Plantation Forestry, SAF 301 2+1

UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURAL & HORTICULTURAL SCIENCES,

SHIVAMOGGA
COLLEGE OF FORESTRY, PONNAMPET

Lecture Notes of the Course

SAF 301 (2+1)
PLANTATION FORESTRY
(As per V Dean Committee)

Prepared By
Supriya K Salimath
College of Forestry, Ponnampet

Supriya K Salimath, College of Forestry, Ponnampet

Plantation Forestry, SAF 301 2+1

UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURAL AND HORTICULTURAL SCIENCES, SHIVAMOGGA

COLLEGE OF FORESTRY, PONNAMPET -571216
DEPARTMENT OF SILVICULTURE AND AGROFORESTRY
SAF 301 PLANTATION FORESTRY (2+1)
COURSE TEACHER: SUPRIYA K SALIMATH, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR (CONTRACT)
II SEMESTER 2018-19
LECTURE SCHEDULE
Week Theory
1 Plantations-definition and scope- History of plantations- Development of plantation
forestry present status in national and international scenario
2 Plantation organization and structure- Plantation characteristics-species composition-
age class distribution- stocking
3 Land and plantation development – National land use policy- land use for forestry-
4 Social and economic factors in plantation development finance- economics of
plantation development- land availability-labour-infrastructure, economic, marketing,
social and cultural effects.
5 Plantation planning-National and regional planning-project appraisal and project
implementation– feasibility studies
6 Plantation silviculture - Choice of species - factors that govern - hardwoods, softwoods,
fast growing
7 Exotic and indigenous species, traditional vs. intensive plantation management, Sowing
v/s planting - different kinds of sowing. Preparation of planting material- stump
preparation- field planting
8 Plantation establishment-essentials site preparation- planting density, spacing,
marking- boundary demarcation, fencing, alignment and staking-kinds of pit making.
9 Planting- planting stock- planting pattern, general planting rules, protection and after
care of newly planted seedlings.-
10 Mid term
11 Plantation maintenance- Plant protection and sanitation measures. Death of seedling,
weed control, cleaning, singling, pruning.
12 Nutrition in plantations, nutrient deficiencies, symptoms of deficiency- use of
fertilizers- - Major pest and disease in plantations.
13 Dynamics of stand growth stand density management in plantations, spacing planting
density regulation, Thinning regimes- improvement felling- CCF-MCA-
14 Site quality evaluation- stand basal area site index concept in plantation forestry-
plantation productivity assessment-
15 Growing stock assessment MAI of different plantations- Modern concepts in plantation
forestry, Plantation records- plantation journal- sustainability of plantations- fast
growing plantations myths and reality-
16 Industrial plantation- paper and pulp wood- Match wood plantation- plywood
plantation Plantations yielding NTFPs- Clonal plantations- development and
management of clonal plantation
17 Plantations as potential carbon sinks- C Sequestration, C Substitution and C
Conservation functions; LULUCF and REDD concepts, AR-CDM concepts

Supriya K Salimath, College of Forestry, Ponnampet

Plantation Forestry, SAF 301 2+1

Suggested reading
Bowen, G. D., Nambiar, E. K. S., 1984, Nutrition on Plantation Forests. Academic Press, 1984 -
Nature - 516 pages
Evans, J., 1992, Plantation Forestry in the Tropics, 2nd edition. Oxford, UK, Clarendon Press.
Evans, J. and Turnbull, J. W., 2004, Plantation Forestry in the Tropics: The Role, Silviculture and
Use of Planted Forests for Industrial, Social, Environmental and Agroforestry Purposes.
OUP Oxford, 467p.
Krishnapillay. B., 2000, Silviculture and Management of teak plantations. Unasylva. 201. Vol 51.
14-21p.
Luna R. K., 1979, Plantation Forestry in India. International Book Distributors 9/3, Rajpur Road,
Dehra Dun.
Nambiar, E. K. S. and Brown, A. G., 1997, Management of Soil, Nutrients and Water in Tropical
Plantation Forests. Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research. 571p.
Nambiar, E. K. S., Cossalter, C and Tiarks. A., 1998, Site Management and Productivity in
Tropical Plantation Forests. Workshop Proceedings, South Africa.
Raj, A.J. and Lal, S. B. 2013. Forestry Principles and Applications (ISBN 978-81-7233-811-4),
Scientific Publishers (India), Jodhpur
Suzuki, K., Ishii, K., Sakurai, S. and Sasaki, S., 2006, Plantation Forestry in the Tropics. Springer
Tokyo.

Supriya K Salimath, College of Forestry, Ponnampet

Plantation Forestry, SAF 301 2+1

Plantations: Definition and Scope

• Plantation: It is a forest crop or stand raised artificially either by sowing or planting.
• Plantation forests: These are the cultivated forest ecosystems established by planting or
seeding in the process of afforestation and reforestation, primarily for wood biomass
production but also for soil and water conservation.
• The basic criteria to say a land under tree cover as plantation is the artificial regeneration
• Ex: When a new forest is established on grassland is clearly artificial can be regarded as
plantation but where the existing forest is regenerated by enrichment, the land can’t be
regarded as planation.

Scope of Plantation Forestry:

 Plantations have much higher productivity of important products than the natural forests
 Productivity of Indian Forests: 1.3 m3/ha/yr
 World average forest productivity: 2.1m3/ha/yr
 Uniformity in plantations allows the production of homogenous size and quality of end
products and modern efficient techniques for establishment and harvesting
 Plantations can be established on underutilized lands and ands neglected for agricultural
production
 Trees can be grown in conjunction with agricultural crops using proper designs to improve
the farmer’s income and to improve the soil quality.
 Trees planted in agroforestry systems and in village common lands can act as a source of
fuel wood for people
 Plantations provide the scope for manipulating the crop composition and growth space
according to the demand
 Most of the natural forests are located in the in accessible areas which cause difficulty in
harvesting operations
 Plantation forestry has its greatest scope in short rotation forestry which can fulfill the
timber demand
 Plantations reduce the pressure on natural forests
 Introduction of exotics is a good deal in plantation forestry
 Plantations are the only choice for tree breeding and improvement programs, production
of certified seeds and creation of orchards
 Plantations play a major role in employment generation and is estimated that 300-400 man
days/ha
 These improve the country’s foreign exchange
 These help in conservation of germplasm by collecting, identifying and raising the
plantations from different seed sources
 These are most important carbon sinks in the world as a measure to mitigate global climate
change

Supriya K Salimath, College of Forestry, Ponnampet

Plantation Forestry, SAF 301 2+1

Important plantation species: Tectona grandis. Pinus caribea, Swietenia macrophylla,

Azadirchta indica, Eucalyptus grandis, Grevillea robusta, Pinus elliotti etc.
Objectives of Plantations:
1. To restore the degraded ecological balance
2. To induce the recreational and aesthetic opportunities
3. To restore the fertility and productivity of agricultural lands
4. To provide wood for forest based industries
5. To provide fruit, fodder and fuel to village community
6. To create employment opportunities
Current status of plantations in national and international scenario:
Global profile:
Total forest area 3999mha
Total planted forests 290mha
Net planted forest area change 15mha
Net annual planted area change 3mha
Forest growing stock 431bm3
Total production forests 1187mha
Total wood removal 2997mm3
Regional profile: Asia
Total forest area 593mha
Total planted forests 129mha
National profile: India (ISFR 2017)
Total forest cover 70.82 mha (21.54%)
Total tree cover 9.38 mha (2.85%)
Total forest area 80.20 mha (24.39%)
Growing stock 5822.37 mm3
Planted Forest in India 12.031 mha
Carbon stock 7082mT

Planted forest in different countries:

Country Planted Forests ( m. ha)
China 78.982
India 12.031
Russia 19.841
Australia 2.017
Indonesia 4.946
USA 26.364
Sweden 13.737
Brazil 7.736

Supriya K Salimath, College of Forestry, Ponnampet

Plantation Forestry, SAF 301 2+1

Japan 10.270
Canada 15.784

State Profile: Karnataka

Total Forest cover 37550 sq km
Tree cover 5713 sq km
Forest area 43263 sq km (22.56 %)
% of India’ s Forest area 5.39 %
Per capita forest area 0.07 ha

History of plantations:

Plantation resources have been generated and maintained in India over the ages. Emperor
Ashoka (273-232 BC) is known to have had trees planted along long stretches of main roads in his
vast empire. Emperor Shivaji (1630-1680) is reported to have encouraged plantation forestry within
his empire. Sher Khan (1472-1545), who asserted his independence from the Mughal Emperor
Humayun and built and ruled over a large empire, is known to have formally converted an old
imperial highway spanning almost the entire north of the Indian sub-continent into the Grand Trunk
Road and had large stretches of the roadsides planted with trees.

1. The first attempt of organized plantations in India was made in 1842 by Mr. Conolly,
Collector of Malbar at Nilambur
2. Eucalyptus pycnantha plantation was started at Tamilnadu in 1843 by Chamball
3. The famous fuel wood plantations of Changamanga were started in the year 1866
4. Plantation activities of pre independence era were not organized and were only due to the
personal interests of the individuals
5. After independence first commercial plantations was attempted in 1948
6. Through the observance of Van mahotsav week by the union minister of food and
agriculture Shri K.M.Munshi, government started to enthuse the people to plant the trees
7. National Forest policy 1952 prescribed the 1/3rd of the total land area should be under forest
cover
8. Through the five year plans many schemes of afforestation, rehabilitation planting,
expansion of commercial and industrial plantations were carried out
9. In 1976, National commission on Agriculture recommended that dynamic production and
social forestry programs have to be taken up aiming at meeting the need of industries,
defense and community along with protection and recreation benefits
10. With this view, National wasteland development board was constituted in 1985 for the
afforestation of waste lands, degraded forests and vacant areas.

Supriya K Salimath, College of Forestry, Ponnampet

Plantation Forestry, SAF 301 2+1

Impediments in plantation forestry:

1. Adverse soil conditions: Forest plantations in India are created on the sites which have
adverse soil conditions like shallow soil, rockiness and low moisture content and led to
the high mortality of seedlings
2. Lack of clear objectives for plantations: It has been observed that plantations were not
object driven but rather to fulfill the annual spatial targets. This is evident from the
choice of species, quality of seedlings and timings of planting. There seem to be very
little supervision and coordination between the supervisor and field staff.
3. Planting techniques: Plantations have failed because of not applying proper planting
techniques, pit size and depth. It points to the fact that there are very little supervision
of the plantations. Ignorance and carelessness of the field staff and lack of technical
skill and expertise among the workers also adds to the problem.
4. Lack of plantation planning: Most of the plantations are planned very late resulting in
inappropriate site selection, choice of planting material and quality, and planting
timings. It has a severe consequences for the future forest stock
5. Grazing: Plantation areas have constant pressure both from local and migratory cattle
whether it is inside or outside. Most commercially viable species are palatable
rendering them from more susceptible to cattle damage than any other non-palatable
species.
6. Funds for creation and maintenance of plantations: Plantations program has suffered a
huge setback due to inadequate financial support both from plantation creation and their
maintenance.
7. Nursery management: Because of the decentralization and privatization of the forest
nurseries many of the plantation have suffered. Many of the staff never had any form
of formal training on nursery management, seed collection and storage.

Plantation Organization and Structure:

The business of planting trees, though a straight forward operation itself involves much
organization and planning. Many different operations are needed to produce suitable seedlings for
planting, to care for them and the plantation they form. Apparently the simplest task of providing
the seedlings for the extension planting requires careful organization. The planning and
implementation of complex major afforestation schemes necessarily requires even greater
organization of time and resources. The concept that trees can be grown in an orderly and
organized fashion like planted food crops and are left untouched until harvested can be one of the
biggest obstacles to the social acceptance and ultimately success of plantation forestry in
developing countries.

Forestry is an extensive activity. Trees need space for the proper development and many
trees together in the plantation require much land. Along with the increasing pressure on the land,
forest plantation is another competitor and requires large amount over long periods. Even in tropics

Supriya K Salimath, College of Forestry, Ponnampet

Plantation Forestry, SAF 301 2+1

and even for small wood, production of posts, poles and firewood, growing trees still take a few
years. Depending on the end use, the rotation may vary from one year to 60or more.

The time factor is very important as;

 The grower is committed to a course of action without real opportunity to change for a
longer period.
 Returns on the investments of the land, time and capital are delayed for several years.
 Land may be unavailable for other uses for generations or more.
These characteristics resist the land owners from taking the plantation activities and restricted the
programs to the government sector.

Plantation Characteristics:
Orderliness, regularity and relative ecological simplicity show the forest plantations to be
manmade which are of great efficiency and yield more uniform products than natural forests. Some
of the characteristics of the plantation are:

1. Species composition: Nearly all the tropical plantations are grown in monocultures. The
overriding reason for this is;

 Silviculture is simpler
 Experience in handling one or two chosen species
 Operations become regularized
 Instructions and training are more easily given
 Great familiarity in species, speeds detection and identification of problems such
as disease and nutrient deficiency
Two possible risks associated with the monoculture are:

 Susceptibility to pests and diseases

 Maintenance of long term productivity
2. Age class distribution: Even aged stands are simple to manage since when carrying out an
operation like planting, tending, thinning, and clear felling, it is done at one time over the whole
crop rather than irregularities in different part of it. But in case of industrial plantations initially
the stand will be even aged. As the growth in the market and infrastructure developed different
ages are developed.

3. Stocking: In a plantation all trees are planted for some purposes and have values and all the land
is stocked with chosen species. Though the plantations are normally planted so that all possible
areas have tree growing on them, the site may not be fully occupied. Where the number of plants
is well below the optimum numbers (<300 stems /ha) it is regarded as partially/poor stocked.
However, stocking does not remain constant during the life of the plantation. Some of the trees
may die naturally and others may be thinned out.

Supriya K Salimath, College of Forestry, Ponnampet

Plantation Forestry, SAF 301 2+1

4. Silvicultural systems:

 Clear felling systems: The dominance of clear felling systems is due to its simple nature
and cheap compared to other. It is also a quick and reliable way to achieve uniform
regeneration.
 Coppice systems: It is suited to short rotation crops grown for fire wood, pulp wood and
mining timbers.

Where the natural forest is logged and the remnant is not worth preserving, direct replacement of
the area with plantation is expensive due to removal of old mature trees, luxuriant weed growth
and difficult access. To overcome this, two types of systems are followed:

 Taungya: It needs fertile sites but saves on tending costs and provide land and work suited
to tribal.
 Enrichment planting: Enrich the remnant forest with the desired species with the
intention that it will form the bulk of the final crop.

Plantation Design:
1. Shape: Though the shape of the plantation is determined by the legal position it is not essential
to restrict the boundary if it is awkwardly shaped. Providing access and maintaining the boundary
determine the shape and both make compact rectangular or square shape as efficient.
2. Layout and Sub division: In a large plantation project, primarily for the convenience of
management and organization, the forest crop not steadily expands from one center but usually
develops around several centers each forming a self-contained unit.

3. Road and access: The regular layout of plantation in conveniently shaped blocks is not easy in
practice because forest land is often rough ground in rugged and broken terrain. Land with poor
access should not be planted if the trees are grown for industries as it poses problems in harvesting
and transportation.

Plantation life history:

In plantations, the forester can change the pattern of the crop development by appropriate and
timely interventions to modify both the quality and quantity of the end product. The parameters
which need to be collected to assess the life history of a plantation are as follows:

o Species choice – Includes seed source

o Initial spacing
o Pruning
o Thinning
o Rotation length

Supriya K Salimath, College of Forestry, Ponnampet

Plantation Forestry, SAF 301 2+1

LAND AND PLANTATION DEVELOPMENT

Background:
 Land is a resource which often can be improved and used again and again, there is always
a danger that serious misuse of land may not only waste its present value but irreparably
its future usefulness.
 In land use planning and development the existing occupier of the land is easily overlooked.
 Acceptance of growing trees for industrial purposes by the farmer is difficult
 The first stage in evaluating the land and preparing a land use plan is to gather data to
classify land according to what it may be able to grow i.e. land capability.

Land capability classification (LCC): Land capability classification is a system of grouping soils
primarily on the basis of their capability to produce common cultivated crops and pasture plants
without deteriorating over a long period of time.

The principles of LCC are the following:

 Areas of land are put into classes ranging from best (Class I) to worst (Class VIII),
 Land allocated to a particular capability class has the potential for the use specified for that
class and for all classes below it,
 The perspective is one of a land use hierarchy: some land uses are more desirable than
others (cultivation is preferable to pastures, pastures preferable to woodland etc.),
 Allocation into a particular capability class is based on limitations of the land or restrictions
on the range of uses or the management/conservation practices needed for the particular
use,
 Commonly considered limitations are erosion hazard, excess water, depth, stoniness,
climatic limitations,
 There is a strong bias towards conservation needs (for protection against erosion).

Supriya K Salimath, College of Forestry, Ponnampet

Plantation Forestry, SAF 301 2+1

Fig. 1: Chart showing the utilization of each land classes

Land Evaluation: Land evaluation is formally defined as 'the assessment of land performance
when used for a specified purpose, involving the execution and interpretation of surveys and
studies of land forms, soils, vegetation, climate and other aspects of land in order to identify and
make a comparison of promising kinds of land use in terms applicable to the objectives of the
evaluation' (FAO, 1976).
Gelen (1983) presents the approaches for land evaluation
The main component of the land evaluation are
1. Climate 2. Local topography 3. Soil 4. Existing vegetation
1. Climate: It is the dominant influencer in the tropical region. Agro ecological zones give the
information on the land suitable for the afforestation as they include the data on climate, soil and
other site parameters. But the information on the other parameters like evapo transpiration,
seasonality of rainfall, maximum and minimum temperature, occurrence of frost are lacking. Use
of irrigation, shelterbelts to modify microclimate and other planting practices can reduce the
harmful effects of the climate in difficult sites and make them suitable for the cultivation of tree
crops.
2. Local topography: Steep slopes, ridge top exposure, water logging in gullies, ground strewn
with rocks and boulders severely limit the farming. However, they may not prevent such land being
used for forest plantations through the operational costs are high.
3. Soil: There is no one optimum soil since different species grow best under different conditions
of nutrient supply. The three essential requirement for the tree growth are which can be assessed
by soil survey are:

Supriya K Salimath, College of Forestry, Ponnampet

Plantation Forestry, SAF 301 2+1

 Mechanical support
 Rootability and rooting volume: This is assessed by measuring depth of the soil to impeding
layer, quantity of rocks and boulders in the soil matrix, soil texture, soil structure,
compaction and bulk density.
 Nutrient status: It is assessed by concentration of the nutrients in the soil solution, Cat ion
Exchange Capacity, Soil pH, C:N Ratio and geology of underlying rock and parent material
 Moisture Supply: This is assessed by Soil moisture content and fluctuation in the depth of
water table
 Data on the risk of soil erosion and soil loss also needs to be collected
4. Existing vegetation: Though the existing vegetation is a constraint for land capability it provides
the indication on the site productivity. Avoidance on the clearing of existing vegetation is done as
below:
 Risk of physical damage to soil erosion
 It may be expensive
 Loss of wildlife habitat
 Infestation of weeds which results in excessive tending costs
LAND USE: Ideally, development should lead to an area of land having a land use plan to make
the forest use of it in its widest sense, including setting aside the area for environmental and
wildlife conservation. Though the land capability determines what can be grown, it will be evident
that different land uses will differ in benefit to local communities or in productivity or in
profitability. Deciding the best land use not only depend on land capability but also on several
factors. They are:
A. Land and tree tenure
B. Impact of other land uses
C. National land use policies
D. Demand for the produce
A. Land and tree tenure: It is the enormously complex and the associated problems of this is
considered as most difficult obstacles for the development. Confusions over who can cut what and
when can be a major dis incentive in social forestry program.
Ex:
 Customary ownership: Ownership of a piece of land by some clan/village based on long
use and association. Any change in the land use must be approved by the numerous
interested parties who claim their ownership of the land.
 Private ownership: Land is a commodity which can be bought and sold
 Squatting: Use of land by someone without the right to it
 State control: The rights of the individual or community over the land where they live are
subordinated by the state
 Tree tenure: Deciding the rights over the land does not always confer the rights to the trees
that grow on it.

Supriya K Salimath, College of Forestry, Ponnampet

Plantation Forestry, SAF 301 2+1

B. Impacts of other land use:

 Past and continuous loss of natural forests, whether from agricultural department, direct
exploitation or some other cause is an important reason for the plantation development
 Land use cannot be considered in isolation; it not only affects land use in future but also
influence that of neighboring land use in present
 The creation of forest plantations reduces though need not exclude altogether, the land’s
food growing potential and indirectly stimulate agricultural efforts somewhere.
 Increased population, which leads to increasing demand on land to grow food, cloth and
shelter is a potent force to change the land use
 Geographical conditions no only affect the potential land use but they influence the
marketing of the produce. Ex: Pulp wood plantations need to be near the paper industries
as the plantations sites should be close to market to minimize the costs of transportation.
C. National Land use policy: Some of the legislations for the land use are:
 Planting targets to achieve 33 % of the forest cover.
 Planting of trees for erosion control and conservation i.e. tree planting at hill tops and next
to water course
 Restriction on the expansion of the agricultural land and conversion of forest land to non-
forestry uses.
Since the land use plan involves the operation of many disciplines it is necessary to
have an integrated national land use policy which brings the all disciplines under one
head. Thus, all factors affecting land are considered so that a foundation is laid for sound
integrated land use planning taking into account of all aspects of national life and not just
the individual policy.
Note: Refer and collect the information about the National Land utilization policy 2013

Integrated Land Use: The panning approach at the national level which takes into account all the
factors involved in deciding the optimum land use is called integrated land use. It is important that
development in plantation forestry are included in such planning because often forestry department
and plantation programs have existed in virtual isolation from each land uses.

