SILVICULTURE SYSTEM

Paper - 1 | Section - A

EDITION : 2019
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 SYLLABUS
▪ Silviculture-Systems : Clear felling, uniform shelter wood selection, coppice and
conversion systems, Management of silviculture systems of temperate, subtropical,
humid tropical, dry tropical and coastal tropical forests with special reference to
plantation silviculture, choice of species, establishment and management of standards,
enrichment methods, technical constraints, intensive mechanized methods, aerial
seeding, thinning

MARKS DISTRIBUTION

Subjects Average 2018 2017 2016 2015 2014 2013 2012

Silviculture stytem ≈ 40 30 15 68 48 48 38 31

INDEX

SN Topic Page No

1. Introduction 1-2

2. Tree breeding strategy 3 - 21

3. Seed orchard management 22 - 25

4. Role of Hybrid in tree improvement 26 -29

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 Topic 1 INTRODUCTION

CONTENT :-
1. Definition
2. Classification
3. Conversion :
4. Needs of classification

1.1 | DEFINITION

▪ Silviculture is the art and science of cultivating forest crops. It deals, in a general way, with the
natural laws of growth and development of trees and forests, the effect of environment on
them, techniques of regenerating them naturally or artificially and the methods of tending
them. Since the techniques of regenerating forest crops vary with types and sub-types of
forests, and physical conditions in which they exist, it becomes necessary to identify different
methods or techniques for different sub-types in different localities. These methods or
techniques are called Silvicultural Systems.
▪ SILVICULTURAL SYSTEM : a method of silvicultural procedure worked out in accordance with
accepted sets of silvicultural principles, by which crops constituting forests are tended, harvested
and replaced by new crops of distinctive forms.
OR

it is a planned silvicultural treatment which is applied to a forest crop, throughout its

life, so that it assumes a distinctive form. It begins with regeneration fellings, tending the crop to
its final felling.

1.2 | CLASSIFICATION

In India, silvicultural Systems have been classified primarily on the basis of mode of
regeneration -

A. High Forest Systems

B. Coppice Systems

A | HIGH FOREST SYSTEMS

Those silvicultural systems in which the regeneration is normally of seedling origin,

either natural or artificial (or a combination of both). So rotation is generally long

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 These are further classified on the basis of pattern of felling which in turn, affects the
concentration or diffusion of regeneration and Character of new crop.

NOTE :
• Systems of concentrated regeneration are those silvicultural systems in which regeneration
fellings are carried out in a specific part of the felling series.
• Clear felling Systems : silvicultural systems in which we harvest mature crop in one operation
like harvesting of wheat crop.
• Shelterwood Systems : in which the mature crop is removed in a series of operations, the first
of which is the seeding felling' and the last is the final felling. And any other felling b/w of them
called secondary fellings. The time interval between the seeding felling and the final felling for
a compartment is called regeneration interval.
• Selection system : under this you cut trees selectively

B | COPPICE SYSTEMS

All those silvicultural systems in which the crop originates from coppice growth, so usually
crop rotation is shorter than high forest system.

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TYPES : ON THE BASIS OF PATTERN OF FELLING

1) The Simple Coppice System

2) The Shelterwood Coppice System
3) The Coppice Selection System
4) The Coppice-with-Standards System
5) The Coppice-with-Reserves System
6) The Pollard System

2018 : Enlist the classification of silvicultural systems on the basis of mode of regeneration
and pattern of felling (15 m).

COMMENT : For this question, 1st you write definition as introduction part (more easy way to
write), then classified it into 2 parts. One part is high forest as given in flowchart than
the Coppice system, you can explain them in exam as per your wish, time and
circumstances.

1.3 | CONVERSION

CONVERSION : Sometimes, we required to change from one silvicultural system to another

as per necessitated by market demand, soil and climatic condition. This is usually referred to as
conversion.

OBJECTIVES :

• Change in the mode of regeneration : seeds to coppice or vice versa.

• Change in the character of the crop without change in the mode of regeneration - one types
of high forest systems changed to another high forest system

1.4 | NEEDS OF SUCH CLASSIFICATION ?

• Systematization of knowledge and precaution against wrong use : It helps foresters to

understand the essence of each system and the conditions in which it is applicable. In the
absence of such knowledge, there is a great possibility of applying a particular silvicultural
system in conditions in which it may not be applicable, resulting in failure. For example, coppice
system can be applied only to species which are strong coppicers.
• Direction to the planned treatment of crops : adoption of this systematized knowledge in the
field gives a direction to the planned treatment of a crop in planned manner. otherwise, over-
enthusiasm or dogmatic approach may result in failure.

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 Topic 2 CLEAR FELLING SYSTEM

CONTENT :-
1. Definition
2. Specifications
3. Advangages disadvantages
4. Types
5. Examples

• 2016 : Define clear-felling system. How is saransa sal (Shorea robusta) forest managed
under clear-felling followed by natural regeneration ? (8)

• 2015 : how is Tectona grandis forest managed under clear fellinf followed by artificial
regeneration ? (10 m)
• 2012 : briefly describe the clear-felling silvicultural system with particular reference to –
(a) Nature of crop produced
(b) Felling system
(c) Tending
(d) Regeneration
(e) Advantages and disadvantages (10 m)

2.1 | DEFINITION

The Clear-felling system is defined as a silvicultural system in which equal or equi-

productive areas of mature crops are successively clear-felled in one operation and regenerated, most
frequently, artificially but sometimes naturally also.

The area to be clear-felled each year in uniformly productive sites is 1/n of the total area
allotted to this system, where n is the number of years in the rotation, and is usually referred to as
the ANNUAL COUPE'.

