybrids - DSH – 129, NH – 1 ( Firdt non-spiny hybrid in the world), NARI – 15, NARI – 38,
Bhima, Girna, Sharda and Sweta.
LAND PREPARATION:
 Safflower requires fairly pulverized seed bed free from clods. Being a deep rooted crop it
requires deep ploughing.
 Crop raised for dye purpose require more and fine tilth than oil crop.
 One deep ploughing with M.B. plough is sufficient followed by 2-3 harrowings with
planking.
Isolation Distance-
Foundation seed Certified seed Hybrids 600 m 400 m

SEED AND SOWING:

Season – rabi
Time of Sowing –
II. FN September to I. FN of October.
If the crop is delayed, Aphid damage is more common.
Seed Rate – 8-10 kg/ha pure crop.
4-6 kg/ha- Mixed crop/ Border crop.
Spacing - 45×20 cm.
Method of sowing – Broadcasting, behind the plough (pora method) and seed drill.
Depth of sowing – 4-5 cm (Normal). 7.5-10 cm (dry Land).
Thinning – 10-15 DAS.
Very high density of plant population significantly reduces the branching ability.
MANURES AND FERTILIZERS:
NPK- 60 - 65kgN, 30 kgP 2O5 and 40 – 45 kg K2O ha
FYM @ 5-10 t/ha
HARVESTING:
 The crop comes to maturity within 110-120 days.
 As soon as the leaves and most of the bracteoles except a few of last formed become
brown and seeds are dried and easily separated from the head.
 The crop is harvested either by uprooting the plant or cutting at the bottom.

75
 Plants are thorny and harvesting is taken up at the early hours of the day and to be
completed before 10.00 am when the spines will be soft.
 As the day advanced, spine becomes stiff causing inconvenience to harvesting.
 The harvested plants are heaped for a day or two in the field and threshed by beating with
stick, cleaned, dried and stored at 8% moisture content.
 Combined harvesters used in wheat could also be used for harvesting and threshing.
 The heads are harvested separately first in male and then in female.
Drying, processing and others – as in varieties
Seed standards
 The graded seed should possess the following characters for certification and sale as
certified/ truthfully labelled seeds

3.HYBRID SEED PRODUCTION OF CASTOR :

Land requirement
 Well drained fertile soil should be selected.
 The crop cannot tolerate alkalinity and salinity.
 It performs well with medium to deep sandy loam and heavy loam soils are highly suited
for seed production.
Isolation distance
Foundation seed Certified seed
Varieties and Hybrids 600 m 300 m
Season
Rabi / Winter – Hybrid seed production.
Summer and kharif provide ideal male promoting environment for undertaking seed production of
the variety, male and female parents of hybrids.
Kharif and summer encourages good expression of less productive plant which could be easily
eliminated through timely roguing.
Female parents when raised in male promoting environment produce environmentally sensitive
staminate flowers, which are very essential for self production of the female parents.
Seed and sowing
Seed rate : 10 kg / ha (varieties)
2 kg / ha male and 5 kg/ ha female for hybrids.
Spacing
Varieties : 90 x 20 to 90 x 60 cm
Hybrids : 90 x 40 to 90 x 60 cm
Planting ratio 3:1 or 4 - 6:1
Fertilizer : Basal 40:60: 40 NPK / ha Top: 1st 20 kg N/ha (40-50 DAS) , 20 kg N/ha. (After 1st
picking)
Bloom: Presence of white waxy coating which protects from chilling and jassid attack.
4 types of bloom:
1. No bloom
2. Single bloom - Bloom only on stem
3. Double bloom- On stem, petioles, and lower sides of leaves

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 4. Triple bloom - On all parts
Stages of inspection
 10 days prior to flowering -Stem colour, inter-node length.
 During flowering - No. of nodes upto primary raceme
 Before 1st picking (Spike and capsule character, reversion to monoecious in second order
raceme)
 After 1st picking - Reversion to monoecious or flower initiation in third order raceme.
Irrigation
 Critical stages are primordial initiation and flowering stage in differential segmental order
branches.
 Moisture stress in sensitive crop growth stages may lead to production of more male
flowers in monoecious varieties.
Harvesting
 Castor produces 4 or 5 sequential order spikes, which can be harvested in 3- 4 pickings
starting from 90-120 days at 25-30 days interval.
 Premature harvesting leads to reduced seed weight, oil content and germination.
 If shattering is not a problem in a variety, harvesting can be delayed until all capsules are
fully dried.
Grading
The seeds are size graded using round perforated metal sieve of 8/64".
Field standards
Foundation seeds Certified seeds
Off types (Varieties) 0.1 0.2%
Off types (Hybrids) 0.5 1.0%
Seed storage
 Seed treatment with Thiram @ 2 g / kg
 Storability in Pervious container - 1 year
 Storability in Moisture vapour proof container - 2
Seed standards
The graded seed should possess the following characters for certification and sale as
certified/ truthfully labelled seeds
Parameter Foundation seed Certified seed
Physical purity (min) % 98 98
Inert matter (max) % 2 2
Other crop seed &Weed Seed (max) - -
Other distinguishable variety seeds 5 / kg 10/kg
Germination (min)% 70 70
Moisture content (max)%
(a) Open storage 8 8
(b) Moisture vapour proof storage 5 5