Land evaluation surveys: Land evaluation to provide a basis for rational integrated land use
planning involves complex and wide ranging study.
 Data collection follows a sequence from lesser to greater details and from regional
appraisal to local land use holders.
 A reconnaissance survey usually based on remote sensing technique is followed where the
data on environment, social and economics are gathered.
 Based on these data land is classified and mapped
 Ground survey is usually limited to areas needing more intensive studies and draws on
information from existing workers in the area.

Supriya K Salimath, College of Forestry, Ponnampet

Plantation Forestry, SAF 301 2+1

 Since these surveys are both complex and interdisciplinary are carried out by international
agencies set upped for these purposes.

Social and economic factors in plantation development:

The large size required for the industrial plantations need to be examined more closely because
size itself largely determines the magnitude of social, cultural and economic impacts. The
plantation program results from the factors of local demand for wood and tree related benefits,
yield from natural forests, export or import possibilities, land and labour availability, species and
yield, environmental protection and finance.
A. Factors which determine the scale of plantation projects:
1. Purpose of plantation:
 The object of creating a forest plantation, the end use for the wood or its
environmental role is the overriding consideration that determine the project size.
 Planting of trees for fire wood, shelter or fodder will cost very little and provides
the desired commodity without the need of processing.
 However in case of paper and pulp wood industries owing to the high initial cost of
the factory, usually requires much wood , to produce in large quantities of pulp and
paper to keep unit costs at a reasonable level
 Hence a broad correlation exists between the scales, processing complexity and the
capital required.
 When it is not affordable to establish the plantation projects of high capital,
developing countries are now started to contemplate by exports of intermediate
products like wood chips, plywood sheets etc., instead of finished or value added
products.
 This may result in loss of economy of the country but the developing countries are
attracted to such projects due to fast growth, rural development, employment
generation etc.,

2. Political influence:
 A large well maintained plantation is impressive, conspicuous and is necessarily
located in a rural area
 Politically, plantation development have a considerable prestigious value
 This sometime result in a scale of development bearing little relation to local or
regional requirements for the produce
 Political influence can even affect the choice of species
 In some countries, the plantation project may on a prestige role by the head of the
government
3. Social responsibilities:
 Plantation forestry provides considerably more employment than the management
of the natural forests. Ex: Clear felling of the natural rain forests needs
60mandays/ha and establishment of plantation needs 100 man days/ha

Supriya K Salimath, College of Forestry, Ponnampet

Plantation Forestry, SAF 301 2+1

 There is a considerable role played by the plantation in creating the employment

opportunities in the rural areas
 However, the commitment to the plantation work is necessary
 There must be some continuity of work for the employees and a long term security
B. Factors affecting the rate of plantation development
1. Finance: There is a need for substantial investment of capital expansion of the world wood
industry and forestry development. The reluctance of the private enterprise and ultimately
the private banks to invest in the forestry in developing countries are:
 High investment costs
 Capital is tied up for a long period and return may not be high
 There tend to be more uncertainties over policies and supplies of raw materials,
spares, labour, energy etc.,
 Risk of future decimation against the investment
 Taxation uncertainties
 Uncertainties about freedom of decision making, about employment, repatriation
of salaries and profits
 There is a lack of continuity of the finance over time
 Heavy reliance on the external finance in many cases can make the orderly
development and steady expansion rather precarious
2. Land availability: Availability of the land is the major hindrance for the development of
the plantation project. Usually, wastelands or the lands set aside by the community are
available for the project.
3. Labour: Lack of availability of the labour in the remote areas is the major problem in the
establishment and the maintenance of the forest plantation. Apart from this, availability of
skilled labour worsens the cases. There is a need to involve the local people and women
for the day to day maintenance of the plantation works.
4. Infrastructure: Need of providing housing, school, hospital and shops to the labours at
remote areas is costlier and time consuming.
5. Others:
 Difficulties over release of funds
 Permission to import certain goods and infrastructure
 Unavailability of foreign exchange facilities
 Delay in approval of land title or lease
C. Marketing influence in Plantation development:
 End use is the main factor in plantation development but sometimes changes in local and
international markets necessitates that original decision on the end use is reconsidered.
 Due to the changes in market conditions, it’s necessary to have some flexibility in growing
the crop along with forward planning.
 Often successful small scale trials lead to the establishment of large areas of plantation
without clear end use resulting in the disappointment of the people involved in the project.

Supriya K Salimath, College of Forestry, Ponnampet

Plantation Forestry, SAF 301 2+1

 The usual problem in the public sector is that there is an encouragement to plant without
specific purpose or end use which needs to be resolved.

Social and cultural effects of plantation development:

 The easy assumption is that development brings benefits. But the people should be aware
of the consequence of the development.
 A failure to understand, a failure to seek to acknowledge and a failure to respond
sympathetically to the ideals and the wishes of the community whose land and life are
encroached by the development will not only be bad economics but irresponsible and
unethical.
 It depends on the scale of the project and contact the community has experience already
with similar development nearby.
 During the selection of land for the plantations, the respect for past traditions, customs and
beliefs about the lands such as, sacred grooves are easily overlooked. Ex: In Bihar, a lot of
opposition was experienced from the local tribes when the corporation decided to remove
the Sal, the tree most valued by the tribal by Teak which they think useless.
 It may bring the changes in the village and family life of the local inhabitants. Problems on
the ownership of the trees.
 The tradition dictates that the planter has the right on trees and not the land owner. It
resulted in the conflicts in tree ownership.
Approaches to reduce the impact:
 Involving the local people in decision making.
 Use the methods not greatly different from the practices already familiar to the local people.
Ex: Promote the use of Taungya instead of shifting cultivation.
 Avoid piecemeal trials (Applying the results of the small trials to large areas without
definite trials) rather go for orderly phasing of project expansion.
 Use of simple tools and equipments needing skills that can be easily learnt.
Ex: Substantial changes in efficiency from the changes in tool i.e. from axe to bow saw for
cross cutting from spade to hoe for planting.
 Employing those who are displaced from the lands acquired.
 Adapting the practices to suit to local skills and ability
 Phasing development through many small scale projects.
 Using intermediate technologies not needing highly specialized skills.
 Project must provide the continuity of employment and on job training.
 The employer should consider the basic needs of the employees working for an adequate
standard of living.
 Establish Forest Township or villages in the vicinity.
 Provide some working cloths, safety gears, foot wares and balanced nutrients diet to attract
the people for work
 Be sensitive to the local customs and allow time for traditional ceremonies.

Supriya K Salimath, College of Forestry, Ponnampet

Plantation Forestry, SAF 301 2+1

Contribution of Plantation and social forestry to the rural development:

Jobs and income House hold consumption Environmental effects
 Fuel wood and  Fuel wood and  Erosion control
charcoal charcoal
 Poles and logs  Building poles  Soil fertility
 Gums, resins and oils  Fodder and forage  Flood and landslide
preservation
 Saw milling, carpentry  Fruits, nuts and honey  Water availability
and handicrafts
 Medicines,  Agricultural uses  Shades
mushrooms
 Wild life, leaves,  Thatch and weaving  Protection from wind
Tasar silk and rain
 Tourism  Medicines

Planning and plantation enterprise: Planning is the foundation of any project industrial,
environmental or social forestry. It introduces the order into any development to avoid haphazard
and ill-conceived project. Planning avoids the compartmental thinking in forestry where too easily
economics, mensuration, harvesting and especially silviculture are considered in isolation.
Planning can be considered in two dimensions:
 Vertically as different scales i.e. international, national, regional, project and operational
 Horizontally in relation to time i.e. the progress and implementation of a project or weekly
work program or national policy as they develop.
Policy planning at international level:
 The developed countries in the world import a large quantities of wood products, much of
it is from developing countries in the tropics.
 The important part in the international forest planning is to identify the major producers
and forecasting the supplies from developing countries to try to match supply and demand
as far as possible.
 The international organizations like FAO, UNCTAD, ITTO, World bank and regional
development bank play a major role in collating the data, preparing forecasts, advising
governments and providing financial assistance.
 To have agreements between donors to lend priorities and coordination of aid flows TFAP
(Tropical Forest Action Plan) has been initiated which gives emphasis on social,
environmental and ecological factors along with industrial developments.
 The major donors in the forestry sector meet several times in the year to coordinate their
work and stimulate cooperation.
National and Sectorial planning:
 The need for planning: Planning seeks to attend the needs of a country and to set
objective for supplying them.

Supriya K Salimath, College of Forestry, Ponnampet

Plantation Forestry, SAF 301 2+1

 The National development plan: Most countries have a national development plan
whose objective are the outcomes of political processes. The task of planners is to
formulate the methods to achieve these objectives.
 Planning in the forestry sector: The planning must be organized to be capable of
o Collecting and analyzing the data
o Formulating alternatives for attaining the objective
o Evaluating the choices available
o Frequently laying down guidelines
 Plantation planning within the forestry sector: Here the possible projects are identified
and each analyzed in detail. The criteria for selecting the best projects vary widely but
may be depend on profitability, employment, volume production or Social benefit.
 Implications of National plantation Program: These need to be evaluated in the national
planning process since effects are often felt outside the realm of forestry. Plantation
developments can be used by the governments to raise the rural standard of living by
providing employment and by encouraging Agroforestry to improve the self
sufficiency of the rural population.
Regional planning:
Often within one country different regions need different development strategies owing to
differences in climate, geography, past land use, local culture etc. Planning at regional level seeks
to implement national objective but methods and practices will often differ between regions
Ex: Species choice, Silviculture, establishment etc.
Planning the large projects: A clear objective aids clear thinking and permits more orderly
planning. Thus, planning may not only involve implementation but also project identification,
preparation, appraisal and even monitoring and evaluation.
1. Project appraisal: Once the idea of the project is conceived a detailed analysis if the relevant
information is undertaken before the investment is made. The 5 major steps are:
 Preparation of project formulation
 Reconnaissance and preliminary design
 Project design
 Analysis of expected results
 Writing project document
The two key aspects of Project appraisal are: Feasibility studies and Impact studies
1. Feasibility studies: This investigates and gathers data about all aspects of a project. The data
like:
 General economic, agricultural and Forestry background of the country
 The project area details
 The information on the project
 Justification on the implementation of the project

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Plantation Forestry, SAF 301 2+1

 growth rates of the main species,

 Communication (Roads and transport),
 Land tenure
 availability of labour,
 local participation and support and
 An indication of the political stability are gathered.
2. Impact studies: This examines the all the other consequences and effects that a project may
have. It fulfills the two purposes:
 It indicates all effects of a project
 Provide baseline data against which the actual effects of the project can be monitored once
it begins.
Here it is important to enact Environmental Impact assessment before starting a new project. Thus,
together feasibility study and the impact study form the appraisal that all projects should undergo
the formulation.
2. Implementation of a project: If after the appraisal, it is decided to proceed with a project, next
stage is to plan how best to carry it out. The decisions on the following aspects need to be
considered for a successful execution of the work:
1. Supply of resources: The key areas to be negotiated are:
 Funding for several years
 Land acquisition, site survey and site preparation in advance
 Recruitment and training to staff
 Supply and purchase of equipments
 Purchase of seed and development of nurseries
 Construction facilities to labors
 Provision of adequate facilities for communication
2. Silvicultural aspects:
 The purpose of growing trees
 The degree of mechanization required
 Importance of labor intensive working
 Site fertility and the need to cultivate and fertilize before planting
 The tree species, seed availability and growth features
3. Rate of planting and labour planning: Instead of planting a whole area in single year, it is
convenient and beneficial to increase the planting operation steadily each year until an
optimum rate is reached and then maintained.
4. Management plan: All the above factors are brought together in a document similar to
working plan is called as Management plan which consists of policy and objectives of the
project, basic information and present state and future management.

Supriya K Salimath, College of Forestry, Ponnampet

Plantation Forestry, SAF 301 2+1

Choice of species: Correct choice of species has a great bearing for the successful establishment
of plantations. Since raising of the plantations involves heavy long term investments choice of
species has become more important. The factors which influence the choice are:
1. Purpose of planting: The species should meet the objective for which the plantations are
raised and play a role in the economy of the state. The purpose of planting may be
categorized as:
 Domestic use: Fuel wood, Constructional poles, fodder, flowers, shade court yards,
etc.
 Industrial use: Timber, pulpwood, panel products, plywood, hardboards, packing
cases, furniture etc.
 Protective uses: soil and water conservation, shelterbelts or wind breaks, wasteland
developments etc.,
 Other uses: Environmental conservation, beautification and landscaping
2. Economic factors:
 Demand and supply: Areas where there is an acute shortages of timber and fuel
wood which consequently affects the degradation of the forests, the first aim should
be to raise the extensive plantations of species which are fast growing. In areas
where industrial units have been set up, choice of species should regulate the supply
of raw materials to the industries. In the recent past, demand for light, decorative
composite wood has increased due to the shortage of timber, high prices and growth
defects in the timber. Based on all these factors a species which can satisfy several
end uses has to be selected.
 Cost of raising plantations: Species which grow fast in the early stages of life and
are easy to raise in the nursery generally costs less to establish in the field. Species
which overcome the extreme climatic condition and weed competition in the initial
stages are also preferred.
3. Silvicultural characteristics:
 Growth rate
 Ease of establishment
 Coppicing ability
 Least variability in growth forms
 Hybrid vigour
 Plasticity
 Tolerance
 Evergreen and deciduous habit
 Stem form
 Branching habit and crown form
 Root system
 Effects on site
 Resistance to pests and diseases

Supriya K Salimath, College of Forestry, Ponnampet

Plantation Forestry, SAF 301 2+1

Concept of fast growth: The accepted criteria for fast growing species is that they put minimum
MAI of 10m3 per hectare per annum and the height increment should not be less than 60cm or 2ft
per annum. However, the concept of fast growth is relative and depends on:
o The production capacity of the site
o Purpose of planting, specification of industrial use
o Age at which maximum volume production occurs to suit the local quality and size of the
material
o Age at which species develops defects and become susceptible to diseases.
Some of the fast growing species are:
Sl. No Species MAI/ha (m3)
1. Terminalia myriocarpa 15.34
2. Michelia champaka 18.25
3. Casurina equisetifolia 15.06
4. Toona ciliata 16.80
5. Artocarpus chaplasha 19.76
6. Gmelina arborea 22.96
7. Broussonetia papyrifera 21-30

Choice of Species for plantation on ecological aspects:

The enormous diversity in the ecological condition in the Indian subcontinent has given
rise to many problems as well as opportunities in tree planting at different sites. The choice of
species not only depends on climatic and edaphic variations but also on the pressing needs of the
local community. India is rich in flora and there is no dearth of species for the different purposes
out of which the selection can be made. Since the planting is a quite expensive activity, the sound
knowledge of climatic elements, effects of weather on plant growth and establishment, nursery
techniques and silvicultural requirements of the species selected is necessary.
India can be divided into three major ecological zones (Temperate region, Sub tropical
region, Tropical region) and ten sub zones based on climatic considerations mainly rain fall and
temperature. Priority of the choice should be given to the species which have been successfully
planted in the area.

Sl. Ecological Distribution Climate Tree species

No zones recommended
1. Temperate region
1a Wet Temperate Eastern Altitude: 1800- Abies densa, Alnus
sub region Himalayas, West 2000m nepalensis, betula utilis,
Bengal, Arunachal Rainfall: 2000mm Carpinus vimenea,
Pradesh, Nagaland Cupressus torulosa,
Juglans regia, Picea

Supriya K Salimath, College of Forestry, Ponnampet

Plantation Forestry, SAF 301 2+1

smithiana, Quercus sps.,

Salix alba, Salix
vimenalis
1b Moist temperate Kashmir, Altitude: 1500- Abies pindrow, Celtis
Sub region Himachal Pradesh, 3300m australis, Cupressus
Uttar Pradesh, Rainfall: 1000- cashmeriana, Eucaluptus
West Bengal, 2000mm saligna, Morus alba,
Sikkim, Bhutan MAT:5-20°C Picea smithiana, Populus
ciliata, Quercus soecues,
Toona serrata, Ulnus
wallichiana
1c Dry temperate Kashmir hills, Altitude: >1700m Juglans regia, Juniperus
sub region Himachal Pradesh, communisl, J. polycapos,
Uttar Pradesh, Morus alba, Populus sps.,
Parts of Sikkim Pinus gerardiana, Salix
sps.,
1d Southern High hills of Altitude: 1500m Acacia dealbata, A.
temperate Sub Tamilnadu, Rainfall: 1500- Mearnsii, A. Decurrens,
region Kerala, 6250mm Eucalyptus gobulus, E.
citriodora, Pinus petula
2. Subtropical region
2a Wet subtropical Kerala, Altitude: 1000- Acrocarpus fraxinifolius,
sub region Tamilanadu, 2000m Albizzia sps., Ailanthus
Karnataka and MAT: 15-25°C grandis, Bauhinia sps.,
Maharashtra Rainfall: 2000- Bombax ceiba,
2600mm Eucalyptus sps.,
Grevillea robusta, Melia
azadirach, Sterospermum
personatum, Quercus
sps., Toona ciliata
2b Moist Uttar Pradesh, Altitude: 800- Acacia catechu, Alnus
subtropical sub Himachal Pradesh, 1800mm nitida, Anogeissus
region West Bengal, MAT: 15-20°C latifolia, Bauhinia sps,
Assam, Arunachal Rainfall:1000- Celtis australis,
Pradesh, 3000mm Chukrasia velutina,
Maharashtra, Dalbergia latifolia,
Orissa Erythrina variegate,
Eucalyptus grandis,
Grevillea robusta,
Holoptelea integrefolia,

Supriya K Salimath, College of Forestry, Ponnampet

Plantation Forestry, SAF 301 2+1

Measua ferrea, Populus

deltoids, Pinus
roxbhurghii, Terminalia
myriocarpa
2c Dry subtropical Jammu, Punjab, Altitude: upto Acacia catechu, A.
sub region Haryana, Uttar 1000m modesta, Anogeissus
Pradesh, Himachal Rainfall:<1000mm latifolia, Azadirchta
Pradesh indica, Dalbergia sissoo,
Dendrocalamus strictus,
Emblica officinalis, Kydia
calycina, Aougenia
oogenesis, Pinus
roxbhurghii
3 Tropical region
3a Wet tropical sub Maharashtra, Altitude: 1200m Acacia nilotica, Aegle
region Karnataka, Assam MAT: 22-27°C marmelos, Ailanthus
Tamilnadu, Rainfall: 2000- excelsa, Adina cordifolia,
Kerala, West 6000mm Artocarpus chaplasha,
Bengal Bambusa tulda, Casurina
equisetifolia, Gmelina
arborea, Garcinia indica,
Mangifera indica,
Michelia champaka,
Pterocarpus
dalbergiodes, Sesbania
grandiflora, Shorea
assamica
3b Moist tropical Andhra Pradesh, MAT: 24-26°C Acacia auriculiformis,
sub region Assam, Arunachal Rainfall: 1500- Aegle marmelos,
Pradesh, Bihar, 3000mm Aesculus assamica,
Gujarat, Kerala, Albizzia species,
Karnataka Anacardium occidentale,
Madhya Pradesh, Anthocephalus
Orissa, Tripura, cadambaa, Cassia fistula,
Uttar Pradesh, Dalbergia sissoo,
West Bengal Diospyros melanoxylon,
Garcinia indica, Kydia
calycina, Melia
azadirach, Lannea
grandis, Pithocellobium

Supriya K Salimath, College of Forestry, Ponnampet

Plantation Forestry, SAF 301 2+1

dulse, Samanea saman,

Pongamia pinnata,
Santalum album,
Syzizium cumini, Toona
ciliata, Zizyphus
mauritiana
3c Dry tropical sub Maharashtra, Altitude: 450- Acacia catechu, Acacia
region Gujarat, Madhya 600m Senegal, Albizzia amara,
Pradesh, Andhra MAT: 18-27°C Albizzia lebbeck,
Pradesh, Rajastan, Rainfall: 750- Anacardiun occidentale,
Tamilnadu, 1250mm Anona squamosa,
Karnataka Boswellia serrate,
Bursera pencillata,
Cassia siamea, Cordia
rothii, Emblica
officinalis, Erythrina
suberosa, Ficus sps.,
Gmelina arborea, Melia
azadirach, Peltophoram
sps., Pongamia pinnata,
Tectona grandis,
Tamarindus indica

Pure v/s Mixed stands: It is significant to note that the most of the plantations in the world are
pure stands or mono cultures whether indigenous or exotic. Some of the observations made in
these stands are listed hereunder:

 An ideal silviculture should be the continuous production of the highest possible volume
of the useful timber from the biologically healthy forests managed with close similitude
with the nature.
 However, naturalistic silviculture is not always economically feasible as the nature often
tend to favor the species which are not necessarily most useful to man.
 From the biological point of view, pure stands have a lower level of biological activity both
in above and below ground than mixed stands. However, such differences disappear on the
best sites and under highly favorable climatic conditions.
 As regard to soil relations, pure stands make incomplete use of various soil resources with
a rapid diminution of soil fertility and lessening the yield of future cuts.
 Pure stands are affected equally and simultaneously by the natural agents because of rapid
multiplication, aggressiveness and virulence of pests.

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Plantation Forestry, SAF 301 2+1

 Stands must be restocked with well-balanced mixed tree species even it necessitates the
introduction of exotics
 When it is absolutely necessary to introduce the species unsuited to the site, mix them with
other indigenous species
 When introducing the ameliorating species into the pure stands select those of the greatest
financial value, which have the best chances of gaining a foothold because of their
suitability to the site
 In conclusion, the biological advantages of the mixed stands in terms of the site
improvement are so marked than the pure stands.