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2.2 | SPECIFICATIONS

▪ REMOVAL OR FELLING OF MATURE CROP : Coupe should be felled and removed in one
operation. However Retention of some mature trees as a frost protection measure or as an
insurance against failure, but their number is very very small.
▪ METHODS OF OBTAINING REGENERATION : mostly by artificial means, sometimes naturally.
➢ Artificial regeneration by : Dept plantation + Tungya (village tungya, lease tungya,
departmental tungya).
➢ Natural : by seed stored in the area, seed received from outside, by advance growth.
▪ Tending : As the weeds affect the growth of plants of the desired species, the plantations have
to be kept well weeded. The number of weedings depends upon the rate of growth and
density of the weeds, as well as the rate of growth of forest plants. Cleaning, climber cutting,
replacement of old casualties, thinning etc followed subsequently (writedown there the points
you read in chapter 21 : tending operation).
▪ Character of new crop : absolutely even-aged, if there is no accident of failure, the system
gives a normal series of age gradation.

2.3 | ADVANTAGES

1. It is the simplest of all high forest systems = all are things in one time = does not require a high
degree of skill in marking and cutting.
2. As fellings are concentrated = Yield per unit area is more and consequently, the cost of felling
and extraction is less. It also facilitates the
mechanization of conversion and extraction work.
3. Easy to regulate the composition of new crop (Exotics),
so we can grow more valuable fast-growing species of
specific quality and processing characteristics in
sufficient quantities = easy to support wood industries.
4. Supervision of all operations viz., felling, conversion, extraction and regeneration of area, easy
5. This system does not create damage to new crops by the felling of older trees as happens in
shelterwood and selection systems because all trees are removed in one operation and
regeneration comes up after felling and extraction work is over.
6. Even-aged crops produced by this system have more cylindrical boles, fewer taper trees because
of horizontal competition.
7. As the distribution of age classes is very regular = near the normal forest
8. The success or failure of regeneration work is absolutely clear by the end of the second year.

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9. As the entire coupe is regenerated in one operation usually by plantation = regeneration
establishes early = Coupe can be opened up for grazing soon. adjoining villages depend largely
on forest grazing, and long closures irritate and antagonize local villagers.

2.4 | DISADVANTAGES

1. It is the most artificial of all silvicultural systems.

2. As the soil remains exposed in early stages till the canopy closes, there is great danger of
deterioration of soil (possibility of soil erosion increases), the danger of invasion of weeds and
grasses increases and consequently the fire hazard also.
3. Destruction of natural soil flora and fauna and invasion of
weeds have an adverse effect on the future crop.
4. It produces even-aged crop which is less resistant to damage
by snow, wind, fungi and insect attack, (when it is also pure).
5. Not utilized site quality fully
6. Some believe that the annual yield under this system is less than that in systems having uneven-
aged crops.

2.5 | TYPES

It is not always possible to clear-fell the whole of a compartment or sub-compartment in

one operation. In such cases, clear-felling is done in the form of strips. Reasons may be (i)
Regeneration : you wanted that area naturally regenerated by seed from the adjoining area or (ii)
To protect the young crop against the wind, snow, insolation, Insect or fungal attack, The clear-
felled strips may be arranged in two ways.

▪ THE CLEAR-STRIP SYSTEM : a silvicultural system in which clear-felling is done in the form of
strips which progress successively in one direction (usually against the prevailing direction of the
wind) across the regeneration area. As
the strip fellings are made progressively
in one direction, it is also known as
Progressive Clearfelling Strip System or
Progressive Strip System.

✓ Remember : Pattern of felling +

method of regeneration + character

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 of crops.

ADVANTAGES : This system has all the advantages of the Clear-felling System. In addition, it does
not deteriorate the site.
DISADVANTAGES : All disadvantages of the Clear-felling System, except those of site
deterioration. + Issue of forest fire increases by nearby vegetation, grazing rite issue (otherwise
require much more fencing material).
APPLICATION : Pinus kesiya in Assam

▪ THE ALTERNATE-STRIP SYSTEM : a silvicultural system in which clear-felling is done in the form
of strips, and the clear-felled strips alternate with unfelled strips of similar width, though
sometimes these may be narrower or wider also.

2015 : how is Tectona grandis forest managed under clear-felling followed by artificial
regeneration ? (10 m).

Solution :

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 Topic 3 SHELTERWOOD SYSTEM

In the Clear-felling System, described in the last Chapter, the area to be regenerated is clear-
felled in one operation and restocked, generally artificially and occasionally naturally. Artificial
regeneration requires large sums of money and its success depends upon correct choice of species,
use of correct technique, favorable climatic conditions (such as adequate rainfall), and freedom from
adverse biotic factors. Natural regeneration, on the other hand, requires adequate natural seed
supply, favorable soil conditions for its germination and absence of adverse climatic factors. Thus
when large sums of money are not available for artificial regeneration, or when natural regeneration
of the species is not possible on a clear-felled site, either for want of seed or due to adverse climatic
factors, such as insolation, excessive strong light, frost or cold winds, the other alternative is to
follow nature and remove the over wood gradually, in two or more successive fellings depending on
the progress of regeneration. As the regeneration is obtained under shelter of the overwood, such
systems are called Shelterwood Systems, and as the overwood is removed in two or more
operations, these are also known as Systems of Successive Regeneration Fellings.