Varieties - SA 1, SA 2, TMV 4, 5, 6, CO 1, Aruna, Bhagya and Sowbaghya.

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 5. HYBRID SEED PRODUCTION OF RABI SORGHUM :
Breeding technique for Commercial production
Cytoplasmic genetic male sterility (CGMS)
Seeds produced in different stages
Nucleus seed stage : Maintenance of basic source by seed to row progenies.
Breeder Stage : A (AxB), B and R line are multiplied
Foundation Stage : A (AxB) and R line are multiplied
Breeder and foundation seed stage : Multiplication of male sterile line or maintenance of A
and B line
Certified seed stage : A x R – F1 hybrid produced.
Certified seed stage : Production of hybrid seed
Stages of Seed Production
Breeder seed - - -> A x B - B - R
Foundation seed - - -> A x B - B - R
Certified seed - - -> A x R
Popular hybrids of their parents:
The first hybrid (CSH 1) was released in 1964. In 1969, the Coordinated Sorghum Improvement
Project was established. Now there are more than 30 hybrids.
Some popular are
CSH1 CK 60 A x IS 84
CSH5 2077A x CS3541
CSH9 MS 296 A x CS 3541
COH2 2219A x IS3541(Kovilpatti Tall)
COH3 2077A x CO21
COH4 296A x TNS30
CSH13 R 296 A x RS 29
CSH14 AKMS 14A x AKR 150
CSH16 27 A x C 43
CSH15 (R) 104 A x R 585
CSH17 AKMS 14A x RS 673

Stages of seed multiplication : Breeder seed – foundation seed – certified seed.

Foundation seed production : A and B line are raised in 4:2 ratio with 4 rows of B line as border
row and allowed for cross pollination. The seeds from A line will be collected as A line seeds
(multiplied).
Certified seed production : Hybrid seed production
Commercial in Hybrid seed production techniques
Isolation distance
FS CS
Normal 200 100
On presence of Johnson Grass 400 400
On Presence of forage Sorghum 400 200
Hybrids 300 200
SEEDS AND SOWING
Seed rate : A line : 8 kg ha-1 R line : 4 kg ha-1

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Spacing : A line : 45 x 30cm R line : 45 x solid row spacing.
Planting ratio : Foundation seed stage: 4:2 (A: B)
Certified seed stage : 5.2 (A:R)
Border rows : 4 rows of male (either B or R line) to, supply adequate pollen.
Live markers : • Live plants used for identification of male line live markers are used.
• It should have distinguishable morphological characters.
• Live markers can be sunflower, daincha etc.

MANURES AND FERTILIZERS

Compost : 12.5 t / ha
NPK : 100:50:50 kg ha-1
Basal : 50:50:5 kg ha-1
Top dressing : 25kg N after last ploughing
25kg N after boot leaf stage (45 days)
Synchronization technique
1. Staggered sowing: Sowing of male parent and female parents are adjusted in such a way
that both parents come to flowering at the same time.
 CSH-5, MS 2077 A must be sown 10-15 days earlier to the male
 CS 3541,CSH 6, the female parent MS 2219 A can be sown simultaneously with CS 3541
 CSH 9, the female parent MS 296 A must be sown 7-10 days earlier than male
 CS 3541 in November- December season.
2. Spraying growth retardent MH 500 ppm at 45 DAS, delays flowering in advancing parent.
3. MH wont dissolve in water and hence dissolve it in NaOH and then mix with water.
4. Urea spraying 1% to the lagging parent.
5. Withhold one irrigation to the advancing parent.
6. Spraying CCC 300 ppm will delay flowering.