Exotics v/s Indigenous species

Exotics Indigenous species
 Ecologically less resistant to the  Less vulnerable to pest and diseases
pest and diseases
 Their success is uncertain  These are well adapted to local
environmental conditions
 Vulnerability to climate stresses  These have gained the resilience
towards the native climatic
conditions
 Not preferred due to various social  These are strongly interlinked with
reasons that people protest social heritage and built up in the
societal fabric
 Produce highest yield and  Most of the indigenous species fail
improved wood even under to produce the economically
unfavorable conditions feasible yield as that of exotics

Productivity of some of the Exotic and indigenous species:

Exotics Indigenous species

Species Age (Years) MAI Species Age (Years) MAI
(m3/ha) (m3/ha)
Eucalyptus 8 22 Shorea 40 12.00
tereticornis robusta
E. globulus 10 50 Tectona 10 12.00
grandis
Cryptomeria 32 42.92 Gmelina 13 14.81
japonica arborea
Pinus petula 30 34.95 Toona ciliata 15 14.93

Supriya K Salimath, College of Forestry, Ponnampet

Plantation Forestry, SAF 301 2+1

Note: When a choice is to be made between two species of comparable growth potential one being
indigenous and other being exotic, priority should be given to indigenous.

Reading assignment: Collect the information about the procedure involved in the introduction of
exotics in forestry and some of the case studies of successful exotics.

Site selection: The various aspects which determine the site selection are:
 Biophysical aspects of site
 Economic aspects
 Environmental aspects

The various types of sites available for plantation establishment are:

a) Recently clear felled forest area for replacement of existing crop or forest area
devoid of vegetation
b) Forest area where soil is poor and easily erodible
c) Open area in forest/wastelands under Panchayat, private or community ownership
d) Strips along road / railway line or agroforestry systems

Points to be considered while selecting the site are:

1. Legal title of the land and rights of trees: It is necessary to know the following points
before establishing plantations
i. Purchase price or rent of the land and its mode of payment
ii. The exact boundaries of the land
iii. The rights retained by the seller
iv. Rights to access land
v. Ownership of the timber and rights of using trees
vi. Period of lease etc.,

2.Pre planting survey:

 Need of pre planting survey:
 To decide what land should be left unplanted for protection or conservation
 To select species for planting site types
 To determine what is the kind of ground preparation needed
 To plan internal layout of the plantation
 After selecting the land the various information regarding the soil type, soil depth, slop,
site quality, neighboring vegetation, status of the land etc., are recorded
 The area is divided into ones giving the details of terrain, vegetation type, geology, soil
type, drainage, communication and approach roads, rights of access etc.
 Soil map is prepared by taking the perpendicular grid lines to demarcate the area into
100m×50m blocks. Vertical grid lines are numbered 1,2,3… and horizontal grid lines as

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Plantation Forestry, SAF 301 2+1

A, B, C,….Circular pits of 15-20 cm diameter and 60 cm deep are dug at each inter sections
to determine the soil depth. Based on this, area is demarcated into different zones:
 Zone I : Shallow soil (<10 cm depth)
 Zone II : Medium soil (10-30 cm depth)
 Zone III : Deep soil (>30 cm depth)
 Treatment of scale 1:15000 is drawn and the area is demarcated into different zones as:
 Zone I : Extremely refractory areas where research and development is needed for soil
conservation
 Zone II : Area suitable for pasture development and tree planting
 Zone III: Area for tree planting
 Internal layout of the plantation: It includes layout of nursery and other roads. Nursery
should be next to the labour compound and water source. Roads should be constricted
facilitating easy movement of vehicles
 Preparation of management and appraisal map: These maps show the details of number
of pits, trench pits, seed beds, soil properties etc.,

Note: Maps prepared during the plantation establishment are Situation map, Soil map, Treatment
map, Management and appraisal map.

3. Other factors:
 There should be enough area to be tackled for several consecutive years
 Area should be approachable during the monsoon
 Provision for transportation of seedlings and other materials
 Maximum participation of local labour
 Availability for residence of labors from outside

Plantation journal:
It is a register which contains all the details of a plantation from planting up to the rotation age.
The journal contains various forms which have provision for entering the map of the area
compartment number, details of the old vegetation, period of various operations and expenditure
done on it. Expenditure like fencing, pit and trench making, transport, planting, weeding, cleaning,
thinning, are entered month wise and year wise in plantation journal. It also contains the growth
data and insect and pest incidence of the plantation. It is maintained in duplicate, one at range
office and other in division office.

Site Preparation:
Site preparation is the pre requisite and the essential for the establishment of plantations. Site
preparation is an early investment and constitutes major proportion of the total costs involved for
the establishment of plantations. Therefore it requires efficient and feasible methods. A careful
thought should be given for clearing of vegetation which may bring some ecological change, soil
erosion or degradation. Felling of indigenous forests for short term gains is not advisable.

Supriya K Salimath, College of Forestry, Ponnampet

Plantation Forestry, SAF 301 2+1

Sometimes, tropical rain forests are clear-felled where the ecosystem is fragile and cannot be
corrected with artificial plantations. Such areas should not be disturbed.

Objectives of site preparation:

 To reduce the competition for the available moisture and nutrients, the existing vegetation
is cleared off
 The land is cultivated primarily
• To facilitate planting
• To induce rapid root development
• To optimize soil aeration and drainage
• To reduce weed competition
• To control erosion

Site preparation in Grassy/ shrubby areas:

1. Planting without clearing: Direct planting with minimum of soil working is possible in
grassy and shrubby areas. Potted plants are simply inserted into the holes and pressed.
Retention of ground cover is desirable to avoid the risk of soil erosion and to protect the
young seedlings from frost and exposure.
2. Patch clearing: A patch of area not less than 1m is cleared and soil working is done before
sowing. On hills patches are laid along the contours.
It is carried out when:
• burning cannot be managed safely
• Lands needs to be eradicated from weeds
• When the clearing of whole area cannot be done due to costly affair
3. Burning off: Controlled burning is the common and cheapest way of site clearing but needs
a careful planning. Risks of the burning are chances of getting fire uncontrolled, loss of
organic matter and breaking up of diseases.
Site preparation of Forest covered areas:
1. Clear felling: It is carried out when:
• The fast growing species has to be raised
• Area to be cultivated mechanically
• Working plan prescription are laid out to have a clear felling
• The planting of light demanding species is planned
 In case of shade tolerant species it is desirable to retain some standards for the protection
of seedlings and soil. These standards also provide shade to the labors and are the shelter
to the avian fauna.
 Felling may be done departmentally/by contractors
 Later the slash/merchantable logs, weeds, coppice sprouts/understory forest cover is
removed and burnt.

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Plantation Forestry, SAF 301 2+1

2. Strip clearing: It aims at completely replace the existing vegetation in stages by planting
desirable species without eliminating the existing vegetation. Strips are cleared and fast
growing and light demanding trees are planted in planting lines such that lateral shading is
avoided and are kept perpendicular to the base line.
3. Clearing for under planting: it is applied for the species which are shade tolerant in the
initial period. The ground is cleared for vegetation leaving some of the trees for overhead
shade. Ideal density of the over wood is the one which maintains sufficient shade to keep
the forest floor free from weeds and letting the sunlight infiltrate for the establishment of
new crop.
4. Stumping: It refers to the removal of stumps which is envisaged when it is required to
cultivate the area mechanically. It is the most labor oriented and costly process.

Methods of Site Preparation:

1. Manual Method: It is the common method where clearance is easy, sites are small and
scattered with different terrain.
Choice of manual labour depends on:
o When minimum disturbance to the soil is required for planting
o When labour is cheap, availability is timely and plentiful.
o When the policy of the government is to generate employment
o When the machinery cannot operate on the areas like steep slopes, rocky terrains
and wet areas
2. Mechanical methods: It is the use of machinery for the site preparation. This method is
followed only when:
o The machines should be fully suited to the operations required of it.
o Work has to be done in large areas which can be cleared efficiently.
o Accessibility of roads and paths must be available.
o Spacing must be wider
o It must be cost effective
o Availability of trained personnel and workshops for repair
o Availability of labour and timeliness of operation
Demerits of method:
o It cannot be operated in the difficult terrains
o High initial costs, fuel cost and repair costs
o Loss of job opportunities to locals
o Results in soil disturbance and compaction
3. Chemical methods: It is the use of herbicides to eliminate the undesirable vegetation
present in the area. Various kinds of chemicals are in use in western countries. Based on
mode of action these herbicides are classified as follows:
o Contact herbicides: These kill the plant parts coming in contact with the chemical
Ex: Bentazon, Glufosinate, Diquat

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Plantation Forestry, SAF 301 2+1

o Translocation herbicides: These are absorbed either through the roots or foliage and
get translocate to other parts.
Ex: 2,4,5 T (Trichlorophenoxy acetic acid)
2,4 D (Di chloro phenoxy acetic acid)
o Soil acting chemicals: These are toxic to the germinating seeds in the soil
Ex: Zimazine, Diuron
o Total weed killers: These kill all type of vegetation when applied to soil and even
residues in the soil poison the seeds for several months
Ex: Sodium Chlorate
Advantages of use of herbicides:
o These bring long lasting control over vegetation
o Increase the economic returns
o Control tough invasive exotic weeds
o Avoid soil compaction
Demerits:
o These may sometimes drift to non-target species
o Surface runoff results in wastage
o Results in soil and water pollution

Direct sowing:
The choice between the direct sowing and planting seedlings depends on number of factors.
The advantages of direct sowing over planting are:
 Direct sowing is cheaper as the cost of raising the nursery planting stock is eliminated along
with the operations connected to it.
 If the abundant quantities of seeds are available at the low cost, it is a feasible method.
 Species which are susceptible to transplanting shock and heavy mortality during the
transportation can be established using direct sowing. It results in the better root
development.
 Fast growing species which are strong enough to survive in the competing vegetation on
the site can be established using direct sowing.
 Direct sowing is preferred for the species with large seeds and promising germination under
field condition.
Demerits of direct sowing:
 Regeneration is unpredictable as there are loss from seeds eaten by the birds insects,
rodents etc.
 It cannot be followed when the cost of seed procurement is high and it is difficult to get
adequate quantities of seeds.
 It is a difficult task to obtain the seeds from some special provenances.
 It results in the irregular stocking either too dense or too thin.
 It is difficult to practice in poorer and difficult sites.

Supriya K Salimath, College of Forestry, Ponnampet

Plantation Forestry, SAF 301 2+1

Seed coating: It is the process where the seeds are coated with insecticides and bird repellents to
overcome the damage or losses during the regeneration. Chemicals such as arsenate and endrine
are used for insects and rodents. Arasan and Anthroquinone are used against the fungus and as bird
repellents. For the broadcasting of lighter seeds they are coated with hygroscopic materials
containing nutrients and toxic materials or mixed with sand or dust to ensure uniform scattering.
In seed pelleting Aluminum powder has been found to be useful.

Site preparation for sowing:

Success of direct sowing is ensured when the seed comes in contact with the mineral soil and
preferably get covered with the fine layer of earth. In India Rab method is generally followed
where the slash cleared from the site is piles up and burnt. The seeds are sown on the ash after
burning. It is useful as the burning destroys all types of weed growth and termites along with
providing the fresh mineral material for seed germination.

Time of Sowing: Moisture and the rainfall are the critical factors which decide time of sowing.
Sowing should be done when the soil is sufficiently moist and warm and is free from frost. Sowing
is generally recommended to start either in the spring or on the onset of monsoon. In the snowfall
areas it should be done just before the onset of snowfall.

Methods of direct sowing:

1. Broadcasting: It can be done either by hand or mechanically. It requires abundant quantity of
seeds. If the germination and survival percentage of the seeds is higher it results in the dense
stocking which needs to be thinned out. It is done either in ploughed land or the sites without any
preparation. The practice of covering the seeds with layer of soil to a depth equal to 2-3 times the
diameter of the seeds will increase the survival percentage. It is suitable to the fire burnt areas,
abandoned cultivated areas, grass lands and freshly exposed sites like landslides.
2. Line/drill sowing: Here sowing is done in predetermined intervals in lines or drills in cleaned
cultivated areas. It reduces the quantity of the seeds required than the broadcasting. The spacing
followed depends on the growth rate as well as the stocking level required. It may be done in
continuous trenches or staggered lines. Staggered line sowing should be done in undulated sloppy
areas. The demerit of the line sowing is that it takes long time to get fully stocked than the
broadcasting.
3. Spot sowing: Here the small patches are cleaned off spaced at regular intervals and sowing of
sufficient number of seeds per patch is done. It is followed when the clearing of dense weeds from
the ground is not possible. It can be successful only when the patches are regularly weeded,
properly stocked and spaced at regular intervals.
4. Strip sowing: Seed broadcasting is done in the strips of 45cm to 90 cm wide and 1.8m wide.
Though it needs more seed and weeding than the line sowing it has the advantage that the chances
of failures at any part of the plantation is rare.

Supriya K Salimath, College of Forestry, Ponnampet

Plantation Forestry, SAF 301 2+1

5. Dibbling: It is the sowing of seeds in shallow holes made with iron/wooden hoeing device of
10m×10m×10m. Species with large seeds are preferred. 1-2 seeds per hole are dibbled. Soil
working and seeding are done simultaneously.
Ex: Ailanthus excelsa, Prosopis juliflora, Shorea robusta

Aerial seeding: It is the process of dispersing the seeds aerially.

Sites suitable for aerial seeding:
 Remote and inaccessible areas
 Ragged areas
 Region where the labour scarcity or sparse population is available
 Deep ravines where manual afforestation is not possible
 Financial constraints
 Denude areas with clear felling or shifting cultivation
 Areas affected with pests, diseases, volcanos, earthquakes and landslides
Choice of species:
 Smaller and medium sized seeds are preferable
 Seeds should be available in large quantities
 Seed should have the ability to germinate in rough areas
 Rapid germination and seedling growth is essential to avoid the suppression by weeds
 Ability to withstand extreme temperatures and should resist the falling impact from higher
height
 They should be non-palatable
 Ex: Acacia nilotica, Acacia tortilis, Prosopis juliflora, P. cineraria, A. catechu, Dalbergia
sissii, Bamboo

Mechanisms of aerial sowing: Ground preparation is necessary for the better germination and
survival. Dry sites should be suitably disked to obtain optimum tilth, aeration and moisture
retention.
Seeds are coated with chemicals before aerial seeding to avoid predation. The treatment of seeds
with fungicide repel the birds and insects. Latex is used as binder in coating of seeds. Aluminum
powder is used as a lubricant to prevent the seed from sticking as they pass through machines.

Advantages:
1. It is less expensive than manual seeding
2. Large area can be covered in small amount of time
3. It avoids the work of raising seedlings
4. It covers most inaccessible areas
5. The labour requirement is less
Disadvantages:
1. It needs larger quantities of seeds which is difficult to procure

Supriya K Salimath, College of Forestry, Ponnampet

Plantation Forestry, SAF 301 2+1

2. It involves wastage of seeds

3. The results are unpredictable
4. The establishment of the population is uneven which makes the further operations difficult
5. Density and the spacing cannot be worked out in aerial seeding
6. It cannot be practiced in grassy sites as the grasses obstructs the seeds reaching the ground
7. Washing away of seeds by the monsoon rainfall.

Hydro seeding: It is a technique consisting of mixing some of the seedling materials like grasses,
fertilizers and mulching solutions, asphalt solution and curasol or agrisol. The mixture is directly
sprayed to the sick slopes with pressurized sprayers mounted on the trucks. Usually hydro seeding
is done during the good weather condition to assure the mixture’s full contact with the soil. Where
the seasonal heavy rainfall prevails, spraying should be avoided. Banks or slopes with rough
surfaces have better chance for seed and seedlings to stay but is less effective on slope steeper than
70°. Considering the frequent occurrence of the landslides, land slips, soil erosion and siltation
attributed to conflicting land use in the area, the adaptability to the technique is worth studying. It
is also worth trying in the mined out areas, revegetation of over grazed areas, beautification and
stabilization of the degraded parks, play grounds and other recreational areas. Because it is an
economical and fast way of establishing vegetation cover, hydro seeding is an excellent prospects
in the rehabilitation of degraded areas.

Planting: time of planting, types of planting, spacing, patterns

For a surer success of afforestation and reforestation program planting out of seedlings is carried
out by utilizing the nursery raised seedlings, root shoot cuttings (Stumps), branch cutting etc., At
the same time selection of proper planting period, method of planting as well as patterns of planting
is essential. The selection of time, method and pattern of planting determines the future of the
plantations.
I. Time of planting: Best time for planting is when
o Soil has sufficient moisture content
o Atmosphere is free from frost
o Surroundings has minimum evaporation rates
o Plant shoots are in dormant stages
Based on season planting has been classified as:
1. Pre monsoon planting: It is adopted when the irrigation is feasible, dry spells are short and the
period of pre monsoon showers are extended for long time. Here the plants get longer growing
period.
2. Monsoon planting: It should begin as soon as the soil has well moistened to the depth of planting.
A single day wasted is considered as delay. Planting should be done when the soil is wet and sticky.
3. Winter or spring planting: It is adopted for the species which are dormant during the winter
seasons.
Ex: Populus, Dalbergia sissoo, etc.

Supriya K Salimath, College of Forestry, Ponnampet

Plantation Forestry, SAF 301 2+1

General planting Rules:

1. Planting should be done as early as in rainy season provided there is a likelihood of rains
to continue
2. Before new planting of the area, beating up of old plantations is given priority
3. Before moving the plants from nursery to the planting site they should be watered properly
4. Healthy and sturdy seedlings should be planted in dry soils than wet soils because by the
time growth ceases, the roots must have reached a depth where soil moisture is sufficient
to avoid desiccation in hot weather
5. In dry sites planting should be done deeper in the pits and some depression must be left
after filling the pits to collect rail water. In contrast, planting must be done in mounds in
wet areas.
6. The pit should be treated with insecticides and farm yard manure before planting.
7. While refilling the pits or contour trenches, best or fertile soils should be placed at the
bottom and subsoil must be placed after. But leaf litter should not be kept in contact with
roots as they will rot and invite fungus.
8. Planting should be done at proper depth without causing disturbance to the roots.
9. Collar should be at the same position as it was in nursery.
10. Deep planting of the tall plants should be done to avoid the damage by winds.
11. The soil after planting should be compacted and made firm first by hands and then by heel.
12. Watering should be done immediately after planting.
Plant spacing:
Espacement of the plant spacing is important to control the number of plants and to regulate
the uniform distribution of the plants in the plantation area. Silviculturally, optimum spacing is the
one which tends to achieve full occupancy of the site and the tree takes full advantage of light, soil
moisture and nutrients.
Factors responsible for the choice of spacing:
Rate of growth of the species: Slow growing species tend to be planted at closer spacing
than the fast growing species as the former takes long time for canopy closure.
The growth form of the species: Some species have the tendency to develop branchiness,
therefore they need to be planted closely to promote the development of clean stems due
to natural pruning.
Weed control: When the weeding is done at mechanized way, wider spacing is adopted. If
there is a lack of fund for plantation maintenance like weeding, closer spacing is adopted
as it suppresses the weed naturally to some extent.
Soil moisture: Wider spacing is adopted in dry areas where close spacing is adopted in the
irrigated plantations. In case of shallow soils wide spacing is followed for providing more
space for the root development. Fertile soils can support more number of trees per ha than
the poor soils.
Planting materials: When the tall plants are used for the planting wider spacing is adopted.

Supriya K Salimath, College of Forestry, Ponnampet

Plantation Forestry, SAF 301 2+1

Cost of planting: Costs of planting and labour increase in the closer spacing where as the
costs of weeding increase in the wider spacing. In general, wide spacing are cheaper than
the closer spacing.
Future management: Closer spacing is adopted when there is a sufficient market for the
thin sized materials and for the fuel wood production.
Production of volume: If the wider spacing is followed for short rotation species, there will
be loss of production as the whole land is not utilized completely. And the mean tree size
increases along with the taper.
Spacing of the important tree species:
Sl. No Tree species Spacing
1. Acacia nilotica 3.5×3.5, 3×2
2. Casurina equisetifolia 1.83×1.83, 2.5×2.5, 2.74×2.74, 3×2
3. Dalbergia sissoo 2.5×2.5, 3×2
4. Eucalyptus sps. 3×2, 1.5×3, 1.5×3
5. Pinus roxbhurghii 3×3
6. Shorea robusta 3×3
7. Teak 2×2, 2.5×2.5, 4×4

Patterns of Planting:
1. Line planting: Here, planting is done in lines at some specified distance. Two or more
lines form a rectangle. The distance between the trees in rows is closer than the distance
between the rows. Each plant in the successive row is opposite to the previous one. This
pattern helps in agroforestry systems to operate machines and to grow crops.

2. Square planting: In this pattern plants are planted in rows so that the distance between the
trees in rows and between the rows is same. Plants occupy positions at the corners of each
successive square.

Supriya K Salimath, College of Forestry, Ponnampet

Plantation Forestry, SAF 301 2+1

3. Triangular planting/Hexagonal planting: Here the planting is done in rows so that the
plants in the successive row get in to the middle of the preceding row to adjust at the corners
of the each equilateral triangle.

4. Quincunx planting: It is a group of five points, four of which form the corners of the
square with fifth at the center. In this an extra plant is placed in the center of each square
of four plants.