In other words, Shelterwood Systems involve gradual removal of the entire stand in two or
more successive fellings which extend over a part of the rotation With the opening up of canopy in
the first regeneration felling, natural regeneration starts coming in under the shelter of the
remaining overwood. As natural regeneration progresses, the overwood is gradually removed and,
when it does not require protection any longer, the shelterwood is removed completely, allowing the
new crop full use of the growing space.

The varying patterns of regeneration fellings, and their distribution in space and time, result in a
variety of shelterwood systems.

A. Uniform shelterwood system or simply called Unifeorm system.

B. Group system
C. Shelterwood strip system
D. Strip and group system
E. Wagners blender saumschlag system
F. Eberhard’s wedge system
G. Irregular shelterwood system
H. Indian irregular shelterwood system

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 • 2016 : Describe kinds and pattern of fellings followed in Shelterwood Uniform System.
Explain Uniform System which is followed to manage (Pinus roxburghii) forests of
Himachal Pradesh (20 M).
• 2015 : Describe the major factors which affect the length of the regeneration period in a
Periodic Block
• 2015 : How can a forest with shade bearer and light demander tree species be managed
under Uniform Shelterwood System? (10 M).
• 2014 : Discuss the uniform system with artificial regeneration (10 m).
• 2013 : Explain the factors which affect the length of regeneration period in a Periodic
Block. What is the effect of regeneration period on the form of crop? (8m).
• 2013 : Describe the method followed to introduce the uniform Shelterwood System in a
forest where Cedrus deodara is mixed with Pinus wallichiana (10 m).
• 2012 : How will. you classify a silvicultural system ? Discuss important features of Uniform
system with 'reference to Pinus roxburghii and give its merits and demerits ( 4+8+4 = 16)

Linked Question :

• 2014 : Give a short account on the management of uneven-aged forests (8m).

A | THE UNIFORM SYSTEM

A.1 | DEFINITION

A kind of Shelterwood System aiming at concentrated regeneration, in which the canopy

is uniformly opened up over the whole area of a compartment in one operation to obtain uniform
regeneration. It is also called the Shelterwood Compartment System or simply, Compartment
System. (This is simply a clear-felling system in which few trees (25/50 trees per hectare) left to
provide shelter (protection) to new growth + seed supply for natural regeneration)

A.2 | PATTERN OF FELLING

• SEEDING FELLING : the opening up of canopy of a mature stand to provide conditions for
securing regeneration from the seed of trees retained for the purpose. This is the first stage of
regeneration fellings under a Shelterwood System, so in Uniform System makes uniform
openings in the canopy all over the compartment so that favorable conditions are created on
the forest floor in respect of soil moisture, light etc.

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• SECONDARY FELLING : a regeneration felling carried out between the seeding felling and the
final felling under a shelterwood system in order to gradually remove the shelter and admit
increasing light to the regenerated crop.
IMPORTANCE :
(a) help in the manipulation of mixture of species in a young mixed crop.
(b) We get Intermediate timber = income to sustain farmers till rotation end

• FINAL FELLING : final stage in regeneration fellings lt is carried out when the coupe or
regeneration area is completely stocked with established regeneration which no longer
requires any shelter against frost, insolation and/or adverse weed
Definition : The removal of the last seed or shelter trees after regeneration has been well
established and didn’t require their help + shelter also affected them negatively.

NOTE :

• REGENERATION FELLING : a felling made with the aim of assisting regeneration under the
shelterwood system, including seedling feeling, secondary felling and final felling.

• REGENRATION INTERVAL : the interval between the seeding felling and final felling on a
particular area, under one of the shelterwood systems.
• REGENERATION PERIOD : The time period required to regenerate the whole of a periodic
block.

A.3 | METHODS OF REGENERATION

Mainly naturally, often supplemented by artificial means

A.4 | TENDING

After the seeding fellings, the slash left in the area is cut and collected away from the seed
bearers and burnt during winter. After the regeneration starts coming up, weeding and cleaning are
done regularly till the entire area is completly regenerated.

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A.5 | CHARACTER OF THE CROP

The crop produced in this system is even-aged, though it is not so even-aged as in the
Clear-felling System because the regeneration is spread over a longer period of time, unlike in the
Clear-felling System.

• 2015 : Describe the major factors which affect the length of the regeneration period in a
Periodic Block.
• 2013 : Explain the factors which affect the length of the regeneration period in a Periodic
Block. What is the effect of the regeneration period on the form of the crop? (8m).

A.6 | REGENERATION PERIOD AND PERIODIC BLOCKS

in the Clear-felling System, the coupe is clear-felled and regenerated each year as far as
possible so that a normal series of age gradations from 1 to n years (i.e. the number of years in the
rotation) are formed. But under the Uniform System, this is not possible as it requires several years
to regenerate an area naturally. Therefore, in order to ensure that the entire forest area is felled
and regenerated systematically within the rotation, it is necessary to divide the rotation into as
many parts as the number by which the rotation is divisible by the time is taken to regenerate an
area naturally. For instance, if the rotation is 120 years and it takes 30 years to regenerate an area
naturally, the rotation will be divided into 4 periods. Thes 30 years is regeneration period and these
4 blocks are periodic block.

• REGENERATION PERIOD : The time period required to regenerate the whole of a periodic
block.
• PERIODIC BLOCK : The parts of forest set aside for regeneration or specific treatment for a
specified period of time.

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 NOTE : Instead of creating a series of age-gradations as in the Clear-feling System, the Uniform
System creates age-classes whose range equals the number of years in the regeneration
period.

• 2015 : Describe the major factors which affect the length of the regeneration period in a
Periodic Block
• 2013 : Explain the factors which affect the length of the regeneration period in a Periodic
Block. What is the effect of the regeneration period on the form of the crop? (8m).