FIELD STANDARDS
Isolation Distance
FS CS
Offtypes (max) Varieties 0.05 0.10
Hybrids 0.05 0.10
Pollen shedders (max) 0.05 0.10
Designated diseased plants (max) 0.05 0.10
(Ergot and smut)

Designated disease
1. Kernel smut
2. Head smut
3. Sugary disease of sorghum
 It is specific to hybrid

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  Occur due to low seed set
 Spray rogor 0.03% (or)
 Endosulfan 0.07%
METHOD OF HARVESTING
 Male and female lines should be harvested separately.
 The male rows are harvested first and transported to separate threshing floor.
 Like that female rows are harvested and threshed separately.
Threshing
 At the time of threshing the seed moisture content should be reduced around 15-18%.
 Threshing can be done by beating the earheads with bamboo sticks.
 While using the mechanical threshers, care should be taken to avoid mechanical damage.
Drying
Seed should be dried to 12% for short term storage and 8% for long term storage.
Processing
The sorghum seeds can be processed in OSAW cleaner cum grader using 9/64" round perforated
metal sieve.
SEED TREATMENT AND STORAGE
 The seeds are treated with captan or thiram @ 2 g/kg of seed and pack it in cloth bag at
12% moisture content for short term storage and 8% moisture content in 700 gauge poly
ethylene bag for long term storage (or) The seeds can also be treated with halogen
mixture @ 3 g/kg of seeds.
 Thehalogen mixture is prepared by mixing CaOCl2 and CaCO3 +Albizzia amara at the
rate of 5:4:1 and this mixture is kept in an air tight plastic container for 1 week.
 After one week the mixture is used for seed treatment.
 The treated seeds can be stored upto 12 months under open storage and upto 18 months in
moisture vapour proof containers, provided it is not infested by the storage insects.
Seed yield : 3000 kg ha-1

SEED STANDARDS
Foundation seed Certified seed
Physical purity (%) 98 98
Inert matter (%) 2 2
Other crop seed 5 kg-1 10 kg-1
Weed seed 10 kg-1 20 kg-1
Other distinguishable variety 10 kg-1 20 kg-1
Ergot disease by number 0.020% 0.040%
Moisture content
Moisture pervious container 12 12
Moisture vapour proof container 8 8

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 Chapter : 7
Ideotype concept and climate resilient crop varieties for
future - Wheat, Maize, Barley and Cotton

Crop ideotype refers to model plants or ideal plant type for a specific environment. In broad
sense an ideotype is a biological model which is expected to perform or behave in a predictable
manner within a defined environment. More specifically, crop ideotype is a plant model which is
expected to yield greater quantity of grains, fibre, oil or other useful product when developed as
a cultivar. The term ideotype was first proposed by Donald in 1968 working on wheat.
Ideotype Breeding
Ideotype breeding can be defined as a method of crop improvement which is use to enhance
genetic yield potential through genetic manipulation of individual plant character.

Main features of ideotype breeding are -

1. Emphasis on individual trait

In ideotype breeding, emphasis is given on individual morphological and physiological trait
which enhances the yield. The value of each character is specified before initiating the breeding
work.

2. Includes yield enhancing traits

Various plant characters to be included in the ideotype are identified through correlations
analysis. Only those characters which exhibit positive association with yield are included in the
model.

3. Exploits physiological variation

Genetic differences exist for vario us physiological characters such as photosynthetic efficiency,
photo respiration, nutrient uptake etc. Ideotype breeding makes use of genetically controlled
physiological variation in increasing crop yields, besides various agronomic traits.

4. Slow progress:
Ideotype breeding is a slow method of cultivar development, because incorporation of various
desirable characters from different sources into a single genotype takes long time. Moreover,
sometimes undesirable linkage affects the progress adversely.

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5. Selection
In ideotype breeding selection is focused on individual plant character which enhance the yield

6. Designing of model
In ideotype breeding, the phenotype of new variety to be developed is specified in terms of
morphological and physiological traits in advance.

7. Interdisciplinary approach
Ideotype breeding is in true sense an interdisciplinary approach, it involves scientist from the
disciplines of genetics, breeding, physiology, pathology, entomology etc.

8. A continuous process
Ideotype breeding is a continuous process, because new ideotypes have to be developed to meet
changing and increasing demands.

Features of crop ideotypes:

The crop ideotype consists of several morphological and physiological traits which contribute for
enhanced yield or higher yield than currently prevalent crop cultivars. The morphological and
physiological features of crop ideotype differ from crop to crop and sometimes within the crop
also depending upon whether the ideotype is required for irrigated cultivation or rainfed
cultivation. Ideal plant types or model plants have been discussed in several crops like wheat,
rice, maize, barley, cotton and beans. The important features of ideotype from some crops are

Wheat

The term ideotype was coined by Donald in 1968 working on wheat. He proposed ideotype of
wheat with following main features:

 A short strong stem. It imparts lodging resistance and reduces the losses due to lodging.
 Erect leaves. Such leaves provide better arrangement for proper light distribution
resulting in high photosynthesis or CO2 fixation.
 Few small leaves. Leaves are the important sites of photosynthesis, respiration and
transpiration. Few and small leaves reduce water loss due to transpiration.
 Larger ear. It will produce more grains per ear.