Calculation of number of plants per hectare: Before planning the plantation, it is always
advisable to calculate the exact number of plants required for plantations. To this sum, 20-25 %
number is added to make up the loss during the transportation, causalities in the field and climatic
stress. Exact number of plants required under different planting pattern are as follows:

Supriya K Salimath, College of Forestry, Ponnampet

Plantation Forestry, SAF 301 2+1

Sl. No Planting pattern Number of plants/ha

1. Line planting 100 × 100 × 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑎
𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 × 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

2. Square planting 100 × 100 × 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑎

𝑆𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

3. Triangular planting 100 × 100 × 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑎 × 1.155

𝑆𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒)

4. Quincunx planting 100 × 100 × 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑎 × 2

𝑆𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑔 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒

Method of calculating spacing for a given number of plants: Spacing in a plantation can be
calculated for a given number of plants under different patterns of planting is as below:
Sl. No Planting pattern Spacing (Sq.m)
1. Line planting 100 × 100
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 ℎ𝑎 × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠
𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑟𝑜𝑤 𝑡𝑜 𝑟𝑜𝑤
2. Square planting
100 × 100
√
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 ℎ𝑎
3. Triangular planting
100 × 100 × 1.155
√
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 ℎ𝑎

4. Quincunx planting
100 × 100 × 2
√
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 ℎ𝑎

Methods of planting:
1. Naked root planting: It is applicable in areas with temperate climate and where the humidity
is high. Precautions to be taken are:
Avoid exposure to sun and wind
If there is a gap between delivery at the site and the planting they should be kept in shade
or in trenches
Naked root plants should be large in size preferably without leaves
Careful transportation or hauling from the nursery site
After shifting the plants from the nursery bed excess earth from the roots is removed by
shaking and they are tied in bundles.

Supriya K Salimath, College of Forestry, Ponnampet

Plantation Forestry, SAF 301 2+1

In order to reduce the mortality of the seedlings, hardening off is done in the nursery
Size of the pit should be sufficiently large to contain the roots without coiling
As far as possible lateral roots must be places at their natural locations
The pit should be filled in and pressed so that no gap between the tap root and the soil is
left.
Ex: Ailanthus altissima, Juglans regia, Albizzia lebbeck, Casurina equisetifolia, Bahunia
variegata
2. Planting with ball of earth: It is followed in the species which are not able to resist the exposure
of their roots as well as long transportation. Ball of earth in nursery is possible only when the soil
is not too wet or dry. Special care should be taken while transporting the seedlings with ball of
earth so that the ball remains undisturbed. After putting the plants in the pit, the earth filling should
be done gradually up to the level of the ball of earth and the soil is pressed firmly using heels and
hands (Treading) but not the ball of earth.
3. Brick planting: It is an indigenous method followed in dry areas. Brick facilitate transportation
and evade harsh environment. Bricks are prepared using sand, soil or clay and FYM. It is safer
than the ball of earth. Planting is done in the same manner as the other methods. These provide
nutrition to the plant in the initial stages of the seedling establishment and growth.
4. Stump planting: it is large nursery stock of the species which have been subjected to the drastic
pruning of both shoot and root.
Ex: Teak, Rose wood, Bombax ceiba, Gmelina arborea.
Preparation of stumps:
 Take out the naked root plant from the nursery bed and grade them on the basis of their tap
root and collar diameter
 Plants with forked root system, diseased or tap root system having <30cm discarded
 Length of the stumps should be 20-25cm with 18-20cm root and 2-5cm shoot.
 Lateral roots are pruned with sharp scissors such that bark of the tap root is not damaged
 They are tied in bundles and wrapped in gunny bags
 While planting collar should be at the same level of ground as it was in nursery and put the
soil from all side and firm it.
Merits:
 Easy to prepare, handle and plant
 Less cost during all operations
 Require less earth work
 Can be transported in bulk quantities to distant places without loss of vitality as they have
reserve food materials.
5. Planting with containers/ polythene bags: It is the most widely used and safest method of
planting. After removing the plastic bags the plants are planted with intact ball of earth without
disturbing the root system. The pit size should be larger than the container size. Treading should

Supriya K Salimath, College of Forestry, Ponnampet

Plantation Forestry, SAF 301 2+1

be followed after planting. The used polythene bags can be used as mulch to protect the seedlings.
Do not use the weeds as mulch as they attract termites and can damage the plants.
6. Branch or stem cuttings:
 Cuttings are prepared from young living stem or branches. They can be directly planted in
the field or may be raised in the nursery to get rooted cuttings. This choice depends on the
species chosen and the moisture condition of the site.
 Cuttings are planted before the monsoon and a paste of cow dung and mud or wax is applied
at the apex.
 The shoot formation is easier than the root in cuttings,
 Ex: Boswellia serrata, Erythrina sps., Lannea coramendalica, Ficus sps., Willows

GAP FILLING
The casualty replacement during the first year after planting is called beating up or gap filling.
After planting all the plants do not survive. Even after the careful planting nearly 5-20% mortality
have been found in stump or polybag planting. The beating up of casualty should be done just after
the first weeding as the plants put out later having little chance of survival. The stock used for
casualty replacement should be vigorous and tall because they get lesser time of growth. The
reasons for mortality may be water logging, incorrect method of planting, trampling by animals,
and carelessness at the time of weeding etc., therefore while attempting casualty replacement these
factors should be removed. If sufficient care is not taken there would be repeated mortality. In
certain cases, gap filling may also have to be carried out in the second year of planting.

Enrichment planting:
Enrichment planting is commonly used for increasing the density of desired tree species in
secondary forests often characterized by a prevalence of low commercial species. Enrichment
planting introduces valuable timber species in existing, but degraded, secondary forest. By doing
so, EP protects secondary forests and uses the thinned over story as shelter wood. Much like
agroforestry and “domestic forest,” EP combines both “artificial” planting and “natural”
management of the existing forest matrix (shelterwood) by mimicking natural gap dynamics.
Enrichment planting can be successfully used to increase the value of secondary forests and
prevent their conversion to other land uses, thus reducing deforestation. Enrichment planting can
also accelerate the return of a productive forest capable of sustaining economic and social activities
of small poor communities, thus diminishing pressure on primary forests. The chief reason for the
adoption of EP is the absence of natural regeneration due to biotic pressure. This is normal occurs
in the forests managed under selection forests and irregular shelter wood systems. In these cases,
natural regeneration may come up well in some areas and some areas would be devoid of this
making management complicated. Hence, gap filling these areas with planting of economically
important species is needed to the increasing the value and quality of the forests.

Supriya K Salimath, College of Forestry, Ponnampet

Plantation Forestry, SAF 301 2+1

Traditional v/s Intensive forest management

Traditional or Extensive Forest management: It is defined as reliance on natural regeneration
(extensive silviculture) for next forest.
Basic Management: Reliance on natural regeneration (extensive silviculture) with artificial
regeneration (basic silviculture) used where necessary.
Intensive forest management: The practice of forestry to obtain a high level of volume and
quality of outturn per unit area through the application of the best techniques of silviculture and
management (Helms 1998). It combines extensive, basic and intensive silviculture (i.e., juvenile
spacing and accelerated artificial regeneration) to increase the value and/or volume of desired
forest components (not just timber), within a sustainable management context.

Intensive forest management includes:

1. Advanced planning: Advanced Planning is a site-specific, prescriptive approach that
considers the forest as a whole, with all of its attributes and potentials. It acknowledges the
history of the stand, including fire, insect, disease and man-made effects.
2. Intensive silviculture: The application of cultural measures which, in addition to simply
maintaining the forest cover, will allow an increase in the value or volume of the cut.
3. Enhanced protection: Enhanced protection is a more assertive variant of protection from
fire, insects and disease, than that currently in use. At present, enhanced protection cannot
be applied effectively throughout the forest, nor should it be. Because of limited resources
(money, equipment, and particularly trained staff), constantly evolving forests, and
immature risk analysis capability, the capacity for forest managers to apply continuous,
uniform, effective protection is severely limited.
4. Effects and effectiveness monitoring: measurement of environmental characteristics over
an extended period of time to determine status or trends in some aspect of environmental
quality

The traditional forest management was based on the selection system and was recommended by
then Inspector General of Forest Dr. Dietrich Brandis and the key features were as follows:
 A large part of the country was covered with dense natural forest with low population
density. The requirement of the people can be met with the adoption of even the most
conservative silvicultural system.
 There were a large number of mature and over mature trees in natural forest since time
immemorial, which were ripe enough for cutting.
 Only few number of trees were economically useful and were subjected to exploitation like
Teak and rose wood.
 The forests contained adequate natural regeneration and advance growth of differing ages
and sizes, which could grow and take the place of felled matures trees and maintain
sustainable yield.

Supriya K Salimath, College of Forestry, Ponnampet

Plantation Forestry, SAF 301 2+1

Present system of Forest management is entirely differ from traditional system:

 Large chunks of forest areas have been deforested for variety of reasons
 The prices of the timber and fire wood have gone up considerably as a result of which a
number of hitherto noncommercial species find a ready market,
 The pace of illicit felling for both domestic and trade has steadily depleted the growing
stock and deteriorated the conditions of the forest.
 With the increase in population and industrialization, domestic and industrial demand of
wood have increased tremendously.
 The increased biotic pressure from grazing, fire and illicit felling forests are experiencing
an ecological retrogression making the conditions adverse and refractory for the
regeneration.

Protection of newly planted trees: There will be some loss of newly planted seedlings during the
first few months no matter how carefully and how well the planting has been carried out. However,
these losses should be no more than ten per cent of the seedling planted i.e. a 90 % survival rate.
Where the establishment has been relatively low stocking of, say, 4-600 trees per ha and even
higher survival rate is desirable. These rates of survival are possible if the correct technique is
followed. Some early protection for seedlings from the depredations of pests and diseases, and
some early maintenance may be necessary to obtain such rates. Small planted seedlings are
vulnerable to damage from birds, insects, fungal infections and grazing animals. Substantial losses
at establishment may prove to be unavoidable under circumstances largely beyond the control of
plantation manager. It will be difficult to avoid the loss of seedlings in drought and excessive
weather like heavy rain. However, beating up a year or more after the initial planting in fast
growing species has seldom proved to be satisfactory substitute.

Protection from vermin: A number of species of both mammals, birds and insects have been
found to be injurious to newly planted seedlings. Rabbits are particularly destructive in many parts.
There is no universal prescription which can be given for protection from vermin. Every plantation
project is likely to have its own particular type of problem and it will need to adopt its own
solutions.

Fertilizer application: For some species on some sites addition of fertilizer is essential for
satisfactory growth and its use has become standard practice in several countries. Trees like all
plants, require supplies of certain chemical elements for growth. Application of these at the initial
stage is necessary to ensure the successful establishment of the seedlings in the field.

Watering: Watering the newly planted seedling is necessary in very arid climate. However, most
of the plantation raised will not have a provision for watering. In that case planting techniques
employed should assist in conserving as much water as possible both the natural rainfall and added
water. The plant can be placed in a small depressions and soil can be ridged around.

Supriya K Salimath, College of Forestry, Ponnampet

Plantation Forestry, SAF 301 2+1

Plantation maintenance: (Tending Operations)

Once a plantation has been established, the work should not be considered finished. A
variety of cultural treatments also may be required to meet the purpose of the plantation. The aim
of the forester is to obtain good quality and maximum quantity of the wood per unit area. To
achieve this goal efforts can be diverted either towards the site improvement and/or the crop itself.
Several silvicultural operation are needed to ensure a plantation is adequately established and
protected up to production stage in industrial forestry and canopy closure or desired tree size in
environmental and social forestry.

Immediate post planting problems: There are two main problems:

1. Death of plants
2. Abnormal slow growth

1. Death of plants: The usual aim of establishment is to form a plantation fully using the site. At
closer spacing a higher mortality is acceptable that at wide spacing. Many factors influence the
survival rate of the seedlings:
 Planting skill, especially firmness of soil around the roots and planting depth
 Immediate post planting weather
 Condition of seedlings: bare rooted, containerized, seedling vigor, transportation distance
 Poor soil conditions
 Incidence of insects
 Animal damage
If the deaths after planting is unacceptably high, the failures are replaced by beating up operation.
It should be done as early as possible to avoid the great variation in tree sizes in the plantations.
Seedlings used for this operations should be healthy, robust and little larger than average with good
root development.
2. Abnormally slow growth: Sometimes a young tree though not dying, stagnates in growth. This
may occur at any time but is most common before canopy closure. Typically the tree just survives,
perhaps with small, unhealthy looking leaves, and grows only few centimeters each year.
Causes:
 Poor choice of species or provenance. Ex: species planted in the open areas which needs
shade in the initial condition.
 Direct acute nutrient deficiencies: This is uncommon but most of the nutrient problems
are induced by poor soil conditions such as poor drainage, erosion of top soil or excessive
leaching.
 Poor soil physical conditions: It can occur because of compaction or erosion or second
rotation sites where the extraction, stacking and loading of logs has compacted or eroded
the areas of ground.

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 Missing or poor mycorrhizal association with conifers and possibly with many rain forest
species when planted in very open condition experiencing high soil temperature and
occasionally poor root nodulation in nitrogen fixing trees.
 Other causes like inadequate weeding, excessive browsing, prolonged overhead shade etc.

Solutions:
 Check the control of competing vegetation
 Application of fertilizers to stimulate the growth
 Improving the soil physical properties after planting like digging drains, is best in
abandoned sites.
Hence there is a need to carry out operations for the benefit of desired crops. The cultural
operations are carried out after the felling operations. The cultural operations promote the proper
development of the crop and reduce after effects of felling damage and assist regeneration.
The treatments that are done on the crop are known as tending operations defined as “any
operations carried out for the benefit of forest crop, at any stage of its life between seedling and
the mature stage” it essentially covers the operations both on the crop itself and on the competing
vegetation. These includes:
1. Weeding
2. Cleaning
3. Singling
4. Pruning
5. Climber cutting
6. Thinning

Difference between the tending and cultural operations:

Tending Cultural operations
 Carried out to benefit forest crop by  Done to assist regeneration, promote
creating better environment development and decrease felling
damage
 Does not aims at natural regeneration  Aims at natural regeneration
 Includes pruning but not controlled  Includes controlled burning but not
burning pruning
 Tending is carried out from seedling  These are carried out after felling
stage
 Carried out in both the cases of natural  Carried out in silvicultural system
and artificial regeneration relying primarily on natural
regeneration

1. Weeding: Weeds are the grasses and undesirable plants which hinder the growth of planted
seedlings. They check the growth of seedlings by sharing moisture, nutrient and light. At the time

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Plantation Forestry, SAF 301 2+1

of planting there may not be any weeds but with the break of rains, different seeds, root stocks,
and bamboo rhizomes come up and start competing with the seedlings. Therefore their periodical
removal is a must for the success of plantation. Weeding is a practice of eliminating and/or
suppressing the undesirable plants. The intensity and type of weeding to be carried out depends on
the nature of species, slope of area and likely competition of weeds with the seedlings. Weeds can
be either annual or perennial plants. Ex: Shrubs, herbs, climbers, grasses, rhizomes etc.

Need of weeding:
1. Weeds can directly compete for light, soil moisture and nutrients
2. Weeds and climbers can smother and eventually kill trees by their cumulative weight, shading
and growth habit like twining and twisting.
3. Dense undergrowth increases the fire hazard and can shelter harmful animals

Methods of weeding: The common methods of weeding are manual method, mechanical method,
chemical method and biological method of weeding.
 Manual weeding: It is the most common method where the simple tools like sickles, brush
hooks, shovels, etc. can be used to cut away the weeds. The operation is usually more
effective if some hoeing operation involving the turning over the rather than scrapping off
the weeds. This method needs little skill and supervision and can be carried out on all sites
in almost all weather conditions with all the species.
 Mechanical weeding: In mechanical weeding, a machine operates between the rows of
trees, cultivates the ground by harrowing or shallow ploughing and outs or turns down the
weed growth. This should be supplemented by the hand weeding if some weeds near the
plants get missed during the mechanical operations. Care should be taken as deep
harrowing using machines may also cause damage to roots. This method is quite effective
in hot and dry season with dry soils, as in the moist soils or when the rains start soon after
the operation the roots may get quickly established.
 Chemical weeding: Total or partial weeding is possible by the use of chemical method.
But the precautions should be taken that the recommendations that come with the chemicals
is followed. Only the pesticides which are bio degradable (Organophosphates, Carbomates)
should be used.
 Biological weeding: It is a method in which diseased organisms or the insect is used which
is harmless to the desired plant but kills the weeds. Use of parasitic plants, selective
browsing by the livestock and rodents, and growing highly competitive replacement plants
are the other forms of biological control.
Ex: Use of Teleonemia scrupulosa on Lantana camera

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Comparison between weed control methods:

Manual Mechanical Chemical

Skill and supervision low moderate high
Capital cost nil high moderate
Control achieved Up to 100 % for short Up to 80 % for short Up to 100 % for long
period period period
Tree survival good moderate good
Danger to trees Small, some risk of Very low if done Danger from wrong
cutting carefully dosage, drift

Patterns of weeding: Two operations are involved in weeding i.e. suppression and elimination.
Weed suppression can be carried by trampling or crushing down the weeds by cutting the above
ground level. Weed elimination requires however, complete removal by killing the weeds.
Weeding may be total or partial.
a. Complete weeding: It requires all the competing vegetation to be eliminated
completely. But it is very costly and not possible in large areas. The weeding is more
effective if it is accompanied by proper soil working. This will break the capillaries in
the soil so that moisture do not evaporate from the soil.
b. Line weeding: It is adopted in the areas thickly manifested with weeds. In hills, this
should be carried out in contours. A strip of one meter wide is hoed along the planting
line.
c. Strips or inter row cultivation: In this pattern, cultivation is done in the inter rows to
avoid weed competition and the same time to grow food crops as in taungya
plantations.
d. Spot ringed/ squared weeding: This is the method usually adopted for manual weeding
in India. All the plant growth round the center of the plant in a circular ring of 1-2m
diameter or in square shape is hoed around the plants.
When the weed growth is heavy and the tree growth is slow, the cost of weeding
operations may be high. In such cases, a decision has to be taken so as to the type of
weeding to be employed. Factors such as weed intensity, age of the crop, the terrain,
and labour availability would determine the type of weeding to be adopted.
2. Cleaning: Cleaning is carried out in the sapling stage involving the removal or topping of
inferior growth including individuals of favored species, climbers etc. when they are interfering
the better growth of individuals of favored species. The operation merges with thinning as the
sapling grow into poles. Cleaning is done keeping in view the site, species and the locality factors.
In dry areas only partial cleaning should be carried out. Important shrubs to be cleaned in the area
are Indigofera, Desmodium, Rubus, Spiraea etc.
3. Singling: singling is a tending operation performed in the early stages of life of the tree when it
is 2-4m tall where by forked or multiple stems are reduced to a single stem to improve the tree

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form and to accelerate linear and straight growth. It is significance in the broad leaved species of
high utility when their end use is of production of timber or veneer.
4. Climber cutting: The climbers are harmful when the trees are young and they do lot of damage
to the young plantations. They should be cut near to the ground and care should be taken to check
the regrowth at the cut end. For the plantations on the fertile lands it is necessary to carry out the
weeding and climber cutting as early as possible. Important climbers which needs attention are
Bahunia vahlii, Butea superba, Vitis sps, Milletia auriculata, Ipomea sps, Smilex sps, Dioscorea
sos, Hedera sps, etc.,
5. Pruning: When the plant is of 3-4 years, it starts putting large branches to increase the surface
area and hence photosynthesis production. However, the base of these branches form knots in the
timber. For obtaining the high quality timber it is desired that the tree should be free from knots
by removing the branches in the initial stages which is named as pruning. Pruning also:

 Make hygienic condition of the forest

 Helps easy movement of machineries in the forest
 Helps in controlling fire
 In agroforestry, allows more light to reach ground for the growth of associated crops.

Principle of pruning:
1. Prune when the trees are small to avoid the wastage of timber.
2. Use saw instead of axe or sickle
3. Winter season is the suitable time to prune the branches
4. While pruning, to avoid striping of bark, a undercut must be given
5. For hardwoods branch should be cut with slight angle
6. Trees tend to grow straight up if the leader is free from competition. To achieve this
competing braches need to be removed.
7. Remove the heavy side branches which had grown too long.
8. Remove the leaders that have become deformed or killed by frost.

Types of Pruning:
1. Natural pruning: The elimination of branches by natural or biotic agencies is called6 Natural
pruning. It occurs when the density of the crop is high, the lower branches are shed when the
crowns of the adjacent trees are closed together. The rate of killing of lower branches, shedding
and healing of the branch stub depends on the species and the density of the crop. The rate of
natural pruning can be accelerated by manipulating the density, but it costs diameter increment.
Examples for good natural pruners are Anthocephalus chinensis, Euclayptus sps, Bombax ceiba

2. Artificial pruning: It is the method of removal of artificial branches from the selected portions
of the tree stem. It is necessary in the stands with wide spacing and heavy thinning is practiced. If
the plantation is grown for an end use requiring high grade, clean constructional timber where the
uniform strength and good machining, fishing and seasoning qualities are important in the market,

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Plantation Forestry, SAF 301 2+1

some pruning must be carried out on all the species. In artificial pruning, the moribund and lower
green branches are cut off near the trunk. It is emphasized that too early pruning should not be
indirectly to be attempted to reduce the photosynthetic area of the tree crown. Too heavy pruning
are also known to depress the both the diameter and height growth of the trees.

6. Shading: In frost tender species, shading or covering by means of local tall grasses is sometimes
a necessary operation especially in frost localities of NW India. A slit is kept towards the southern
side, so as to get the sunlight and passage of air. Perforated polythene covers been used for shading
tall plants. For weak plants, shading may be required for 2-3 years. Ex: Azadirchta indica, Acacia
nilotica, Teak
7. Improvement felling: It is the removal or destruction of less valuable trees in a crop in the
interest of better growth of the more valuable individuals usually applied to a mixed, uneven aged
forests. It adds advance growth and encourages the filling up of blanks. It may include thinning of
closely stocked groups along with the clearing and general assistance to young growth of valuable
species.
 Salvage cutting: These are made for the purpose of removing trees that have been
or are in imminent danger of being killed or damaged by injurious agents other than
competition between trees.
 Sanitation cuttings: It represents the precautions to reduce the spread of damaging
organisms to the residual stand. They are undertaken in the anticipation of the
attack in attempts to forestall the establishment of the damaging organisms entirely.
 Increment felling: It is carried out with the object of obtaining the price increment
by concentrating all the possible increment on selected good stems provided this
has not been done in the thinning operation. These bring better brown development
and establishment of advance growth.
8. Staking: Plantation trees are not normally provided with support. However, in exceptional
circumstances staking or propping up may be done to repair damage to young seedlings from
strong winds or cattle provide the trees are only leaning and nor broken or killed. Staking is slow
and very expensive and is usually only done to some of the better trees evenly spaced throughout
the damaged crop.