LENGTH OF REGENERATION PERIOD : depends upon

(i) Frequency of seed years : if seed year frequent, the regeneration period will be shorter.
(ii) Light requirement : Light demanders require a shorter regeneration period than that
required for shade bearers.
(iii) Other climatic factors: areas experiencing extremely high or extremely low temperatures
require a longer regeneration period. Areas with deficient rainfall also require a longer
regeneration period.
(iv) Soil conditions : as it necessary for nutrients, moisture, air etc.
(v) Competing for weed growth :
(vi) Incidence of grazing and browsing :
(vii) Fire : Accidental fires destroy regeneration.

2013 : How is the allotment of areas made in Permanent and Floating Periodic Blocks? (10).

TYPES OF PERIODIC BLOCK :

(i) Fixed or Permanent - the allotment in which the entire area being worked under Uniform
System is sub-divided into various Periodic Blocks that retain their territorial identity at
each Working Plan revision.

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 (ii) Floating Periodic block : the only allotted Periodic Block consisting of mature forest areas
taken up for regeneration during the Working Plan period, without any predetermined
limit on the size of the regeneration block or period in which it is to be regenerated. At
each revision of the Working Plan, their boundaries changed.
(permanent allotment of areas to certain period requires that this area must be completely
regenerated within the time frame. In nature, this may not always be possible particularly when
dealing with large areas, this creates difficulty at the end of the regeneration period when we
moving this area into another PB (on paper). To avoid this rigidity a more flexible method of
allotment of areas. In this method, only those areas which are fit to be allotted to regeneration P.B.
are selected and allotted)F.

• 2012 : How will you classify a silvicultural system ? Discuss important features of Uniform
system with 'reference to Pinus roxburghii and give its merits and demerits ( 4+8+4 = 16).

A.7 | ADVANTAGES OF THE UNIFORM SYSTEM

1) In this system, Soil is not completely opened so = little risk of soil erosion & deterioration (v/s
Exposed in Clear-felling System).
2) Marking & felling of trees of the over wood are simpler in execution (as like in clear-felling)
3) Regeneration, carried out under the shelter of older crop = little danger of failure + weed
growth.
4) Young crop is protected against adverse climatic factors
5) Regeneration is obtained from the best-selected trees seeds = new crop is superior.
6) Regeneration of both light-demanders as well as shade-bearers possible = mixed forests
benefits.
7) New crop grow before the end of the old one is harvested = reduce the length of rotation
8) The system also produces an even-aged crop of trees with long clean cylindrical boles.
9) The system is superior to Clear-felling System as it reduces the risk of multiplication of
injurious insects commonly found in clear-felled areas.

A.8 | DIS-ADVANTAGES

1) As the over wood is removed in more than one operation = damaged to new regeneration
heavily.

2) In mixed forests with species having different light requirements, the manipulation of canopy
requires skill and knowledge of silvicultural requirements of species composing the mixture.

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 3) isolated seed bearers are very susceptible to be wind thrown in case of shallow-rooted spp.

4) Species that have slow-growing = longer regeneration periods, weedings and cleanings have
to be done for a very long time.

A.9 | APPLICATION OF THE UNIFORM SYSTEM

• Where regeneration can be obtained easily during the regeneration period.

• Where regeneration requires protection against adverse climatic factors during the initial
stages of development.
• Where clear-telling of the area is likely to result in soil erosion and invasion by thick grass and
weeds.

• 2012 : How will you classify a silvicultural system ? Discuss important features of Uniform
system with 'reference to Pinus roxburghii and give its merits and demerits ( 4+8+4 = 16).

Fooder for Pinus roxburghi :

Chir regenerates naturally easily therefore suited for being worked under the Uniform
System. The number of seed bearers retained at the time of seeding felling = 15 to 25
(varies from locality to locality). After retaining the required number of seed bearers, all
other growth is usually felled, all slash left in the area is cut and collected away and burnt
during winter. After this, the area is closed to grazing and protected against fire.
Weedings and cleanings are done as and when necessary. Protection is continued till the
regeneration is 1 to 2 m high on gentle slopes and 2.5 to 3 m high on steeper slopes.

• 2015 : Describe the silvicultural system which is introduced to manage Shorea robusta
forest after the failure of Uniform System (10 M).
• 2015 : Comment upon the variations practised in the silvicultural system of Shorea
robusta in the States of UP, Bihar, Odisha and West Bengal.

• 2013 : Describe the method followed to introduce the uniform Shelterwood System in a
forest where Cedrus deodara is mixed with Pinus wallichiana (10 m).

Solution :

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 B | THE GROUP SYSTEM

▪ DEFINITION : A silvicultural system in which regeneration fellings, instead of being done

uniformly all over the compartment, are carried out in scattered groups, either because of the
presence of advance growth in those groups, or to induce regeneration denovo so that these
foci of regeneration can be enlarged centrifugally to merge with each other ultimately.

▪ PATTERN OF FELLING : in picture

▪ TENDING : The usual tending operations
required are slash disposal after felling,
followed by weeding, cleaning and shrub
cutting as and when necessary.
▪ CHARACTER OF CROP PRODUCED : Un-even-
aged because of series of seeding fellings
carried out in successive concentric circular
strips.
▪ ADVANTAGES THIS SYSTEM :
₋ The young crop develops in a more natural
way than it does in the Uniform System and nature regeneration appears more sporadic
than uniform.
₋ Young regeneration continuously protected by overhead light + frost + Strong wind storm.
₋ Damages from logging and conversion can be minimized by doing the work in un-felled
areas, as far as possible.