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  An erect ear. It will get light from all sides resulting in proper grain development.
 Presence of awns. Awns contribute towards photosynthesis.
 A single culm.

The concept of plant type was introduced in rice breeding by Jennings in 1964, through the
term ideotype was coined by Donald in 1968. He suggested that in rice an ideal or model plant
type consists of

 Semi dwarf stature

 High tillering capacity and
 Short, erect, thick and highly angled leaves
 More panicles /m2,
 High (55% or more) harvest index.

Now emphasis is also given on physiological traits in the development of rice ideotype.

MAIZE

IN 1975, Mock and Pearce proposed ideal plant type of maize.

 Stiff-vertically-oriented leaves above the ear.

 Maximum photosynthetic efficiency.
 Efficient translocation of photosynthate into grain.
 Short interval between pollen shed and silk emergence.
 Small tassel size.
 Photoperiod insensitivity
 Cold tolerance
 Long Grain -filling period

BARLEY
Rasmusson (1987) reviewed the work on ideotype breeding and also suggested ideal plant type
of six rowed barley.

 Short stature
 Long awns
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  High harvest index
 High biomass.
 Kernel weight and kernel number were found rewarding in increasing yield.

COTTON

 Ideotype for irrigated cultivation

 Short stature (90-120 cm)
 Compact and sympodial plant habit making pyramidal shape
 Determinate in fruiting habit with unimodal distribution of bolling
 Short duration (150-165 days)
 Responsive to high fertilizer dose
 High degree of inter plant competitive ability
 High degree of resistance to insect pests and diseases, and
 High physiological efficiency.
 Earliness (150-165 days)
 Fewer small and thick leaves
 Compact and short stature, indeterminate habit
 Sparse hairiness,
 Medium to big boll size
 Synchronous bolling
 High response to nutrients
 Resistance to insects and diseases.

FACTORS AFFECTING IDEOTYPES :

There are several factors which affect development of ideal plant type. These are briefly
discussed below:
1. Crop Species

Ideotype differs from crop to crop. The ideotype of monocots significantly differs from those of
dicots. In monocots, tillering is more important whereas in dicots branching is one of the
important features of ideotype.

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2. Cultivation

The ideotype also differs with regard to crop cultivation. The features of irrigated crops differ
from that of rainfed crop. The rainfed crop needs drought resistance, fewer and smaller leaves to
reduce water loss through transpiration. In dicots, indeterminate types are required for rainfed
conditions, because indeterminate type can produce another flush of flowers if the first flush in
affected by drought conditions.

3. Socio -economic Condition of Farmers

Socio-economic condition of farmers also determines crop ideotype. for example, dwarf
Sorghum is ideal for mechanical harvesting in USA, but it is not suitable for the farmers of
Africa where the stalks are used for fuel or hut constructions.

4. Economic Use

The ideotype also differ according to the economic use of the crop, for example, dwarf types are
useful in Sorghum and pearl millet when the crop is grown for grain purpose. But when these
crops are grown for fodder purpose, tall stature is desirable one. Moreover, less leafy types are
desirable for grain purpose and more leafy genotypes for fodder purpose. The larger leaves are
also desirable in case of fodder crop.

STEPS IN IDEOTYPE BREEDING

Ideotype breeding consists of four important steps,

1. Development of Conceptual Model

The values of various morphological and physiological traits are specified to develop a
conceptual theoretical model. For example, values for plant height, maturity duration, leaf size,
leaf number, angle of leaf, photosynthetic rate etc., are specified. Then efforts are made to
achieve this model.
2. Selection of Base Material

Selection of base material is an important step after development of conceptual model of

ideotype. Genotypes to be used in devising a model plant type should have broad genetic base

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and wider adaptability. Genotypes for plant stature, maturity duration, leaf size and angle and
resistance are selected from the global gene pool of the concerned crop species. Genotypes
resistant or tolerant to drought, soil salinity, alkalinity, diseases and insects are selected from the
gene pool with the cooperation of physiologist, soil scientist, pathologist and entomologist.

3. Incorporation of Desirable Traits

The next important step in combining of various morphological and physiological traits from
different selected genotypes into single genotype. Various breeding procedures, viz single cross,
three way cross, multiple cross, backcross, composite crossing, intermating, mutation breeding,
heterosis breeding etc., are used for the development of ideal plant types in majority of field
crops.

4. Selection of Ideal Plant Type

Plants combining desirable morphological and physiological traits are selected in segregating
populations and intermated to achieve the desired plant type. Morphological features are judged
through visual observations and physiological parameters are recorded with the help of
sophisticated instruments. Screening for resistance to drought, soil salinity, alkalinity, disease
and insects is done under controlled conditions.

…………………………

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