9. Respacing: This is a weeding operation which involves removal of competing vegetation of the
same or similar species as the ones planted. Respacing may be done in following situations:

 Too close initial spacing

 When the profuse natural regeneration competes with replanted second rotation trees.
 As very early thinning to encourage rapid growth of remaining trees
 To thin out plants coming up after direct seeding operations
10. Thinning: It is wasteful and uneconomic to prune defective trees. Thinning is defined as the
felling made in immature stand for the improvement of form and growth of remaining trees without
permanently breaking the canopy. Thinning helps the forester to:

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 Utilize the volume which otherwise have lost during competition

 Select larger, straighter and healthy trees
 Select trees with small branch habit
 Improvement of stand composition and regeneration condition of the forest
 Increase in size and decrease rotation period
 Increase the financial outturn by producing the large sized timber
 Improve the hygienic condition of the forest

Objectives of thinning:
1. To favor the most vigorous trees with good form which are likely to constitute the final crop.
2. To remove dead, dry, diseased and any other trees which become a source of infection or cause
damage to the remaining healthy ones.
3. To reduce the number of trees in stand so that the remaining ones get more space for crown and
root development which, in turn, accelerates the rate of growth of stands. However, it has to be
always kept in mind that no permanent gaps in the stands are created, which otherwise lead to the
reduction in the crop volume.
4. To remove the trees of poor form such as crooked, forked, roughly branched or moribund form
so that all the future increment is concentrated only on the best trees.
5. To obtain a desirable composition of crop, the unwanted less valuable species are eliminated in
a manner to ensure uniform and proper distribution of the trees all over the area.
6. The undesirable species during regenerations may be eliminated by thinning operations.
7. Thinning may help in obtaining the suitable seed bearers for regeneration in the mixed stands.
8. Thinning is also carried out to provide on intermediate financial returns from the sale of thinning
materials.
9. Thinning operations also help in providing space for grazing, to obtain poles and posts, to
increase the amenity value of the stands and to meet the specific requirements of the industries.
10. The opened canopy after each thinning increases the light and temperature on the forest floor
which helps in the decomposition of raw humus and release of various nutrients for the growth of
trees.
Application of thinning can increase economic yields:
 Harvest anticipated losses of merchantable volume.
 Yield of income and control of growing stock during rotation.
 Increased value from rapidly growing larger diameter trees.
 Increased value from improvements in product quality.
 Opportunity to modify stand composition, prepare for the establishment of the next rotation
(manipulate sources of regeneration), and reduce the risk of damage (maintain more
vigorous and structurally sound trees).
Terms in thinning:
Type of thinning: It means the type of trees to be removed in thinning which is decided
by the size or crown class distribution of trees to be removed whether before or after the
thinning.

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Plantation Forestry, SAF 301 2+1

Thinning cycle: It is the planned interval which elapses between successive thinning in
the same area.
Thinning intensity (Volume per hectare per annum): It indicates in numerical terms the
extent to which a crop is thinned or it is a measure of the yield removed over a specified
period of time.
Thinning regime: It is the whole set of thinning carried out in crops from earliest stage to
maturity.
Thinning grade: It refers to the relative extent to which a crop is opened up in thinning.
Thinning schedule: It is the laying down of the number of stems that should remain
standing after thinning.
Timings for first thinning: Silviculturally, the timings of first thinning can be judged by the
examining the live crown ratio i.e. the proportion of the length of the stem furnished with live
branches. For many broad leaved species, before the live crown ratio is reduced to 30-40 per cent
and for pines about 40-50 per cent the first thinning has to be practiced.

Tree Crown Classification:

1. Dominant trees (D): Trees which form the uppermost canopy of the forests
a) Pre dominant trees (D1): Tallest trees which are free from vertical competition
b) Co dominant trees (D2): Rest of the dominants which are about 5/6th of the
average height of the pre dominants.
2. Dominated Trees (d): These do not form the upper most leaf canopy but their leading
shoots are not topped by the neighboring trees. Their height is about 3/4th of the tallest
trees.
3. Suppressed trees (s): Trees which reach only ½ to 5/8th of the height of the tallest trees.
Their leading shoots are overtopped by the neighboring trees.
4. Dead and moribund trees (m): Trees which are bent over and badly leaning.
5. Diseased trees (k): Trees infected with parasites and are seriously affected and also
pose danger to its neighbor.

Methods of thinning:

Thinning

Thinning in
Thinning in regular Thinning in
irregular
crops mixed crops
crops

Low or
Mechanical Crown Free Advance Maximum
ordinary
thinning Thinning Thinning Thinning Thinning
thinning

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A. Thinning in regular crops:

1. Mechanical thinning: It is defined as the thinning in which the trees are to be cut are selected
by some rule of thumb, Ex: trees in alternate rows or diagonals, alternate trees in alternate rows
or every second, third, fourth, line etc. or a minimum spacing by a standard stick. This method
can be applied to areas with uniform productivity, but may be difficult to apply where the
mortality rates are bound to rise with vagaries of climate and biotic pressures. The only
disadvantages of this method is that, the good trees which fall in diagonals or rows which are to
be removed are lost.
Row thinning:
 Trees are cut in lines or strips at fixed intervals throughout the stand.
 Often utilized for the first thinning(s) in plantations where the rows are readily apparent.
The removal of every second or third row are common practices.
 Utilized to provide systematic access for machinery in dense, un thinned stands.

Spacing thinning:
 Trees at fixed intervals are chosen for retention and all others are cut.
 Most commonly applied as the first thinning in very overcrowded young stands
developed from dense natural reproduction.
Some thumb rules have been evolved based on the studies where D= Spacing of trees in feet and
d = Average diameter of trees in inches.
1. For Deodar 𝐷=𝑑 Glover’s Formula
𝐷 = 1.5𝑑 Warren’s Formula
2. For Teak 𝐷 = 1.5 (𝑑 + 4) Sagreiya’s Formula
𝐷 = 2(𝑑 + 3) Sagreiya’s Formula
3. For D. sissoo 𝐷 = 2𝑑 Howard’s Formula
4. For Sal 𝐷 = 1.5𝑑 Laurie’s Formula
2. Low or ordinary thinning: This is also known as German thinning or thinning from below and
consists of the removal of inferior individuals starting from the suppressed class, then taking the
dominated class and ultimately the dominant class. It has been devised to be in line with the nature
because only those trees which have been unsuccessful in the struggle for growth are removed
first.
Advantages:
1. It is useful in areas where the demand of small timber is more and have market for selling.
2. It is most suitable for light demander species like teak, sal, Chirpine etc.
3. It is simple to apply and even the less trained staff can mark the trees for felling.
4. Removal of diseases and insect affected trees improve the hygienic conditions.

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Plantation Forestry, SAF 301 2+1

5. This thinning is preferred where the climber infestation is a problem but should not be
carried out where there is a danger of soil erosion.
6. Since the smaller and less vigorous trees are removed, the vigorous trees are retained for
fast growth.
7. Removal of lower classes help in the natural regeneration of the species.
Disadvantages:
1. In several areas where the thorny bushes, undesirable trees and climber infestation is heavy,
the removal of trees of lower crown classes if troublesome and expensive.
2. This thinning is carried out after the trees have remained in competition for a long time to
develop crown differentiation. Due to this, the whole crop including the dominants is
already affected due to effect of competition.
3. In a situation where the predominant and the dominants are not able to utilize the site
properly, the lower classes may be useful. The surplus of nutrients store is utilized by the
lower crown classes and remain in cycling.
4. In absence of the demand for small thinning poles, the thinning materials cannot be utilized
economically.
5. The soil erosion may be increased, particularly in slopy areas by the removal of trees of
lower crown classes.
Grades of ordinary thinning:
Thinning Grade Tree classes to be removed
1. A Grade Removal of dead, dying, diseased and suppressed class
Light thinning
2. B Grade Removal of dead, dying, diseased and suppressed class
Moderate thinning along with defective dominated stems
3. C grade Trees in A and B grade thinning, all remaining
Heavy thinning dominated, defective codominants
4. D Grade Thinning Trees of A, B and C grade with some good dominants
Very heavy thinning so that no lasting or permanent gap develops in the
canopy
5. E Grade thinning Followed for research purpose where many dominants
Extremely heavy thinning stems are removed

3. Crown thinning: This is also known as French thinning, high thinning or thinning from
above. This is a kind of selective thinning in which thinning is primarily directed to the dominant
trees in the regular crop, the less promising ones being removed in the interest of best available
individuals. The dominated and suppressed classes are retained unless they are dead or diseased.
It favors the crown development of selected potential final crop. The selection of trees to be
retained after thinning depends upon the health, vigor, form and species. If all the trees are good,
only codominants are removed which are interfering in the growth of predominants. It is suitable
to moderately shade tolerant species in which the retention of lower canopy classes presents no
difficulty. It is suitable to forests where no damage due to frost, snow, wind etc. are common.

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Advantages:
1. This method checks the erosion and damage due to frost, snow and wind etc.
2. The side branches are pruned in a better way due to the presence of trees of lower crown
classes.
3. The lower crown classes help in controlling the weeds and shrub growth.
4. The removal of some dominant trees provide light and room for some dominated trees to
develop, many of which may later take their place among dominants.
Disadvantages:
1. The lower tree classes make difficult various operations lie marking, felling, logging and
extraction of the thinned material.
2. It requires experience and skill.
3. The method being flexible requires greater check on the trees to be marked and removed.
4. The diseased and insect affected trees of lower crown classes are always sources of
infection for the crop.
Grades of thinning:
Light crown thinning (L.C Grade) Removal of dead , dying, diseased and wolf trees with
some better dominants
Heavy crown thinning (H. C Grade) The final crop is targeted to achieve certain stockings
like 500-600 trees per ha

4. Free thinning: This is also called as Heck’s free thinning and is a modification of crown
thinning. It is also called as elite thinning or single stem silviculture. Here the attention is
concentrated still further on the selection of elites or alpha stems, evenly spaced over the ground,
which are retained up to maturity or till the last thinning and thinning operations are may
accordingly be directed primarily to the removal of other stems hindering their optimum
development. The number of future stems to be required at the rotation age are first selected and
retained. The rest of the crop is considered from the point of view of their effect on elite trees, if
considered necessarily, they are cut otherwise left for the protection of the site.
Disadvantages:
1. Difficulty in identifying the elites.
2. The involvement of heavy thinning around the elites may make them wolf trees and are
susceptible to the attack by disease or wind.
3. The marking of trees attracts the elephants and they extensively damage the young
saplings and elite trees.
4. If the whole lot is of bad individuals, it makes it obligatory to select bad elites.
5. It is cumbersome and time consuming.
5. Advance thinning: It was developed by Crain and O’conner for wattle and pine in South Africa.
It differs from all other methods described above as thinning is carried out before the competition

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among the individual trees has set in. The surplus individuals are taken out regularly for the
advantage of the residual one. This may cause loss of total volume production but should ensure
the maximum growth of the retained trees.
6. Maximum thinning: It is developed by Gehrhardt, is a further development on Heck’s free
thinning method and like that it aims at putting as high a proportion as possible of total potential
increment of the area on the retained stem from an early stage. It is applied to regular crops. It is
the heaviest kind of thinning and practically there are no trees other than elites. It may deteriorate
the site due to exposure, scrub growth may increase and the production of clean and knot free
timber may not be possible.
7. Numerical thinning: During the thinning, the number of stems to be retained is fixed in advance.
For this, yield table may serve as a guiding reference. Since the number of trees vary with the site
quality, a really subjective approach is necessary for different sites.
B. Thinning in irregular crops:
It is difficult to classify the trees in irregular crops. Seth (1956) has suggested that in irregular
crops the degree of crown freedom and their further sub classification.
1. Free 2. Restricted 3. Confined
Crown development Well developed Average Poor
Crown size Large Medium Small

 Thinning in the irregular crop is done by the selection method.

 All such trees which restricts the growth of neighboring trees on all sides are removed.
 The trees selected for thinning should not be more valuable than their neighboring trees
 The aim should be to maintain the crop of all diameter classes in sufficient numbers for
maximum sustained yield.
C. Thinning in mixed crops: Thinning in such plantation is difficult and may result in the
objective being overlooked unless a definite policy laying down the priorities for various species
is fixed. Generally, crown thinning is followed.
Choice of thinning method:
Mechanical thinning Low thinning Crown thinning
Little specialist knowledge is Little specialist knowledge is Special knowledge is required
required required
Supervision is small Supervision is more Supervision is necessary
No pre marking is needed Marking not difficult Marking is most difficult
Extraction of felled timber is Smaller trees are felled, so Extraction is difficult and time
easier extraction is easy consuming

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Inexpensive in first two Most costly as it requires Cost per cubic meter is
thinning removing many trees. But generally less.
profitable in long run

NUTRITION IN PLANTATION FORESTS

Plant nutrients are chemical elements that are essential for plant growth and reproduction. The
term nutrient implies essentiality, so it is redundant to call these elements as essential nutrients.
For an element to be a nutrient
i. must be required for a plant to complete its life cycle
ii. must be required by all plants and
iii. no other nutrient can replace this requirement fully.
All the elements that have been identified as plant nutrients, however, do not fully meet these
criteria. Seventeen elements are considered to have met the criteria for designation as plant
nutrients. Carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen are derived from air or water. The other 14 are obtained
from soil or nutrient solutions

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Nutrient Deficiencies: Every soil is not susceptible to the same nutrient deficiencies. For example,
coarse-textured soils low in organic matter are susceptible to sulfur deficiencies whereas sulfur is
usually in adequate supply in clayey soils or soils high in organic matter. Nutrient deficiency
symptoms usually appear on the plant when one or more nutrients are in short supply. In many
cases, deficiency may occur because an added nutrient is not in the form the plant can use.
Deficiency symptoms for specific elements are included on the "Key to Nutrient Disorders".

Nutrient deficiency symptoms

Nitrogen • General chlorosis.
• Chlorosis progresses from light green to yellow.
• Entire plant becomes yellow under prolonged stress.
• Growth is immediately restricted and plants soon become spindly and
drop older leaves
Phosphorous • Leaves appear dull, dark green, blue green, or red-purple, especially
on the underside, and especially at the midrib and vein.
• Petioles may also exhibit purpling.
• Restriction in growth may be noticed
Potassium • Leaf margins tanned, scorched, or have necrotic spots (may be small
black spots which later coalesce).
• Margins become brown and cup downward.
• Growth is restricted and die back may occur.
• Mild symptoms appear first on recently matured leaves
Calcium • Growing points usually damaged or dead (die back).
• Margins of leaves developing from the growing point are first to turn
brown
• Marginal chlorosis or chlorotic blotches which later merge.
• Leaves show yellow chlorotic interveinal tissue on some species,
Magnesium reddish purple progressing to necrosis on others.

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• Younger leaves affected with continued stress.

• Chlorotic areas may become necrotic, brittle, and curl upward.
• Symptoms usually occur late in the growing season
Sulphur • Leaves uniformly light green, followed by yellowing and poor spindly
growth.
• Uniform chlorosis does not occur
Iron • Distinct yellow or white areas appear between veins, and veins
eventually become chlorotic.
• Cuppings and invward curling of leaves is also noticed in teak
• Symptoms are rare on mature leaves.
Manganese • Chlorosis is less marked near veins.
• Some mottling occurs in interveinal areas.
• Chlorotic areas eventually become brown, transparent, or necrotic.
• Symptoms may appear later on older leaves.
Zinc • Leaves may be abnormally small and necrotic.
• Large and drooping new leaves due to the deficiency of Zn
• Internodes are shortened.
Boron • Young, expanding leaves may be necrotic or distorted followed by
death of growing points.
• Internodes may be short, especially at shoot terminals.
• Clustering of new leaves due to the deficiency
• Stems may be rough, cracked, or split along the vascular bundles.
Molybdenum • Shortening of leaf lamina and absence of leaf tip due to the deficiency
of Mo
Copper • Chlorosis in leaves

USE OF FERLTILIZERS: Fertilizer is any organic or inorganic material of natural or synthetic

origin (other than liming materials) that is added to a soil to supply one or more plant nutrients
essential to the growth of plants.
Types of Fertilizers:
I. Based on the nutrients they provide:
1. Nitrogenous fertilizers: The nitrogenous fertilizers are either nitrate type or ammonium type,
some of which are acidic, some are alkaline and others are neutral.
Ex:
Sl. No Name of the fertilizer Source of Nitrogen % of N
1. Calcium nitrate Nitrate 15.0
2. Ammonium sulphate Ammonium 20.5
3. Mono ammonium sulphate Ammonium 11.0
4. Di ammonium sulphate Ammonium 21.0
5. Calcium Ammonium Nitrate Ammonium & Nitrate 20.0
6. Ammonium Nitrate Ammonium & Nitrate 33.5
7. Urea Amide 46.0

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2. Phosphotic Fertilizers: These provide the phosphorous in the form of P2O5

Ex:
Sl. No Name of the fertilizer % of P2O5
1. Rock phosphate 30.35
2. Single super phosphate 16.0
3. Calcium meta phosphate 63.6
4. Di ammonium phosphate 46.0

3. Potassic Fertilizers: These provide the Potassium in the form of K2O

Ex:
Sl. No Name of the fertilizer % of K2O
1. Potassium Chloride 61.00
2. Murate of Potash 60.00
3. Potassium Sulphate 50.00
4. Potassium carbonate 65.00
5. Wood ash 51.00

II. Based on the number of nutrients they provide:

Single Fertilizers Contain only one nutrient 1. Urea (N)
2. Superphosphate (P)
3. Rock phosphate (P)
4. Muriate of pottash (K)
Compound Contain two nutrients 1. DAP (N,P)
fertilizers 2. CAN (N,Ca)
Full fertilizers Contain all three main 1. NPK 20-20-20 (N,P,K)
nutrients and Also available 2. NPK 17-17-10 (N,P,K)
with some or all necessary 3. NPK 12-12-17-2 (N,P,K + Mn)
micronutrients 4. Bayfolan (N,P,K +
micronutrients)

METHODS OF FERTILIZER APPLICATION

The different methods of fertilizer application are as follows:

a) Broadcasting
1. It refers to spreading fertilizers uniformly all over the field.
2. Suitable for crops with dense stand, the plant roots permeate the whole volume of the soil.
3. Large doses of fertilizers are applied and insoluble phosphatic fertilizers such as rock
phosphate are used.
Broadcasting of fertilizers is of two types.

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Plantation Forestry, SAF 301 2+1

i) Broadcasting at sowing or planting (Basal application)

The main objectives of broadcasting the fertilizers at sowing time are to uniformly distribute the
fertilizer over the entire field and to mix it with soil.

ii) Top dressing

It is the broadcasting of fertilizers particularly nitrogenous fertilizers in closely sown crops like
paddy and wheat, with the objective of supplying nitrogen in readily available form to growing
plants.

Disadvantages of broadcasting
The main disadvantages of application of fertilizers through broadcasting are:
i) Nutrients cannot be fully utilized by plant roots as they move laterally over long distances.
ii)The weed growth is stimulated all over the field.
iii) Nutrients are fixed in the soil as they come in contact with a large mass of soil.

b) Placement
1. It refers to the placement of fertilizers in soil at a specific place with or without reference
to the position of the seed.
2. Placement of fertilizers is normally recommended when the quantity of fertilizers to apply
is small, development of the root system is poor, soil have a low level of fertility and to
apply phosphatic and potassic fertilizer.
The most common methods of placement are as follows:

i) Plough sole placement

1. In this method, fertilizer is placed at the bottom of the plough furrow in a continuous band
during the process of ploughing.
2. Every band is covered as the next furrow is turned.
3. This method is suitable for areas where soil becomes quite dry up to few cm below the soil
surface and soils having a heavy clay pan just below the plough sole layer.
ii) Deep placement
It is the placement of ammonical nitrogenous fertilizers in the reduction zone of soil particularly
in paddy fields, where ammoniacal nitrogen remains available to the crop. This method ensures
better distribution of fertilizer in the root zone soil and prevents loss of nutrients by run-off.
iii) Localized placement
It refers to the application of fertilizers into the soil close to the seed or plant in order to supply the
nutrients in adequate amounts to the roots of growing plants. For example Spot hole placement
wherein fertilizers are applied between the plants at a specific distance (30 or 50cmor even more)
from the stem by making a hole upto 30cm deep

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Advantages of placement of fertilizers

i) When the fertilizer is placed, there is minimum contact between the soil and the fertilizer, and
thus fixation of nutrients is greatly reduced.
ii) The weeds all over the field cannot make use of the fertilizers.
iii) Residual response of fertilizers is usually higher.
iv) Utilization of fertilizers by the plants is higher.
v) Loss of nitrogen by leaching is reduced.
vi) Being immobile, phosphates are better utilized when placed.

For Liquid Fertilizers:

a) Foliar application
1. It refers to the spraying of fertilizer solutions (usually 2 %) containing one or more nutrients
on the foliage of growing plants.
2. Several nutrient elements are readily absorbed by leaves when they are dissolved in water
and sprayed on them.
3. The concentration of the spray solution has to be controlled, otherwise serious damage may
result due to scorching of the leaves.
4. Foliar application is effective for the application of minor nutrients like iron, copper, boron,
zinc and manganese. Sometimes insecticides are also applied along with fertilizers.
b) Application through irrigation water (Fertigation)
1. It refers to the application of water soluble fertilizers through irrigation water.
2. The nutrients are thus carried into the soil in solution.
3. Generally nitrogenous fertilizers are applied through irrigation water.