▪ DISADVANTAGES OF THIS SYSTEM :

₋ In hilly terrain, the survey and location of these groups are extremely difficult.
₋ Marking for seeding felling in the form of rings around groups of existing advance growth,
or artificially created gaps, is difficult in hilly terrain.
₋ Towards the later stages, the few isolated seed bearers are exposed to serious risk of
windthrow.
₋ The location of the nuclei of regeneration for weedings and cleanings is difficult.
₋ supervision and control difficulties.
₋ The system requires intensive working and, where this is not possible, its success cannot
be ensured. The system failed in Indian conditions mostly because, over extensive areas,
intensive working was not possible.

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Other system

▪ SHELTERWOOD STRIP SYSTEM : The Shelterwood-strip System may be defined as a

silvicultural system in which regeneration fellings are done in the form of strips successively
from one side of the compartment, progressing against the direction of the wind. This system
was evolved from the Uniform System for protective reasons.

▪ STRIP AND GROUP SYSTEM :

▪ IRREGULAR SHELTERWOOD SYSTEM : A Silvicultural System in which the crop to be

regenerated is opened up irregularly and the resultant crop is uneven-aged. Its local version,
Punjab Shelterwood System for deodar forests.
PATTERN OF FELLING : As already stated, felling of the crop to be regenerated is irregular and
does not follow any regular pattern = irregular opening of the crop, based on -
1) Steepness of terrain
2) The danger of soil loss
3) Difficulties in obtaining regeneration
CHARACTER OF CROP : immature old trees + new regeneration = Unevenaged & at least in the
early stages it gives the appearance of a two-storeyed forest.
APPLICATION : this system commonly applied for deodar, sal and evergreen forest of Andaman-
Nicobar.

2015 : Describe the silvicultural system which is introduced to manage Shorea robusta forest after
the failure of the Uniform System (10 M).

Solution : In the sal forests of tarai region of UP, the regeneration in SAL is so irregular that the
application of Uniform System failed completely because – It was not possible to obtain
established regeneration over large areas within limited period, so we adopted its alternative
Indian Irregular Shelterwood System and nurse up regeneration which is found scattered over

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almost the whole area of the Working Circle in patches of varying sizes and in all stages, from sub-
whippy to the established pole stage. As the regeneration scattered all over the area in various
stages of development, the method of Floating Periodic Block is adopted.

To further extend your answer write doen Tending operation (weeding + cleaning + fencing + shrub
cutting + control burning etc.), nature of crop, advantages and disadvantages as per the requirement of the
question.

MODEL : Describe the silvicultural system which is introduced to manage deodar forest in
Himalayan region (10 M).

Hints : The deodar forests of U.P. and Himachal Pradesh are generally worked under Indian
Irregular helterwood System. Under this, we usually removed all over wood after retaining 45 to 50
trees per hectare depending upon aspect and soil conditions. All suitable patches of advance
growth, as well as established poles and immature trees up to half the rotation age, are retained
with the condition of the minimum area, as part of the future crop. There is also a provision that
where the terrain is steep to precipitous and/or rugged, the fellings should be of selection type.
Thus, the opening of the canopy is irregular and the resultant crop is very often uneven-aged.

To further extend your answer write down Tending operation (weeding + cleaning + fencing +
shrub cutting + control butning etc.), nature of crop, advantages and disadvantages as per requirement of the
question.

MODEL : Describe the silvicultural system which is introduced to manage evergreen forest of
Andaman and nicobar region (10 M).

Solution : The evergreen and deciduous forests of Andamans are also worked under Indian
Irregular Shelterwood System, though it is locally called as 'Andamans Canopy-lifting Shelterwood
System'. Under this system, all saleable trees above a prescribed GBH which is 150 cm for hard-
woods, 120 cm for soft-woods and 180 cm for others, are felled and their timber is expeditiously
removed. All sound trees of commercial species, below the prescribed GBH mentioned above, are
left as advance growth.
Closely following the extraction of timber, canopy lifting is done by: (a) felling all poles of
non-commercial species and undergrowth upto 10 m height; (b) girdling trees of 10 m to 20 m
height not needed as seed bearers or as a part of the future crop.
To further extend your answer write down about Tending operation (weeding + cleaning + fencing
+ shrub cutting + control burning etc.), nature of crop, advantages - disadvantages as per requirement of the
question.

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MODEL : Difference between indian irregular shelterwood system and selection system ? (10 m).

Possible solution :

• The regeneration fellings under Indian Irregular Shelterwood System are confined to
compartments or sub-compartments area of the Working Circle or Felling Series; whereas in the
Selection System, these are spread over the entire area.
• Under the Indian Irregular Shelterwood System regeneration is generally completed in about 3
to 10 years in the case of tropical rain forest, 30 years in deodar and in about 60 years in sal. But
in Selection System, it is a continuing process that goes on throughout the life of the crop.

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 Topic 4 SELECTION SYSTEM

Unlike any other systems of concentrated regeneration, in which trees of different age-
classes are found in different areas, natural forests are composed of trees of different ages mixed
together. Gradually mature trees die out and their place is taken up by younger regeneration. The
Selection System follows nature in respect of its pattern of felling

SINGLE TREE SELECTION SYSTEM GROUP SELECTION SYSTEM

▪ DEFINITION : The Selection System is a Silvicultural System in which fellings and regeneration
are distributed over the whole of the ares and the resultant crop is so uneven-aged that trees of
all ages are found mixed together over every part of the area. So crop referred as "selection
forest' or 'all-aged forest'.
▪ PATTERN OF FELLING : Scattered single mature trees
are selected all over the area and felled. So the area
have trees of all ages simultaneously = uneven-aged
crop
▪ MODE OF REGENERATION : Natural regeneration,
may further supported by artificial regeneration.
▪ TENDING OPERATION : weeding, cleaning, climber cutting etc.