Major pest and disease in forest plantations:

Name of the pest Taxonomy Host Damage
Indigenous pests:
Apriona cinerea Coleoptera: Populus spp. Young plants, 1-3
Cerambycidae years old, are most
Common names: prone to attack. This
poplar stem borer insect is common in
the northwest
Himalayas
and the adjoining
plains region
Calopepla leayana Coleoptera: Gmelina arborea Young larvae feed
Chrysomelidae mainly on the
Common names: undersurface of
gamar defoliator

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Gmelina arborea
leaves,
leaving only the mid-
ribs and main veins
intact
Chrysomela populi Coleoptera: Populus spp.; Salix Chrysomela populi is
Linnaeus Chrysomelidae spp a pest of both poplars
Common names: and willows in the
poplar defoliator temperate Himalayas
from
Jammu and Kashmir
to Arunachal
Pradesh.
Clostera cupreata Lepidoptera: Populus spp Clostera cupreata has
Butler Notodontidae been an important
Common names: pest of poplar
poplar defoliator plantation Epidemics
typically develop
three years after
plantation
establishment
Eutectona Lepidoptera: Tectona grandis Eutectona
machaeralis Walker Pyralidae machaeralis is a
Common names: teak major pest of teak,
skeletonizer occurring throughout
South Asia and some
parts of Southeast
Asia. Complete
defoliation by the
pests results in more
or less
leaflessness during
most of the growing
period
Hyblaea puera Lepidoptera: Alstonia scholaris; India, H. puera
Hyblaeidae Avicennia spp.; causes one or more
Common names: teak Callicarpa spp.; near-total and
defoliator Pterocarpus additional partial
macrocarpus; defoliations of teak
Rhizophora spp.; over extensive areas
Tectona grandis; annually. The larvae
Vitex spp create shelters for
themselves by cutting
pieces of leaves and
rolling them together.
They come out of the

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shelters to feed by
night
Hypsipyla robusta Lepidoptera: Cedrela toona; Toona The mahogany shoot
Moore Pyralidae ciliata; Tectona borer mainly attacks
Common names: grandis; trees in high light
mahogany shoot Swietenia areas, hence the
borer macrophylla . biggest
effects are observed
in young planted
forests, particularly
those planted with a
single species.
Lymantria mathura Lepidoptera: Antocephalus In India outbreaks are
Lymantriidae cadamba; Mangifera infrequent but
Common names: pink indica; Quercus extensive when they
gypsy moth incana; Q. serrata; do occur. Tree vigor
Shorea robusta; may be
reduced and
susceptibility to
attack from other
insect species may
increase
Introduced insects
Icerya purchasi Homoptera: Coccidae Acacia decurrens It damages Acacia
Common names: decurrens and A.
cottony cushion scale dealbata in addition
to numerous other
forestry and
agricultural plant
species.
Leptocybe invasa Hymenoptera: Eucalyptus The blue gum chalcid
Eulophidae camaldulensis; E. is a gall-inducing
Common names: blue tereticornis; E. wasp native to
gum chalcid grandis Australia. The galls
can cause the twigs to
split, destroying the
cambium. Repeated
attacks lead to loss of
growth and vigour in
susceptible trees.
Diseases
Indigenous diseases
Balansia linearis Ascomycota: Ochlandra Depending on site
Clavicipitaceae travancorica var. and host species, the
hirsuta; O. pathogen infected up
to 24 percent of the

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Common names: travancorica; O. clumps of the

witches' broom scriptoria; O. commercially
disease ebracteata exploited reed
bamboos
Fusarium solani f. Ascomycota: Dalbergia sissoo It causes 60-80
dalbergiae Nectriaceae percent losses
Common names: root particularly in heavy
rot; leaf blight and wet soils
Subramanianospora Ascomycota: Incertae Casuarina Discolouration of the
vesiculosa sedis equisitfolia foliage is the initial
Common names: wilt symptom of blister
bark disease; blister bark disease. As the
bark disease disease advances,
necrotic lesions
vappear all over
the main stem and
branches.

Dynamics of stand growth: Forest stand dynamics describes the underlying physical and
biological forces that shape and change a forest ecosystem. The continuous state of change in
forests can be summarized with two basic elements: disturbance and succession.

Forest disturbances are events that cause change in the structure and composition of a forest
ecosystem, beyond the growth and death of individual organisms. Disturbances can vary in
frequency and intensity, and include natural disasters such as fire, landslides, wind, and volcanic
eruptions, outbreaks of insects, fungi, and other pathogens, animal-caused effects such as grazing
and trampling, and anthropogenic disturbances such as logging, pollution, the clearing of land for
urbanization or agriculture, and the introduction of invasive species.

Forest succession is the process by which species recover and regenerate after a disturbance. The
type of disturbance, the climate and weather conditions, the presence of colonizing species, and
the interactions among species all influence the path that succession will take. Species diversity
and composition fluctuate throughout succession.
Many Successional trajectories follow a basic four-stage development pattern.

• The first of these stages, stand initiation, occurs after a major disturbance and involves
many species arriving in the area of abundant light and nutrients.

• The second stage, stem exclusion, describes the growth and competition of these species
as resources become less available; likely one or a few species outcompetes and becomes
stand-dominating.

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• The third stage, understory reinitiation, involves further disturbance and the creation of
gaps; at this point stratification develops, with layers of canopy, midstory, and understory
appearing.

• The final stage, known as old-growth, is the extension and completion of the understory
reinititation; a complex multi-aged and multi-layered forest has developed.

Planting density regulation:

Establishment practices of cultivation, weeding and fertilizing uniformly improve the
quantity of growth of all trees. Manipulation of initial spacing and the mostly selective practices
of thinning and pruning are used to develop a certain kind of stand and a certain quantity of tree
growth. In the development of a stand a forester has two alternatives. Either the highest production
is sought from the site by maximizing the light interception of the whole stand canopy for as much
of the rotation as possible or crown development of the selected tree is encouraged to optimize
their individual growth.

Initial spacing: Wider spacing led to some loss in total volume production per hectare but the
individual tree grow larger. This is because a stand of trees planted far apart will have a lower
photosynthetic surface area per hectare to intercept light in the early years and consequently lower
yield. But a wide spacing enables individual trees to develop and maintain larger crown and for
their root systems to occupy a large volume of soil before competition starts which enhance the
growth.

Density regulation by thinning: Thinning provides the remaining trees with more growing space.
However, if it is delayed two serious effects will results:
1. Between tree competition may reduce the effective crown
2. The tree will be at a later stage in its natural growth pattern

Both the effects mean that where the thinning has been delayed, trees will take longer to respond
to extra growing space when it is finally done. Example a 20 year old tree only with a tuft of live
branches at the top will in evitable respond more slowly than a 10 year old tree still in rapid growth
stage and with a live crown. Delayed thinning because of no market for the produce is a common
problem in tropics but the dynamics of the stand growth do not permit indefinite delay if flexibility
in stand management id to be retained.

Density regulation by Selective pruning: When pruning the live branches is done on selected
trees to improve the wood quality these trees must be favored in thinning. Such pruning causes the
loss of photosynthetic surface area, because live branches are cutoff and will temporarily reduce
the growth of the tree compared with its neighbors, hence the need to favor it in thinning.

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Plantation Forestry, SAF 301 2+1

Some concepts in stand density:

a. Canopy density: It is the measure of relative completeness of canopy and is expressed as a
decimal coefficient taking closed canopy as unity. Thus, canopy density describes only the relative
completeness of canopy and has no bearing with the crop volumes, basal area or even number of
trees.

Classification:
1. Closed: When density is 1.0
2. Dense: When density is between 0.75 to 1.0
3. Thin: When the density is between 0.5 and 0.75
4. Open: When density is under 0.5

b. Crown competition Factor (CCF): CCF is another measure of density and is claimed to be
independent of site quality and stand age.

For determining CCF, relationship between crown width and dbh is obtained foe a sample of open
grown trees. Ex: CW= -0.6117+20.812D where CW is crown width (m) and D is dbh (m).
Maximum crown are is calculated as a percentage of one hectare and is indicates the maximum
proportion of one hectare that crowns of trees of a given dbh can occupy. Thus,

𝜋 (𝐶𝑊)2 100
𝑀𝐶𝐴 = ×
4 10000
= 0.007854 (CW) 2
By adding MCA s for all the trees on the average hectare of a forest land, an expression of stand
density called CCF is obtained. Thus, CCF estimates the area available to the average tree in the
stand in relation to the maximum area it could use when it is in open.

Site quality: Site is the complex of physical and biological factors of an area that determine what
forest or vegetation it may carry.
Site quality is a measure of the relative productive capacity of a site for a particular species or
group of species.
Site quality evaluation: Every site gives a different growth response to different species. Site
quality can be evaluated by measurement of either site factors or vegetative characteristics.
SITE FACTORS:
Peterson’s CVP index has been used extensively to calculate the potential productivity of the site
C.V.P. index (I)= Tv/Ta×(P×G/12)×E/100
Where, C.V.P. index is climate, vegetation and productivity index;

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Tv & Ta are maximum and minimum temperatures

P is precipitation in mm
G is the growing period in months and
E is a measure of evapo-transpiration
Limitations:
This index is too broad based as it does not take into account the characteristics of soil and other
environmental factors.
VEGETATIVE CHARECTERISTICS
The characteristics of vegetation which could serve the purpose of site quality could either be the,
 Types of plants occurring naturally in the area
 The volume
 Basal area
 Diameter
 Height of trees
PLANT INDICATORS: This approach is based on the theory that certain species of lower
vegetation, are the clear indicators of site for a particular species or type of forest. This method
has been used for site quality classification in certain undisturbed forest of Finland and Canada.
Though this may suggest a meaningful correlation between plant indicators and site quality, yet
the method cannot be adopted universally
 It can be applied only to forests of simple composition as exist in northern latitudes
 It requires considerable ecological knowledge
 The lower vegetation which may provide indicator is easily affected by forest
composition, density and above all the biotic factors
 The lower vegetation remains in the top few centimeters of the soil and so cannot indicate
the conditions of the deeper layers of soil which also affect the tree growth considerably
TREE CHARACTERISTICS
 The most important characteristics of the tree which reflect the productivity of the site are
its volume, basal area, diameter and height
 This method requires prior calculation of volume, it is difficult to apply in practice
THE YIELD CLASS SYSTEM OF CLASSIFYING THE GROWTH PARAMETER
1. Based on CAI and MAI: The general pattern of growth is typical of all even aged stands, but
differences in rates of growth occur with the same species on different sites. The faster growing

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stands have higher maximum MAI which also culminates earlier. The important point here is MAI
is the maximum average rate of volume production which can be attained by a given species on a
given site irrespective of the time of culmination and it is the feature which is basis of yield class
system. Ex: the stand of yield class 14 has maximum MAI of about 14 m3/ha.
This classification is f limited in use as it can only be used to categorize the crops which
have already reached their maximum MAI.
2. Diameter and height
The most easily measured tree characteristic is its diameter or basal area. As the diameter or basal
area growth is directly influenced by stand density. Height is the best tree characteristics to be
considered. Variations in height growth due to variations in site quality are closely and positively
correlated with variations in growth in volume. The relationship of tree height and age has been
used in most countries as a measure of site quality. In India however, upto 1930 average height of
all trees was used but after 1930 the site quality classes based on the top height which is the height
corresponding to the mean diameter of 250 biggest diameters per hectare as read from height
diameter curve
The site classes are delimited by one of the following methods
 Strip-height method based on Baur’s method
 British Forestry Commission (BFC) method
 F.R.I. method
STRIP-HEIGHT METHOD BASED ON BAUR’S METHOD
 The Baur’s method requires the plotting of volume per acre against age for each plot and
then drawing two limiting curves to delimit the upper and lower boundary of the data
 The space between the two limiting curves is then divided into strips of equal width by
harmonized curves following the trend of the limiting curves
 These strips represent the different quality classes as height was used as a basis for site
quality classification in India, Schlich suggested the use of height in place of volume of
the Baur’s method
 The plotted distribution is then carefully examined for the selection of guiding points
along the top and bottom limits, rejecting the obviously abnormal points
 Limiting curves are then drawn through the guiding points making use of any curve
available from repeated height measurements in the plots concerned
 The number of qualities to be differentiated is decided keeping in view the difference
between the limiting curves practical limits of accuracy in height determination and
closeness of management foreseen

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 The space between the limiting curves is then divided symmetrically by a number of curves
one less than the qualities to be differentiated
 Usually three quality classes are differentiated but in case of species with extensive
geographical distribution such as sal, four classes are distinguished
BRITISH FORESTRY COMMISSION (BFC) METHOD
 BFC rejected the Baur’s principle on ground that the trend of the curves was determined
by the limiting curves based on very few points of greatest and least growth
 The new method proposed by it consists of the following steps
i. From each plot over 50 years age, three stems of approximately the mean height of the crop
are selected
ii. Then subjected to stem analysis and a mean height curve prepared
iii. All such curves are brought on a single sheet and the range of heights at 50 years is
observed and divided into 10 ft divisions representing quality classes. In this way, number
and range of quality classes is determined
iv. On the basis of their height at 50 years, the plots of this age and over are then allotted to
their qualities and their average mean height at different ages calculated by dividing the
total mean height at different ages by the total number of plots in that class.
v. These average mean height are plotted against their ages and a smooth curve drawn to
obtain the mean quality curve. The limiting curves are then drawn at the boundaries of the
two classes, their direction following the trend of the mean curves
F.R.I. METHOD
 This method is a compromise between the Baur’s and BFC methods
 The procedure of the method as described in the Silviculture Research Code is given below:
 The top heights of all plots are plotted on squared paper against their top ages and the points
corresponding to the successive measurements of each plot are joined by straight lines
 This scattered diagram is then divided into 4 or 5 arbitrary strips from top to bottom
 The points within each strips are plotted separately on squared paper and through each
strips, a smooth curve is drawn following the trend of the lines joining point for successive
measurement of the same plots
 The curves thus obtained are transferred to a separate square paper and mutually
harmonized
 These curves are used as guides to determine the trends of the limiting and mean curves of
the site qualities

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 The age of reference for the site quality classes, the height intervals at that age and number
of site quality classes are determined by examining the data in the scatter diagram
 The curves for the limiting and mean values are then drawn through these fixed points at
the age of reference, in conformity with the guiding curves
 The limiting curves for the site qualities are then superimposed on the scatter diagram
APPLICATION:
 To know the potential production of the site
 To know regions with high productivity indices
 For the prediction of growth and yield of a stand with help of yield tables
 To determine the quality class of a stand from the yield table
Plantation productivity:

Site quality in terms of productivity refers to the growth capacity of a site, usually expressed as
volume production of a given species. It can also be defined by the maximum timber crop the land
can produce in a given time. Site productivity varies with tree species and the time-frame chosen.
Site characteristics can also greatly affect timber productivity for a given tree species. One site
may exhibit very good growth, yet another site with the same species, at the same age, may grow
very poorly.

Growth of trees is possible when the amount of photosynthesis exceeds respiration. Carbon
dioxide, sun light, heat, water, and chemical nutrients are required for photosynthesis, and any of
these can be limiting factors. Environmental factors that affect these basic requirements for
photosynthesis will, ultimately, affect tree growth and therefore site productivity. Major
environmental variables influencing tree and stand growth and productivity include:

• Climate – moisture, temperature, and sunlight

• Water available in the soil – availability, amount, timing

• Nutrient content of soil - availability, amount, timing

• Topography, elevation, and aspect, as they all can influence energy, moisture, and nutrient
balances

• Biota – competition for and alteration of resources required for growth

Site quality can be changed by fertilization, vegetation control, irrigation, or drainage. Only highly
intensive treatment can make a productive site out of a poor one. Conversely, productivity can be
rapidly lowered by poor or intense management, as well as erosion or other site degradation.

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Plantation Forestry, SAF 301 2+1

Growing a fully stocked stand of the desired species on a site for a designated period of time
precisely determines site productivity for that species during a certain period of time (historic
environment) and under a certain management regime. Direct measurements of site productivity
include historical growth and yield, mean annual increment (MAI), and periodic annual increment
(PAI). Site index and growth intercept methods may also be considered direct measures of site
quality. All of these measures reflect productivity for a specific species, under a specific
management regime, and under past environmental conditions, so future site productivity will vary
based on these factors.

Historic Yields

Historic yields, measured in terms of volume/area/unit of time can give an indication of site
productivity. This method relies on data from past harvests for a particular stand or area.
Interpretation of productive potential is limited to the species being grown on that particular site;
it would be difficult to estimate potential for other species. The management regime used could
also affect yield, especially if different management techniques or residual stocking levels were
used with each harvest.

Mean Annual Increment

Mean annual increment (MAI) is defined as the total increment of a tree or stand (standing crop
plus thinnings) up to a given age divided by that age. Mean annual increment (MAI) represents
the average annual growth a tree or stand of trees has exhibited up to a specified age. For example,
a 20-year old tree that has a diameter breast height of 10.0 inches has an MAI of 0.5 inches/year.

MAI is calculated as:

MAI = Y(t) / t

where Y(t) = yield at time t.

Since the typical growth patterns of most trees is bell-shaped, the MAI starts out small, increases
to a maximum value as the tree matures, then declines slowly over the remainder of the tree's life.
Throughout this, the MAI always remains positive. The culmination of mean annual increment
(CMAI) is the age in the growth cycle of a tree or stand at which the MAI for volume, basal area,
diameter, or height is at its maximum. This point at which the MAI peaks is commonly used to
identify the stand’s rotation age that maximizes volume over time. The MAI for timber volume
provides the best estimate of the maximum production rate that can be continuously sustained by
a given combination of species and site quality provided that the stands are rotated near maximum
MAI (Smith et. al 1997).

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Site Index

Site index (SI) is a species-specific measure of forest productivity (usually for even-aged stands),
expressed in terms of the average height of trees in a specified crown class (dominants, co
dominants, or the largest and tallest trees) at a specified index or base age.

The height growth of seed origin trees is considered to be independent of stand density and strongly
related to site quality in that better sites produce taller trees; however, it should be noted that tree
height growth can be reduced at very high densities and very low densities (Larsen 1999). In
addition, indicator trees should have been free to grow throughout their lives (never suppressed)
and their height growth never damaged by exogenous factors. SI is species dependent, and SI
values are not usually equivalent between species.

Site index curves show the expected height growth pattern for trees of the specified stand
component in even-aged stands of a given site index. Site index curves convert ages other than the
base age to the expected height at the given age. SI curves for a species will differ among authors
and regions. It is important to consistently use the same set of SI curves.

Historically site index equations and curves were constructed from tree height/age data pairs.
Anamorphic site index curves were constructed using a single guiding curve derived through
regression techniques. This guiding curve was then scaled to produce other curves, harmonized to
reflect the same form and trend reflecting differing site quality. The most common method since
1980 is to perform stem analysis on individual trees, and fit polymorphic curves to the growth
pattern of individual trees.

Limitations of the use of SI:

 Factors other than site which can influence height growth are: extremes of stand density,
genetics, suppression, past management (e.g. site prep, soil compaction), height growth
damage (e.g. from animals, disease, or weather), root or stump sprouting.
 It cannot be used in uneven-aged stands and deforested areas.
 Age seems to affect site index for certain species (University of Minnesota 1992).
 During construction of curves, extrapolation of data across range of sites and ages can
introduce error
 SI is a relative measure, depending on regional variation and databases and methods used
in curve construction. It is important to consistently use the same set of SI curves
appropriate for the region in which you are evaluating.
 Accurate determination of site index requires careful measurement. Stand and tree
selection and measurement errors can result in highly inaccurate results.
 Published curves are based on too few plots
 Curves are species-specific.

Supriya K Salimath, College of Forestry, Ponnampet

Plantation Forestry, SAF 301 2+1

Modern Concepts in Plantation Forestry:

Sustainability of plantations:

 Forest plantations are increasingly important resources worldwide, a trend that is expected
to continue strongly. The concept of sustainability has two components namely Broad
sense which deals with the issues regarding using land and devoting resources to tree
plantations is sustainable in terms of economic, environment and social point of view.
Narrow sense sustainability which is largely biological and silvicultural issue that
questions on the productivity of the soil when the plantations are raised repeatedly on the
same land.
 The concept of sustainability is central to sound forest management and subject of much
debate. In case of forest plantations established with specific objective of producing wood,
whether for industrial purposes or domestic use, it must be assured for the perpetual supply
of forest products.
 Accurate evidence about the sustainability of plantation forestry is needed, since future
supplies of forest products will increasingly come from intensively managed forest and
plantations.
 Soil fertility changes: Plantations may have three impacts
o Nutrient removal from the soil as tree grow and then are harvested
o Changes in the chemistry of the soil surface as the litter layer and organic matter
are dominated by one species and hence uniform composition and decay
characteristics
o Site preparation practices such as ploughing, drainage and fertilizing which directly
affect the soil physical properties and in turn nutrient and moisture availability.
 Organic matter dynamics and litter: The influence of litter on the soil nutrient status may
be important since leaves of different species decay at different rates. For example under
Teak and Gmelina, which usually suppress all other vegetation, the large leaves decay
faster. But in case of temperate regions one can observe the buildup of litter on the ground.
Even in the temperate the decay rate of Pinus elliotti is faster than Pinus petula. Apart from
this, soil organic matter and litter represent a significant nutrient store, albeit a dynamic
one. The litter-organic matter-miner soil interface is the seat of nutrient cycle and microbial
activity. Any activity that disturbs these roles, like frequent litter raking, can have large
effects.
 Weeds: Weed management must be a holistic approach to reduce the weed competition
and should ensure that the planted trees has sufficient access to site resources. Failure of
proper weed management will always result in yield decline and less sustainability.
 Soil physical conditions: Sustainability in plantations need to achieved in terms by soil
physical properties under plantations by manipulating and managing the processes like site
preparation, plantation establishment operations, water uptake mechanisms of the
individual trees in the stand and harvesting practices.