SINGLE TREE SELECTION SYSTEM GROUP SELECTION SYSTEM

▪ DEFINITION : The Selection System in which trees are selected and felled in small patchesor
group and not an scattered tree as selected in single tree selection system.
▪ Tending operation + mode of regeneration and other things remaining the same.

ADVANTAGES OF SELECTION SYSTEM

1) This system results selection forest in which trees of all ages are mixed together on each unit of
area = continuous canopy + Full use of the site factors = conserves soil and moisture.
2) Their roots draw sustenance from different layers of the soil = more effective utilization of site
3) Forest produced by this system, is most resistant to injuries by insect pests and adverse climatic
factors. It prevents invasion of grass and weeds also.

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4) Natural regeneration comes up without difficulty due to abundance of seed bearers, use of
every seed year.
5) This is the best system for producing large sized trees = natural pruning = well developed crowns
and long clean boles.
6) It produces forest which is superior biologically, as well in its aesthetic and scenic values.,

DISADVANTAGES OF SELECTION SYSTEM :

1) Required high level of skill to carrying out marking and felling to ensure regeneration come up in
the gaps.
2) Cost of logging and extraction is higher - as the mature trees are scattered
3) As the mature trees stand over the young crop, felling, logging and extraction damaged younger
crop.
4) Seed is obtained from good as well as bad trees = impacted qualities of timber
5) Regeneration is a continuing process all over the area = cost of protection against grazing
increases + affect forest right over grazing.
6) Area is extensive = strict fire protection is difficult to achieve. So one fine accident= 
7) Success or failure of regeneration is difficult to assess.

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8) In a mixed crop with lower percentage of valuable species, when valuable trees are removed,
their vacancies are often filled up by regeneration of less valuable species = progressively
degenerates growing stock with every felling.

CONDITIONS OF APPLICATION :

• TOPOGRAPHY : hilly undulating where high chances of soil erosion.

• CATCHMENT AREAS : In river catchment areas where permanent and unbroken leaf-cover is
needed for conservation of moisture = control flood.
• COMMUNICATIONS : In areas far away from markets with practically no communication system,
concentrated fellings create problems of disposal of thinner material whose extraction cost may
be more than what it may fetch in the market.
• MARKET REQUIREMENTS : In areas, where there may be demand for only a particular species,
and that too above a particular size.
• SILVICULTURAL CONSIDERATIONS : There are certain species which are sensitive shade-
bearers. Such species can not be worked under systems of concentrated regeneration. As the
regeneration of these species comes up well under shade, Selection System is best suited to
them.

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 Topic 5 ACCESSORY SYSTEM

The term Accessory Systems refers to those high forest systems which originate from other
even-aged systems by modification of technique, resulting in an irregular or two-storeyed high
forest. These are –

2014 : Discuss two stories high forest and explain its advantages (10 m).

▪ TWO-STOREYED HIGH FOREST SYSTEM : under this

system, formation of a two-storeyed forest. Canopy
can be differentiated into two strata and each storey
is approximately even-aged. Usually seedling origin.

AIM : (virtually advantages of this system)

✓ soil protection : Upper storey of strong light

demanding species like teak, while under story is
shed bearer and aim to protect soil.
✓ For increasing the proportion of valuable species in the moist deciduous and semi-
evergreen forests.
✓ Propagation of species which cannot be raised in the open i.e. frost-tender species
✓ Increase production = Income, by growing two crops on the same area
✓ To change the species gradually
✓ Vertical mixture in species composition

DISADVANTAGES OF THE SYSTEM :

✓ Very deficult in operation + require very high level of skill + labour intensive = likely to fail
✓ Often under storey is damaged during thinning or fellings of upper-storey

✓ Under-storey crop may affect the growth of the upper storey crop.

APPLICATION : Examples of two-storeyed natural forests are common in India. For example, chir
pine and sal are sometimes found growing together. In certain localities in Tehri and Garhwal
(UK).
▪ HIGH FOREST-WITH-RESERVES SYSTEM : an accessory silvicultural system in which selected
trees of the crop being regenerated are retained for part or whole of the second rotation, in

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 order to produce large-sized timber. Example - In the Uniform System some trees are retained at
the time of final felling for light increment.
▪ IMPROVEMENT FELLINGS : a method of treatment involving essentially the removal of inferior
growing stock in the interest of better growth of the more valuable individuals. It is usually
applied to mixed uneven-aged forests. Improvement Felling is not a silvicultural system as it
neither aims at regenerating the crop, nor producing a crop of distinctive characteristics.
AIM : as large areas of our forest are degraded and poor in species composition and
regeneration so to improve them to the normal forest state.

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 Topic 6 COPPICE SYSTEM

Insreat of getting regeneration by seed, here we used coppicing power of tree stools to
regenerate area again.

TYPES : ON THE BASIS OF PATTERN OF FELLING

1) The Simple Coppice System

2) The Shelterwood Coppice System
3) The Coppice Selection System
4) The Coppice-with-Standards System
5) The Coppice-with-Reserves System
6) The Pollard System

2018 : Enlist the classification of silvicultural systems on the basis of mode of regeneration
and pattern of felling (15 m).

2016 : Discuss in brief the Simple Coppice System. Write different types of Coppice System
(20 m).

6.1 | SIMPLE COPPICE SYSTEM

• DEFINITION : a silvicultural system based on stool

coppice, in which the old crop is clear-felled
completely with no reservation for shelterwood,
or any other purpose.
• PATTERN AND METHOD OF FELLING : As already
stated, the Simple Coppice System consists in
clear felling a fixed area annually (Annual coupe).
• MODE OF REGENERATION : stool coppice, sometime if necesssary may supplemented by
artificial plantation
• TENDING : climber cutting, Singling (if aim to produce logs), or if aim to produce fuel no needs to
singling.
• CHARACTERS OF CROP : Even-aged
• ADVANTAGES :

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 (i) Very simple system in application and does not require any skill as required in shelterwood
systems.
(ii) Regeneration is more certain.
(iii) As coppice shoots grow faster in the beginning, the cost of weedings, cleanings and
protection is much less than in case of reproduction from seed.
(iv) Coppice growth rate is faster = higher mean annual increment than that we obtained under
a high forest system.
(v) Although the wood produced is small-sized and comparatively of inferior quality, the net
return on investment is relatively higher primarily due to shorter rotation and lesser amount
invested.

• DIS-ADVANTAGES :

(i) This system produces only small-sized timber and therefore its applicability limited to areas
where there is demand for such timber i.e. fuel wood production, Cricket bat industry in
Kashmir.

(ii) This system tends to exhaust soil (over exploit) = as short rotation + fast growth requires
more mineral.
(iii) This system is not a permanent one because the trees cannot keep on coppicing indefinitely.
After every coppice rotation some stools die and the reproduction has to be supplemented
by sowing and/or planting.
(iv) The coppice crop is liable to great damage by frost and wind.

• CONDITIONS FOR APPLICABILITY OF THE SYSTEM : this System is suitable for areas where the –

1) Factors of locality are low and incapable of producing larger-sized timber. Thus it is most
suited for vast areas where Social Forestry is to be practised.
2) This system is applicable only to areas where there may be demand for fuel, poles and small-
sized timber only.
3) Simple Coppice System with its small growing stock, low investment and quick return, is
eminently suitable for private lands or village common lands.
• Examples : Eucalyptus globilus plantation in Nilgir and Eucalyptus hybrid plantation in North
india.

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6.2 | COPPICE OF TWO ROTATION SYSTEM

It is a modification of the Simple Coppice System in which at the end of the first rotation of
coppice, a few selected poles are left scattered singly over the coupe in the second rotation to attain
bigger size. In the second rotation felling, these poles are felled with the coppice but new poles are
selected from among the coppice shoots of one rotation age and left for the second rotation.

Aim : Production of some large sized timber in addition to the poles of ordinary size.

6.3 | SHELTERWOOD COPPICE SYSTEM

Another modification of the Simple Coppice System. In this system, even in the first clear
felling, some shelterwood (125 to 150 per hectare) is retained for frost protection. The trees selected
as frost protection shelterwood are the most promising ones, and are retained till the coppice shoots
are fully established. The shelterwood is then removed gradually.

This system is applicable in following special circumstances :

a. where frost is of common problem.

b. where the locality is good.
c. Selected species is strong coppice and retain their coppicing ability upto a longer age.
d. Where demand of small-sized timber, there is demand for some large-sized timber also and
e. where a rotation longer than ordinary coppice rotation can be adopted.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE COPPICE OF TWO ROTATIONS SYSTEM AND THE SHELTERWOOD
COPPICE SYSTEM

• In the Coppice of Two Rotations System, complete clear felling is done at the beginning of the
1st rotation; whereas it is not so in the Shelterwood Coppice System where some retained as
frost protection.
• In the Coppice of Two Rotations, some poles are retained at the beginning of the second
rotation to remain throughout the second rotation, whereas in the Shelterwood Coppice
System, trees are retained for frost protection only and cut when no longer required.
• Objective : retention of some trees in the former with aim for production of some large-sized
timber, it is frost-protection in the latter.

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6.4 | COPPICE-WITH-STANDARD SYSTEM

A silvicultural system based on coppice in which an overwood on standards (usually of

seedling origin and composed of trees of various ages) is kept over coppice for periods which may be
multiples of coppice rotation and a permanent feature of the crop throughout its life.

▪ CROP COMPOSITION :

✓ A lower storey - consisting of even-aged coppice crop,

treated on principles of simple coppice, and usually
grown for firewood or poLes and
✓ An over-wood - consisting of scattered trees, of
seedling origin and of different age-classes, treated as
a high forest on principles of Selection System, usually
grown for larger-sized timber + Protection against frost
+ provide seedling regeneration to maintain vigour of the coppice.
▪ ROTATION : It has two rotations, one for the coppice and the other for the standards.
▪ PATTERN OF FELLING :
▪ MODE OF REGENERATION :
▪ TENDING :
▪ CHARACTER OF CROP : underwood is even-aged and overwood is uneven aged
▪ ADVANTAGES :

1) This system affords greater protection to the soil, because even when the under-wood is
clear felled, the over-wood protects the soil.
2) This system allows the standards (Over wood) to grow in isolation and get the benefit of light
increment without exposing the soil which is protected by the coppice.
3) Standards serve as seed bearers and provide seedling regeneration
4) Small investment then other system + Coppice gives early return on the capital, large-sized
timber give return after few years, so Net retum is higher than in Simple Coppice System.

▪ DISADVANTAGES :

1) Difficult to apply in practice, It requires great skill in maintaining correct balance between
standards and coppice.
2) Require high fertile soil
3) Felling, conversion and extraction is an hectic process

There still remain coppice with standard system but didn’t fines any importance.