Supriya K Salimath, College of Forestry, Ponnampet

Plantation Forestry, SAF 301 2+1

 The critical reasons for the inherent unsustainability of intensive forest management are
establishing the plantations of uniform age and composition. These features of plantations
make the stand and sites in capable of sustaining their productivity which are of much
concern in today’s world.

Fast growing plantations myths and reality

Fast growing plantations are intensively managed commercial plantations, set in blocks of a single
species, which produce industrial round wood at high growth rates (mean annual increment of no
less than 15m3 per hectare) and which are harvested in less than 20 years. Fast-wood plantations
can be large-scale estates owned by companies or a concentration of a large number of small- to
medium-scale commercial woodlots owned by smallholders.

Some of the fast growing species in the world are tabulated below:

Are fast growing plantations are harmful: Myth and reality

1. Plantations and Biodiversity:
If a large swathe of natural forest is cleared to make way for a fast-wood plantation, there will be
a loss of biodiversity. Yet a similar plantation, established on degraded land, might bring about an
increase in biodiversity. In other words, the impact of plantations on biodiversity will be a function
of what they replace.

Supriya K Salimath, College of Forestry, Ponnampet

Plantation Forestry, SAF 301 2+1

In some situations fast-wood plantations may have a positive impact on biodiversity.

When the natural vegetation has already been destroyed or seriously damaged—for example, by
logging, unsustainable agriculture or overgrazing—plantations may help to restore some
biodiversity, either by sheltering relics of the original flora and fauna and allowing them to
proliferate, or by creating a new ecosystem, albeit with a different mix of species from the one
which originally occupied the site.

Plantation can act as natural corridors are retained between blocks of natural forest; where there
are several layers of vegetation and a diversity of ecosystems; and where aquatic ecosystems are
conserved

Fast-wood plantations can have a compensatory effect: by providing timber and pulpwood they
take pressure off natural forests, which can either be preserved as they are, or managed in such a
way that they do not lose their biodiversity.

2. Plantation and water

When a plantation is established, there will inevitably be a change in the water cycle. The nature
of the change will depend on what sort of habitat the plantation replaces. When a natural forest is
converted into a plantation, the greatest changes will occur during the first few years following
clearance and planting. In contrast, when plantations are developed on grassland, the initial change
in hydrology will be slight, but will become progressively more pronounced as the plantation
approaches maturity

Climatic conditions also play a significant role in determining the precise impact of new
plantations on water flows. In very wet and very dry climates, forested areas will experience lower
levels of water run-off than unforested areas

In drier climates the level of dry season stream flow is an important factor for users—during the
dry season streams may provide the only source of water—and water retention by fast-wood
plantations can cause serious problems, especially when plantations replace grassland

There is little or no evidence to suggest that forests or plantations can prevent flooding when an
area is deluged with large amounts of rain. The apparent increase in flood damage over recent
years in many parts of the world can often be attributed to an increase of human activity in the
flood plains, rather than a reduction of tree cover in the water catchments.

3. Plantation and soil

Fast wood is grown on a short rotation and harvested by clear-felling operations that often involve
the use of heavy machinery. There is no doubt that a site managed for fast-wood production will

Supriya K Salimath, College of Forestry, Ponnampet

Plantation Forestry, SAF 301 2+1

be subject to more frequent disturbance, and possibly more soil erosion, than a similar site
managed for slow-wood production.

Once the trees are established, erosion may still be an issue, especially where there is little ground
cover, on sloping ground and in plantations where leaf size encourages the creation of large water
drops. Short-rotation plantations will experience more erosion than long-rotation plantations when
established under identical conditions

In natural ecosystems such as undisturbed tropical forests, nutrient cycles tend to be in balance.
The ecosystem, in short, is more or less self-sustaining. As a general principle, multiple rotations
of fast-wood plantations will have a more significant impact on soil fertility than plantations that
are harvested after a long period of time. The quantity of nutrients removed will be greater, and
so, consequently, will be the requirements for fertilizers.

Although fast-wood plantations are more prone to increased rates of erosion and a decline in
fertility, when compared to longer rotation plantations, they can in certain circumstances have a
beneficial influence on the soil and prevent or reduce erosion.

4. Plantation and pests: One of the great initial advantages of planting exotic trees—the absence
of pests adapted to using them—can become an Achilles’ heel in the long term, once predators
adapt to the new species. ‘At that point,’ they suggest, ‘the food desert becomes a feast for one
species, which can expand exponentially and seriously damage or annihilate whole plantations.’

Pest problems are less severe among indigenous species than exotic plantations—the theory being
that specialized natural enemies of the pest are already present in indigenous stands of trees—does
not necessarily hold true.

Plantation managers sometimes deal with pest outbreaks by spraying with chemicals. The
environmental problems related to the use of pesticides have been well documented.

There has been something of a revolution in pest control strategies over recent years, and many
plantation companies now practice integrated pest management, or IPM. This involves a
combination of different measures, including preventative control of pests and accurate targeting
of pests when pesticides are used

5. Genetically Modified Trees: Opportunity or Threat?

Around a third of a plant’s energy supply is used in reproduction, and researchers hope that the
introduction of sterility into transgenic—genetically modified— trees might help to improve
growth rates.

Supriya K Salimath, College of Forestry, Ponnampet

Plantation Forestry, SAF 301 2+1

Biotechnologists are also looking for genes that code for the enzyme that breaks down lignin,
which must be removed at considerable cost when pulpwood is turned into paper. But on the other
side lignin, which confers physical strength on trees and constitutes part of their defence
mechanism against pests. Reducing lignin content could make trees more susceptible to pest
attacks, and consequently more pesticides would be required in plantations

The possibility of inserting herbicide-resistant genes into trees is also attracting considerable
attention. GMOs are particularly concerned about the possibility of engineered genes escaping into
the wild, where they might become established in natural populations of closely related species.
Pollen can travel great distances, and transgenic pollution might introduce herbicide resistance into
a wild species, thus creating a ‘super weed’.

There is the possibility, too, that genes could be inserted into trees to endow them with resistance
to insect pests. But on the contrary Insect resistant genes might not only affect pests, but harmless
insects too. On the other hand, insect pests might develop a resistance to the transgenic trees and
become more difficult to control.

GMOs may be dangerous in foodstuffs. If there is a risk with GMO trees, and it is a remote risk,
it would stem from humans eating domestic or wild animals that had consumed the leaves, fruits
or seeds of transgenic trees.

INDUSTRIAL PLANTATIONS:
Since 1980s, the Government of India has promoted plantations under different agroforestry and
social forestry plantation schemes as well as investment in industrial plantations. The plantation
area in India is 32.57 m ha, which accounts for 17 % of the global forest plantation and is the
second largest in the world after China. It also has the largest share in the global plantation of teak
(44%). The most prominent plantation species are eucalyptus, poplars, acacias, silver oak and
rubber wood. It is estimated that 1.5 million m3 of rubber wood are available in India and by 2020
the annual output of rubber wood will reach 14 million m3 of usable logs. Several projects are
underway in different research institutes of the country to overcome the processing problem of the
species and to develop a cheap technology suitable for India.
The plantation activities undertaken (32.6 million ha) after independence are impressive.

Forest plantations being a major investment activity, the low level of productivity is a cause of
concern. About 50% of the plantations raised since 1980 are in agroforestry systems with varying
intensities of management. The National Forest Policy 1988 envisaged that forest industries should
meet their raw material requirement from wood grown in collaboration with farmers and local
communities. In accordance with the stipulation in the NFP, 1988, subsidies on supply of raw
material from government forests to forest-based industries will gradually cease. Several industrial
enterprises (particularly the pulp and paper companies) have been working with farmers to

Supriya K Salimath, College of Forestry, Ponnampet

Plantation Forestry, SAF 301 2+1

encourage farm forestry activities with their active technical and financial assistance. The
following approaches are commonly pursued:
• Supply of free or subsidized quality planting stock with or without buy back guarantee
• Bank loan assistance and providing planting stock, technical extension and buy back guarantee

• Leasing or share cropping schemes under which the company raises and maintains plantations
on farmers’ lands based on appropriate arrangements

• Intensive research and development and commercial sale of clonal planting stock to farmers by
companies with or without buy back guarantee

These initiatives have popularized the concept of tree farming and have contributed to the
cultivation of commercial trees on private lands. This has also provided farmers with an
alternative/complementary source of land use for improving their farm income particularly in the
event of crop failure.

8%

6%
REAL GDP GROWTH
4%

2%

0%
21F
17F
18F
19F
20F

22F
03

12
00
01
02

04
05
06
07
08
09
10
11

13
14
15
16

-2%

-4%
ITTO Producers ITTO Consumers

Indian forest industries:

Despite good economic linkages, flexibility (for capital, technology, etc) and diversity of forest
resources, forest-based timber processing industries are generally handicapped due to inefficient
operations, legal restrictions, low output, non-availability of skilled labour and resultant inertia. In
terms of wood (and increasingly bamboo) utilisation in India, there are some 23,000 sawmills of
varying capacities (mostly small and unsophisticated technically). Of these, 950 units are
manufacturing wood-based panel products and veneer sheets; 380 units are producing pulp, paper
and paperboards; 5 units safety matches (with an unknown number of cottage scale units); plus
many units involved in downstream processing and recovery and further processing of residues.
Seventy to 90% of the plants are in small-scale sectors. Most of the production units are short of
investment capital, hire un-organized and legally unprotected labour, use outdated machinery and
are characterized by poor management and technical skills. In sawmills, for example, only 3% of

Supriya K Salimath, College of Forestry, Ponnampet

Plantation Forestry, SAF 301 2+1

products generated meet Indian grading standards. Processing technologies in small-scale sectors
are generally inefficient and cause a high amount of wastage.

Commonly harvested species from natural forests in India include, among others:

 Teak (Tectona grandis), both from natural and planted forests.

 Sal (Shorea robusta)
 Acacia catechu
 Xylia xylocarpa

Common planted species include, among others, fast-growing (and short rotation) species of:

 Teak (Tectona grandis) is the most widely planted timber species in India, and most of the
teak is harvested from planted forests.
 Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus spp.)
 Acacia (Acacia spp.)
 Poplar

Although India is one of the world’s top producers of tropical logs, it is also one of the world’s
largest consumers of wood products. India cannot meet its own demand for wood products with
domestic supply, and as a result is currently the world’s 2nd largest importer of tropical logs. India
is a major producer of wood-based products, including pulp, paper, plywood, furniture, wooden
handicrafts, and veneers. Its major exporting hubs are the EU, US and the Middle East (Forest
legality Alliance).

Factors contributing for the management of Industrial plantations:

I. Managerial Aspects:
1. Availability of land: Availability of the land is the major constraint in the today’s world
because of the conflicting uses to which it has been put. Creation of forest plantation needs
large area. Ex: one sawmill of 50,000 m3 round wood capacity will require an area of 2500

Supriya K Salimath, College of Forestry, Ponnampet

Plantation Forestry, SAF 301 2+1

ha with 20m3 per ha per annum. Increasing population leads directly to the increasing
demand on the land to grow food and other products, consequently less and less areas are
available for plantations. Moreover, land is required in close proximity to the consumption
center to minimize the transportation costs. However, in India, where large tracts of
denuded hills and wasteland tracts are lying unproductive, availability of land is not a
problem in maintaining the steady planting program.
2. Labour: Industrial plantations require large number of labour input, in case of untrained
labour it requires on the job training. This is a time consuming and costly process. A large
project also requires the infrastructure of the forest villages, roads, stores, offices, nurseries,
transport and other equipment.
3. Market trends: End use is very important in plantation development, as the market
conditions may change substantially during the establishment phase of the plantation. Ex:
Decreased demand for Railway sleepers
4. Social and Environmental factors: If the emphasis is shifted to stress the mere production
of raw materials without taking into the consideration the specific ecological situation or
possible ecological effects, it may meet the short term expectations, but would jeopardize
its own existence and thus lose justification. The impact of plantation like any other
developmental activity on the local community not only in terms of enlarged employment
opportunities, cash income but also in cultural and social life cannot be ignored.
5. Forestry Enterprise: Because of the involvement of large areas of land and long term
investment, which the private sector is short of that investment and sort of patience for
returns, it is essential for the public sector to undertake the raising and management of the
large scale plantations.
6. Size and layout of plantation: Because the wood is a bulk commodity, transportation
costs, logging and extraction costs should be carefully examined during the planning stage.
Among the locality factors, terrain, topography, accessibility and distance from the centers
of consumption are the important factors. The plantation should be of size sufficient to
meet the local requirement of the industries and minimum size is calculated by taking the
capacity, rotation and estimated yield of the species.

II. Silvicultural aspects:

1. Choice of species: The role of the species in industrial plantations is different than to afforest
for covering the bare land. The maximum potential of the fast growing species can be brought to
its fullest bearing only when the site is sufficiently productive. Therefore the productivity zones in
the country need to be clearly and carefully defined and suitable species are selected for different
zones. Different industries require wood of different dimensions and qualities. These technical
characteristics should be available. The diversification of the species is also dictated by
considerations of fire protection, and protection against pest and diseases, the risks which are
greater in monocultures.

Supriya K Salimath, College of Forestry, Ponnampet

Plantation Forestry, SAF 301 2+1

The primary criteria for the choice of species are:

 The species should suit the end use

 It should match the site with respect to the soil and climate
 The growth should be fast enough to yield the required type and quality of the raw material
economically in and as short period as possible.
 Ex: Eucalyptus, Populus, Tropical pines, Poplars, Wattles, Gmelina arborea, Cedrella
toona, Anthocephalus cadamba, Cryptomeria japonica, Schima wallichi etc.

2. Seed Source: Availability of certified seeds should be ensured of known provenances.

Differences in growth rates, ecological requirements and tolerance occur in various provenances
in species whose geographical distribution is wide. Variations may be marked in respect of
tolerance to frost, drought, soil adaptability, and resistance to pest and disease and even to wood
quality.

3. Spacing: If the smaller sized material is the object, such as for pulp wood, closer spacing is
adopted. But, if the large sized material is the object, such as plywood, veneers, matches, saw
millings etc., wider pacing adopted.

4. Fertilizers: Though the utility of fertilization throughout the rotation is controversial,

application of fertilizers at the start of planting and in early stages help considerably. It is also
essential to adopt suitable methods of application, dose and form of application with due regard to
the nutrient status of the soil.

5. Rotation: Apart from the objective of maximum volume production, the most important
consideration in industrial plantation is the type of technological characteristics of wood obtained
at different ages. The optimum rotation has to be determined taking both factors i.e. requirement
of the wood for end use as well as high volume production into consideration.

Paper and pulp industries:

The Indian paper industry is estimated between Rs 30,000 to Rs 35,000 crore and accounts for
over 2.5% of the world’s paper. The paper industry in India, comprises of more than 800 mills and
provides direct and indirect employment to 1.3 million people. The present global demand for
paper and paperboard is 402 million tonnes per annum. It is estimated that the global demand of
paper would be around 521 million tonnes per annum by 2021 (Kulkarni, 2013). In India, the
present demand of paper and paperboard including newsprint is at 11.15 million tonnes per annum
and per capita consumption is nearly 10.5 kg (Varadaraj et al., 2014) compared to the world
average of around 50 kg and 40 kg for the Asia Pacific region. India shares 2 % of global paper
production and it is one of the high priority industry of Government of India. On average the
industry in India uses only 3.5 % of the total wood from forests. Thus, pulp and paper industries
are going to play a crucial role in the years to come.

Supriya K Salimath, College of Forestry, Ponnampet

Plantation Forestry, SAF 301 2+1

In India of total paper production 40% is from hardwood and bamboo fiber 30% is from agro waste
other 30% from recycled material. Paper used for publications and Newsprint counts to 2 million
tonnes. 1.2 million tonnes of newsprint are manufactured and the remaining is imported from other
producers. It means that, about 40% of newsprint is brought in from outside the country. Coming
to pulp imports, India imports around 2 million tonne pulp wood (both soft and hard) and waste
paper (sack waste for envelopes waste, unbleached grades, magazine waste and cup stock for white
grades) for newsprint.

Important species for pulp and paper industries:

Dendrocalamus strictus, Bamboosa arundaneacea, Casurina equisetifolia, Acacia sps, Moringa
oleifera, Leucaa leucacephala, Pinus caribea, Pinus kesiya, Aganthis, Gmelina arborea,
Broussonetia, Erythrina etc.

Supriya K Salimath, College of Forestry, Ponnampet

Plantation Forestry, SAF 301 2+1

Choice of species: To choose a species as a raw material for paper and pulp wood industries,
fitness of the species from technological point of view is highly essential. Following technological
properties are desirable in the material:
1. Consistency: Heterogeneity of the raw material affects the pulping, bleeching and refining
process. A consistently uniform sized logs can be produced by the mechanical thinning spaced
uniformly in the artificial plantations.
2. Handling: Straight logs free from projections, crookedness or abrupt changes in taper are
preferred by the industry as the irregular billets are costly to handle and debark during the
processing.
3. Chemical properties: Low lignin, extractive contents and tannin contents are desirable with
high amount of hemi cellulose and alpha cellulose.
4. Fibre properties: Long fibers with 1mm length, high density and high cellulose contents are
desirable for the production of quality pulp.
5. Processing qualities: Fitness of the species should be judged to the pulping process like
mechanical, chemical and semi chemical. The species should be suitable to these processes
appended.
6. Rate of return: It can be increased by planting fast growing species, by increasing the
production per unit area through intensive management, reducing conversion losses and
transportation charges.

Matchwood plantations:
Match manufacturing is best suited to the cottage sector. Being labour intensive it creates
employment opportunities on a substantial scale for village people of skilled and unskilled men
and women. Being a light manufacturing activity, the physically handicapped and the old age
people can also be easily absorbed and no education is needed to learn this job. Thus, this industry
has a great socio-economic significance in bringing the livelihood to the people’s door steps
without their resorting to migration. India has now fully asserted her claim to be one of the suitable
countries for matches manufacture. The magnitude of the home market, the volume of trade in
products allied to the Match industry are immense in India. Availability of important raw materials,

Supriya K Salimath, College of Forestry, Ponnampet

Plantation Forestry, SAF 301 2+1

abundance of cheap labour and cheap transport facilities particularly by water routes, all find India
a fit field of operation of the industry. In southern India, manufacture of Matches on cottage scale
was taken up by some enthusiastic entrepreneurs and soon developed rapidly at three centers.
Sivakasi, Sattur and Kovilpatty all in Tamil Nadu. They emerged to compete in quality and price
with semi mechanized and mechanized sectors.

On the basis of production processes, the whole match industries in India are classified into
a) Mechanized sector and
b) Non-mechanized sector or handmade sector.
The mechanized sector is classified into two, fully mechanized and semi-mechanized. Of the total
production of Matches in India, 27 percent is shared by the mechanized sector and the remaining
73 percent is shared by the handmade or non-mechanized sector

The major raw materials used in the production of safety Matches are soft woods used to make the
Match sticks (also known as “splints”) and boxes, and chemicals for the Match heads and the
friction surface of the boxes.

Choice of Species:
1. Fast growing
2. Straight cylindrical bole without great taper
3. Trees without buttresses, flutes and other undesirable features.
4. Timber should be straight grained and not more than 5 degree of spiraling is acceptable.
5. A longer fiber length than the average produces greater striking strength to the match sticks
made out of such wood.

Making of matchsticks is easy, but needs careful handling of materials. Production of matches is
not a single process itself. Normally in the Match industry (both on the mechanized and non-
mechanised) the various works involved are
1. Box making
2. Frame filing
3. Wax dipping
4. Chemical dipping
5. Box filing
6. Label and Band roll pasting
7. Bundle packing

Species suitable for match wood industry are:

Ailanthus excels, Alstonia scholaris, Bombax insigne, Canarium strictum, Dysoxylum
malabaricum, Lophopetalum whightianum, Sideroxylon longipetiolatum, Sterculia villosa,
Garuga pinnata, Melia composite etc.

Supriya K Salimath, College of Forestry, Ponnampet

Plantation Forestry, SAF 301 2+1

Plywood industry:
Panels comprising of at least three layers (or ‘plies’) of thin wood bonded together with an
adhesive. Each ply is usually orientated at a right angle to the adjacent layer in order to improve
strength and reduce the probability of shrinkage. The outer layers of the board are commonly
referred to as the ‘face’ and ‘back’ and are graded based on quality. The intermediate layers are
collectively known as the ‘core’. Plywood glue is graded for suitability for internal or external use.
Plywood is a manufactured wood panel made from thin sheets of wood veneer. It is one of the
most widely used wood products. It is flexible, inexpensive, workable, and re-usable, and usually
can be manufactured locally. Plywood is used instead of plain wood because of plywood's
resistance to cracking, shrinkage, splitting, and twisting/warping, and because of its generally high
strength.
Species suitable for plywood industry:
Dipterocarpus macrocarpus, Terminalia myriocarpa, Acrocarpus fraxinifolius, Mangifera indica,
Vateria indica, Ailanthus sps, Boswellia serrata, Canarium sps, Toona ciliata, Dillenia sps,
Holoptelia integrefolia, Lannea coramendalica, Machilus macrantha, Syzizium cumini etc.,

Sports goods industry:

Indian sports goods industry is more than a hundred years old. The sports goods industry was
founded by Sardar Bahadur, Sardar Ganda Singh Oberoi in the year 1883 at Sialkot and sports
equipment became the first Indian industrial product to be exported in 1885. The items taken up
for manufacturing in the beginning were tennis balls, footballs, cricket bats, cricket balls and
hockey sticks. With the passage of time new items were added and industry at Sialkot progressed
and people flourished beyond imagination until the division of the country checked the boom.
India is one of the largest producers of footballs and other inflatable balls. The products such as
cricket bat, cricket ball, football and nets are getting fame all over the world steadily. Indian sports
goods industry produces more than 300 items.

Characteristics of species for sports goods industry:

 Logs should be free from knots, and having absolute straightness and uniformity of grain
 Deviations from the straightness can be permitted provided straight pieces at least 1.52m
in length are obtained.
 Mulberry trees reared for silkworm are not suitable as knot free timber are not available.
 Willow trees of 7-10 years age, 4.57m clear bole and white natural color are preferred and
they fetch maximum prize.

Hockey sticks Morus Sps, Celtis australis, Fraxinus sps,

Cricket stumps and Salix alba var corulea, Fraxinus sps, Quercus sps, Xanthoxylum rhetusa,
Bats Dysoxylum malabaricum, Morus sps, Grewia tiliafolia, Celtis australis,
Mitragyana parviflora, Adina cardifolia

Supriya K Salimath, College of Forestry, Ponnampet

Plantation Forestry, SAF 301 2+1

Racket frames a. Bonds: Fraxinus sps, Fagus sps, Betula sps, Care asps, Switanis sps,
Acer sps
b. Handle: Salix alba, Toona ciliata, Populus sps, Melia azadirach,
Trewia nudiflora
c. Wedge: Fraxinus sps, Fagus sps, Acer sps, Grewia sps, Swietanis sps,
Morus alba, Dalbergis sissoo, Grevillea robusta

Plantations yielding NTFPs:

1. Cutch and Katha: Cutch and Katha are obtained by boiling in water the heartwood of Acacia
catechu. In South India it is also extracted from Acacia chundra. The efficiency of extraction varies
considerably and the yield may vary from 3-10 per cent by weight of wood. The maximum Katha
is obtained from the trees felled in autumn and winter. Trees with girth 60-120 cm and having
white lines or spots on them are preferred from manufacture of Katha. Tentatively 50 year rotation
of fixed for Acacia catechu. Trees that have gnarled and crooked are reported to yield higher than
the straighter ones. Freshly felled trees have higher yield than dried ones.
2. Tannins:

Supriya K Salimath, College of Forestry, Ponnampet

Plantation Forestry, SAF 301 2+1

Supriya K Salimath, College of Forestry, Ponnampet

Plantation Forestry, SAF 301 2+1

Supriya K Salimath, College of Forestry, Ponnampet

Plantation Forestry, SAF 301 2+1

Clonal plantations: Trees unlike agricultural crops, have been difficult to domesticate and
improve genetically because of their long generation type, irregularity of flowering and fruiting,
the prevalence of out breeding, low heritability of desired traits and frequent absence of substantial
germplasm collections. Although some genetic gains have been achieved by the tree breeding
including hybridization, foresters have traditionally improved yield and form by provenance
transfer. However, owing to inherent problems associated with seed propagation accomplished
genetic gain could not be sustained over prolonged duration.

The goal of vegetative propagation is to produce progeny plants identical in genotype to a

single source plant. The biological process is known as cloning and the resulting population is
called a clone. Thus a clone can be defined as “the population of the plants regenerated from a
single individual which maintains the same genotype.” It implied that members of a clone have a
same genetic constitution except in so far as mutation has occurred during the propagation. Clonal
propagation techniques are now being used for the production of planting stock of many important
coniferous and hardwood species. In the last three decades, however there has been growing
interest in clonal forestry with conifers, Eucalyptus and wide range of other commercially
important species because:

Supriya K Salimath, College of Forestry, Ponnampet

Plantation Forestry, SAF 301 2+1

 The potential to exploit the considerable amount of genotypic variation present in tree
population
 The increasing number of tree species that have been found amenable to vegetative
propagation.
 The opportunity to exploit and harness genotypic variation directly through the
combination of vegetative propagation and clonal selection
 The attractive investment opportunities in clonal forestry arising from the increasing yield
and quality, shortening the rotation and alleviation of biological problems hindering the
reforestation with hardwood species.

Advantages of clonal forestry:

 Fixing superior genotypes: Most of the tree species are cross pollinated, their progenies
are not true to type of the parent and lose many of their unique properties. Hence,
propagation and improvement through clonal forestry is advantageous as it results in
genetic advances in a single selection step.
 Uniformity on population: Uniformity among the individuals in clonal population in
terms of plant size, growth rate, time of flowering, type of product and other phenotypic
characters make economic industrial production of wood, fruits and other products.
 Facilitate propagation: Instead of dependence on tree seed orchards which are mostly
unpredictable in some years, clonal forestry is advantageous as it is relatively easy to
multiply species by vegetate propagation.
 Reduced period for yield production: Generally, trees propagated through vegetative
means attain maturity at an earlier age than comparable trees grown from seed.
 Combining more than one genotype into a single plant: Grafting techniques make
possible the combination of more than one genotype in the same plant. These are helpful
to achieve a range of effects such as early to late flowering and fruiting or adding a
pollinating genotype in seed orchard as a single branch in dioecious tree or self in
compatible tree.
 Production of quality planting stock: Clonal propagation techniques have become
important in forestry owing to their potential in propagating the trees, which possess
superior traits, in an effort to increase volume and quality of production.
 Conservation of genetic resources: Cloning helps to preserve the genotypes in clonal
banks. This also helps to evaluate genotype and their interaction with environment through
clonal testing.

Different Clonal techniques:

1. Rooting of cuttings 4. Budding
2. Grafting 5. Specialized structure and roots
3. Layering 6. Micro propagation

Supriya K Salimath, College of Forestry, Ponnampet

Plantation Forestry, SAF 301 2+1

Management of clonal plantation for higher productivity:

One of the key components of raising the plantations is to maximize productivity by matching
species and genotype to site conditions. The high productivity is inherently aggressive growth
characteristic of the species or genotype and the development of optimum silviculture practices to
accelerate the growth rate would ensure the enhanced productivity. The silvicultural practices such
as site preparation, weeding, fertilizer application, intercultural operations and protection would
provide ideal growing conditions to plants. The proper sequence of activities for plantation
establishment and maintenance are of paramount importance in enhancing productivity. Some of
the operations are:
1. Selection of species and genotype: The knowledge on the locally factors prevailing at the
plantations is very important. The various climatic, biotic, edaphic, topographic factors
determine the species and genotype that could be grown under the given site condition.
2. Site preparation: The degraded forest top soil is hard, compacted or lateritic. Hence to
break the hard and compacted soil, deep soil working is done by mechanized ploughing.
Manual pitting and trenching is taken up in slopes in accessible to machinery. Mechanized
trenching breaks the hard core of the substrata and create cracks which not only checks the
run off but also facilitate easy percolation of water into the soil.
3. Spacing: Choice of initial spacing is one of the important decisions affecting the wood
production. It is evident that, closer spacing at the initial stage increases the likelihood of
capturing the full productive potential of a site. The stocking in high density, short rotation
plantations is generally more. The planting density varies depending on the tree
morphology, growth and site conditions.
4. Planting: Quality of the planting stock, methods of planting and season of planting play a
crucial role in the success of clonal plantations. Large scale planting programs involving
clones as planting materials could be done in dug and refilled pits.
5. Weeding: The plantations species are sensitive to weed competition and considerable
efforts have to be made to control weeds in clonal plantations.
6. Soil nutrient management: The increased growth rates through fertilization in properly
managed stands can indirectly improve the soil quality by increasing the organic matter.
Good soil nutrient management practices result in increased production of coarse roots
which is particularly important in maintaining soil organic pool. These changes can lead to
long term improvement in site quality and site productivity especially on degraded sites.
7. Intercultural operations: During the initial years of plantation establishment, young
plants have to be nursed with appropriate soil and moisture conservation techniques. Some
of the practices aiming at soil and moisture conservation such as soil working, cover crops
and fertilization can improve the productivity of the clonal plantations.
8. Protection of plantation: protection of the plantation is the corner stone of success in
clonal forestry. Protection from wild animals, domestic animals, illicit felling, fire and
other devastative agents are crucial for a plantation manager.

Supriya K Salimath, College of Forestry, Ponnampet

Plantation Forestry, SAF 301 2+1

9. Rotation age: It is age at which the stock is ready for the harvesting. Normally, the clonal
plantations are established and maintained under technical rotation where it is the age at
which the stand has produced the highest biomass of desired quality.

Plantations as a carbon sinks: The rate of build-up of CO2 in the atmosphere can be reduced
by taking advantage of the fact that atmospheric CO2 can accumulate as carbon in vegetation and
soils in terrestrial ecosystems. Under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change any process, activity or mechanism which removes a greenhouse gas from the atmosphere
is referred to as a "sink".

Climate change mitigation options:

Carbon conservation:
 The growing market for carbon offers great opportunities for linking greenhouse gas
mitigation with conservation of forests and biodiversity, and the generation of local
livelihoods.
 For these combined objectives to be achieved, strong governance is needed along with
institutions that ensure poor people win, rather than lose out, from the new challenges
posed by climate change.
 The new generation of carbon funds must address the need for a sustained reduction in
carbon emissions, while also building good governance and strengthening the resilience
and adaptive capacity of ecosystems and local communities in the face of increased
vulnerability to climate change.
 To tackle climate change effectively, we need to “join the dots” between biodiversity loss,
local livelihoods and land use changes such as deforestation.
 There is a strong need for credible standards that link curbing emissions with forest
conservation to ensure they provide robust carbon benefits while incorporating biodiversity
conservation and benefits to local communities.
 Conservation-based strategies that address carbon emissions, which include afforestation,
reforestation and curbing deforestation, must be made robust.
 Forest carbon stores are vulnerable to disease or fire, and carbon emitting activities can be
displaced elsewhere

Carbon sequestration: The term “carbon sequestration” is used to describe both natural and
deliberate processes by which CO2 is either removed from the atmosphere or diverted from
emission sources and stored in the ocean, terrestrial environments (vegetation, soils, and
sediments), and geologic formations.

Oceanic carbon sequestration:

The world’s oceans are the primary long-term sink for human-caused CO2 emissions, currently
accounting for a global net uptake of about 2 gigatons of carbon annually. This uptake is not a

Supriya K Salimath, College of Forestry, Ponnampet

Plantation Forestry, SAF 301 2+1

result of deliberate sequestration, but occurs naturally through chemical reactions between
seawater and CO2 in the atmosphere.

Geologic carbon sequestration:

Geologic sequestration begins with capturing CO2 from the exhaust of fossil-fuel power plants and
other major sources. The captured CO2 is piped 1 to 4 kilometers below the land surface and
injected into porous rock formations. Compared to the rates of terrestrial carbon uptake geologic
sequestration is currently used to store only small amounts of carbon per year. Much larger rates
of sequestration are envisioned to take advantage of the potential permanence and capacity of
geologic storage.

Terrestrial carbon sequestration:

Terrestrial sequestration (sometimes termed “biological sequestration”) is typically accomplished
through forest and soil conservation practices that enhance the storage of carbon (such as restoring
and establishing new forests, wetlands, and grasslands) or reduce CO2 emissions (such as reducing
agricultural tillage and suppressing wildfires). This is one of the cost effective and the efficient
measure to sequester the atmospheric carbon di oxide.

Carbon substitution:

Wood substitution replaces other inputs of production in providing equivalent service or

function. This is possible in two ways a. Wood instead of non-wood materials b. Wood instead of
fossil fuels. The factor of 2 tons CO2 savings can be assumed against the substitution of 1 m3 metal
or plastic through wood. Analytically, use of fresh forest biomass, in replacing carbon intensive
energy and material, has an impact on the forest structure and the carbon balance of the forest,
both in the short and longer term. The substitution of wood in place of metal provides two pronged
savings of carbon emission. Firstly, by saving of emissions against the construction related
emissions during development of metal product, and second, by storing the carbon for long time
in wood to be substituted in place of metal.

Role of plantations in climate change mitigation:

Carbon sequestration in plantations can play an important role in mitigating the buildup of
atmospheric CO2. The actual magnitude depends on natural and management factors, social
barriers, and the time frame considered. In addition, there are a number of ancillary benefits for
local communities and the environment. Carbon plantations are, however, particularly effective in
the long term. Furthermore, plantations do not offer the ultimate solution towards stabilizing CO2
concentrations but should be part of a broader package of options with clear energy emission
reduction measures.
After the Kyoto Protocol was signed, a number of technical issues regarding the use of
carbon plantations in achieving the country commitments remained open. For example, it has been

Supriya K Salimath, College of Forestry, Ponnampet

Plantation Forestry, SAF 301 2+1

unclear how to quantify the LULUCF potential, both in the short and the long terms. Furthermore,
criticism on establishing new forests (so-called carbon plantations) as a mitigation strategy were
related to the permanency of sequestration and whether the sequestration is additional to default
developments. Permanency is uncertain, since the pressure on land for other purposes than carbon
plantations may increase considerably in the near future along with shifts in disturbance regimes.
The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), for example, projects
considerable increases in arable land needed for food production, whereas land requirements for
modern biofuels are increasing considerably as well. Furthermore, the Kyoto Protocol clearly
states that activities should not be in conflict with existing conventions, such as the Convention on
Biological Diversity. Thus, land-use changes that drive losses in biodiversity should be prevented.
The Kyoto Protocol has resulted in several studies estimating the sequestration potential in
plantations. The IPCC's special report on Land use, land-use change and forestry (LULUCF), for
example, suggests that there is a potential to sequester an additional 87 Pg C by 2050 in global
forests alone. Other studies even suggest that land-based mitigation could be cost-effective
compared to energy related mitigation options, and could provide a large proportion of the total
mitigation
The tropical forests make up 80 per cent of the total world forests and are recognized as
having the greatest long term potential to sequester atmospheric carbon. In order to cease any more
increase of CO2 in the atmosphere by means of additional plantation areas could be an important
means. Therefore, it is worth an idea to plant trees for mitigating the increase of CO 2 in the
atmosphere. The existing forest may not be sufficient to maintain ecological balance. Therefore,
additional areas presently which are either unutilized or unfit for agriculture could be converted
into biomass production purpose so that extra amount of carbon is sequestrated in order to mitigate
climate change through establishment of plantations.

LULUCF AND REDD:

Human activities impact terrestrial sinks, through land use, land-use change and forestry
(LULUCF) activities, consequently, the exchange of CO2 (carbon cycle) between the terrestrial
biosphere system and the atmosphere is altered. The Kyoto Protocol, drafted in 1997 and entered
into force in 2005, includes quantitative targets for industrial countries (the so-called "Annex B")
to limit the emissions of six GHGs (CO2, CH4, N2O, and three fluorinated gases) by the 2008–
2012 period. In addition to reducing emissions from fossil fuel burning, the Kyoto Protocol
provides explicit opportunities for Annex B countries to partly achieve their reduction
commitments by planting new forests, or by managing existing forests or agricultural land
differently (so-called Land-Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry measures: LULUCF). The
presumption of these LULUCF options is that removing CO2 from the atmosphere can also
contribute to the stabilization of the atmospheric CO2 concentration and thus to a limitation of
climate change.

Supriya K Salimath, College of Forestry, Ponnampet

Plantation Forestry, SAF 301 2+1

Land use, land-use change, and forestry (LULUCF), also referred to as Forestry and other
land use (FOLU), is defined by the United Nations Climate Change Secretariat as a "greenhouse
gas inventory sector that covers emissions and removals of greenhouse gases resulting from direct
human-induced land use such as settlements and commercial uses, land-use change, and forestry
activities. The role of LULUCF activities in the mitigation of climate change has long been
recognized. Mitigation can be achieved through activities in the LULUCF sector that increase the
removals of greenhouse gases (GHGs) from the atmosphere or decrease emissions by sources
leading to an accumulation of carbon stocks. An important feature of LULUCF activities in this
context is their potential reversibility hence, non-permanence of the accumulated carbon stocks.

LULUCF has impacts on the global carbon cycle and as such, these activities can add or remove
carbon dioxide (or, more generally, carbon) from the atmosphere, influencing climate. LULUCF
has been the subject of two major reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC). Additionally, land use is of critical importance for biodiversity.

This decision sets out the rules that govern how Kyoto Parties with emission reduction
commitments (so-called Annex 1 Parties) account for changes in carbon stocks in land use, land-
use change and forestry. It is mandatory for Annex 1 Parties to account for changes in carbons
stocks resulting from deforestation, reforestation and afforestation and voluntary to account for
emissions from forest management, cropland management, grazing land management and
revegetation.

REDD AND REDD+:

Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation and the role of conservation,
sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks in developing
countries (REDD+) was first negotiated under the United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change (UNFCCC) in 2005, with the objective of mitigating climate change through
reducing net emissions of greenhouse gases through enhanced forest management in developing
countries. REDD+ is a mechanism developed by Parties to the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). It creates a financial value for the carbon stored in
forests by offering incentives for developing countries to reduce emissions from forested lands and
invest in low-carbon paths to sustainable development. Developing countries would receive
results-based payments for results-based actions. REDD+ goes beyond simply deforestation and
forest degradation and includes the role of conservation, sustainable management of forests and
enhancement of forest carbon stocks.

Forest Carbon Partnership Facility: The Forest Carbon Partnership Facility (FCPF) is a global
partnership focused on reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, forest
carbon stock conservation, sustainable management of forests, and enhancement of forest carbon
stocks (REDD+).

Supriya K Salimath, College of Forestry, Ponnampet

Plantation Forestry, SAF 301 2+1

FCPF is made up of two separate, but complementary, funds that support countries in their
REDD+ preparations. Firstly, the Readiness fund, which assists participant countries prepare for
REDD+ by developing policies and systems, in particular national REDD+ strategies; developing
reference emission levels (RELs); designing measurement, reporting and verification (MRV)
systems; and establishing national management arrangements, including safeguards, for REDD+.
Contributors to the Readiness Fund are known as Donor Participants. Secondly, it consists of the
Carbon Fund. This became operational in May 2011 and will provide payments for verified
emissions reductions from REDD+ programs. Contributors to the Carbon Fund are called Carbon
Fund Participants. Developing countries participating in the FCPF in both funds are known as
REDD Country Participants. About five REDD Country Participants will be supported by the
Carbon Fund, dependent on a progress assessment made by the FCPF Participants Committee.

AR CDM Concepts:

The CDM allows emission-reduction projects in developing countries to earn certified emission
reduction (CER) credits, each equivalent to one tonne of CO2. These CERs can be traded and sold,
and used by industrialized countries to a meet a part of their emission reduction targets under the
Kyoto Protocol. The mechanism stimulates sustainable development and emission reductions,
while giving industrialized countries some flexibility in how they meet their emission reduction
limitation targets. The CDM is the main source of income for the UNFCCC Adaptation Fund,
which was established to finance adaptation projects and programmes in developing country
Parties to the Kyoto Protocol that are particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate
change. The Adaptation Fund is financed by a 2% levy on CERs issued by the CDM.

Emissions trading, as set out in Article 17 of the Kyoto Protocol, allows countries that have
emission units to spare - emissions permitted them but not "used" - to sell this excess capacity to
countries that are over their targets. Thus, a new commodity was created in the form of emission
reductions or removals. Since carbon dioxide is the principal greenhouse gas, people speak simply
of trading in carbon. Carbon is now tracked and traded like any other commodity. This is known
as the "carbon market." Under Joint Implementation, countries with commitments under the Kyoto
Protocol are eligible to transfer and/or acquire emission reduction units (ERUs) and use them to
meet part of their emission reduction target.

Carbon trading units are:

• A removal unit (RMU) on the basis of land use, land-use change and forestry
(LULUCF) activities such as reforestation.
• An emission reduction unit (ERU) generated by a joint implementation project
• A certified emission reduction (CER) generated from a clean development mechanism
project activity

Supriya K Salimath, College of Forestry, Ponnampet

Plantation Forestry, SAF 301 2+1

Mixed Species Plantations:

The vast majority of the forest plantations in the world are monocultures. They grow the single
species that yield products most desired by the market and offers the best return on the financial
investment. However, various benefits can be obtained by establishing the mixed species
plantations where two or more tree species grown together. The main advantages of these mixed
species plantations are:

 Higher growth and production than the monoculture

 Increase in the growth rate and form of the individual trees
 Provision of multiple products
 Reduced risk of pest and disease attack
 Restoration of degraded lands
 Provision of diverse ecosystem services
 Improvement in the aesthetic condition of the land

Coarse grain mixture/ Mosaic: It is the establishment of small areas of monocultures of each
species in a land.

Fine grained mixture/ Intimate mixture: It is the method where the plantation contains two or
more species intermingled.

Growth and development of mixed species plantations:

One of the important advantages of the mixed species plantations is the possibility of producing
the more of the product for which the plantation is being grown than the corresponding species
monocultures. This happens only when the species are complementary to each other.
There are many ways in which species may be complementary to each other:

1. Their biological characteristics may be such that they differ in the amounts they require of one
or other of the resources essential for the growth.

2. One species may be capable of obtaining the resources that are inaccessible for the other. In that
case it is considered to be occupying different niches. Unless there is a complete overlap of the
niches, the productivity of the mixtures will be greater than that of the monocultures.

3. Differing in height, growth form or the efficiency with which their leaves are capable of using
sunlight to produces food in photosynthesis.

4. Differing in phenology which might occur where a deciduous species makes an upper canopy
in mixture with an evergreen species.
5. Differing in root system structure particularly with depth of rooting.

Supriya K Salimath, College of Forestry, Ponnampet

Plantation Forestry, SAF 301 2+1

There are many ways in which species may be Supplementary to each other
1. Effects on nutrient cycling through leaf litter
2. Nitrogen fixing ability of the some trees in mixtures help the pother tree growth
3. Promotion of mycorrhizal fungi development on the root system of the other species
4. Production of exudates in roots that may promote the growth of other species.
5. One species in the mixture may protect the other from pests and diseases.
6. Tall tree in the mixture acts as a protection from sun and frost along with providing shade.

***ALL THE BEST***

Supriya K Salimath, College of Forestry, Ponnampet