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6.5 | POLLARD SYSTEM

Pollard is defined as a tree whose stem has been cut off in order to obtain a flush of shoots,
usually above the height to which the browsing animals can reach. System consists in pollarding trees
periodically to obtain exploitable material.

EXAMPLES OF APPLICATION

1) Salix is pollarded in Kashmir valley to produce shoots for cricket bat industry.
2) Hardwickia binata is pollarded in Andhra Pradesh to produce shoots suitable for fibre
extraction.
3) Pollarding of boswelia serrata to produce small sticks = match industry.

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 Topic 7 CONVERSION

CONVERSION : Sometimes, we required to change from one silvicultural system to another

as per necessitated by market demand, soil and climatic condition. This is uaually referred to as
conversion.
▪ DEFINITION : a change from one silviculture system or one set of species to another.

2018 : What is conversion? Discuss the need of conversion of one silvicultural system to another
(15 m).

2014 : Explain the forest conversion process of coppice system to uniform broad-leaved high forest
by natural regeneration (20 m).

▪ NEEDS :
1) Wanted to increasing yield from the forest
2) To meet the demand of industry
3) Advantages of particular system
4) Failure of an existing system due to 4F
5) Advancement in silvicultural knowledge with time
6) Development of communication system and market demand

▪ EXAMPLES : CONVERSION BY ARTIFICIAL REGENERATION

Generally carried out to change the species from broad-leaved to conifers, and this is usually
achieved by :
BY CLEAR FELLING : This involves complete clear-felling of the coppice crop followed by artificial
regeneration and similar soil & tending work as we carriedout in high forest system applu here.
However, a great danger of the artificially raised plants being suppressed by coppice shoots, this
method is more suited to poorer areas where the coppice growth is poor. Artificial regeneration
is by planting and not by sowing so that the plants may be out of danger of suppression by
coppice sooner.
ARTIFICIAL CONVERSION UNDER A SHELTERWOOD : This method we used in shade bearers like
silver fir, by 1st allowing coppice species to grow up upto the specific height, then start seedling
felling and start plantation of silver fir in patches.

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 Topic 8 CHOICE OF SILVICULTURE SYSTEM

The choice of silviculture system that we adopted to particular area and species usually
based on –

1) Suitability of system to that species

2) Soil & Topography
3) Resistance offered to external dangers
4) Objective of management
5) Economic consideration
6) Road and water transportation /communication
7) Availibility of skill workforce
8) Existence of forest right
9) Aesthetic consideration

2012 : Successful regeneration in a forest depends upon silvicultural system (5 m).

Solution :

2012 : Successful regeneration in a forest depends upon silvicultural system (5 m).

DAUERWALD CONCEPT ?

Deuerwald is a German term (meaning in English continuous forest), we used this term to
refer to any silvicultural system which does not involve clear-felling and exposure of soil.

Definition : A treatment of forest in such a way that a continuous and unbroken forest cover is
maintained over the entire area.

On the basis of this concept we Classified silvicultural systems broadly into two categories :

(i) Dauerwald systems and

(ii) Clear-felling systems

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 Topic 9 MANAGEMENT OF BAMBOO FOREST

Bamboo is a minor forest produce, it plays a very important role in our national economy as
it is a common man's timber for house construction and numerous other uses. It is an important
long-fibred cellulosic raw material for paper and paper industry. Out of more than 100 species of
bamboo that occur in Indian forests, Dendrocalamus strictus is the most important and widely
distributed.

2017 : Enlist the general rules governing the felling of bamboo in forests. What are the
consequences of gregarious flowering of bamboo ? What special measures would you
take in the event of gregarious flowering? (15 m)

2013 : Write about the impact of felling height and felling intensity on the sustainability of
bamboo's clump (10 m).

▪ SILVICULTURE SYSTEM : As bamboo fellings are done on selection basis in such a way that the
production of new culms takes place continually = Culm Selection System.

In some working plans forester also used term Selection cutting” combined with
Cleaning and Cultural Operations for this but it didn’t get popularity.

▪ FELLING (cutting) CYCLE AND FELLING RULES : Bamboos are worked generally on felling
(cutting) cycles of 3 or 4 years and of these two, four years is generally adopted in central Indian
forest. The felling rules vary from state to state here we gives standard felling rules that used in
north india.

(a) Restriction on cutting of one year, and sometimes even two year old culms.
(b) Rotention of some older bamboos for support of immature culms.
(c) Prohibition on digging of rhizomes.
(d) Regulation of the height at which bamboo should be cut. The minimum height at which the
bamboo should be cut is generally 15 cm with the condition that at least one node should
be left. The maximum height varies from place to place i.e. 25 cm in U.P. and 45 cm in M.P.
(e) Insistence on cutting with a sharp instrument so that the stump does not split.
(f) In case of flowering, the bamboo should be cut only when the seed has been shed.
(g) The period of working : in winter

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▪ METHOD OF REGENERATION : by rhizomes. New clumps are formed by natural seedlings
resulting after sporadic flowering. In case of gregarious flowering, when all the clumps in the
area die, regeneration comes up profusely from the seeds so they needs some protection
against rodents before germination and against cattle grazing after germination.

▪ TENDING : In fully developed clumps, bamboo does not require weeding and cleaning in the
same sense as is required by tree species, as it grows very fast and attains its total height by the
end of rains. But cleaning and tending of clumps has to be done to facilitate growth of new
culms. + in areas where natural seedlings appear gaps, gap-planting & three weedings also
required for 1st year.
▪ CHARACTER OF THE CROP : uneven-aged = in a CLUMP, rhizome produce CLUMS every year +
we also left some culms after felling.

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