CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Soap has been a product with over a 5000 years history. It has remained an

essential ingredient in modern living. It is used daily for medicinal and for laundry

purposes; for household cleansing and for personal hygiene. There is an ongoing

demand for toilet soap as a cleaning agent despite the rolls made by modern

detergents and soap powders (Wara, 2017). A soap is a salt of a compound (Adaku,

2015), known as a fatty acid. The hydrocarbon end is non polar which is highly

soluble in non polar substances and the ionic end is soluble in water. Soap can also

be said to be any water-soluble salt of fatty acids containing eight or more carbon

atoms. Soaps are produced for varieties of purpose ranging from washing, bathing,

medication etc. The cleansing action of the soap is due to the negative ions on the

hydrocarbon chain attached to the carboxylic group of the Fatty acids. The affinity

of the hydrocarbon chain to oil and grease, while carboxylic group to water is the

main reason soap is being used mostly with water for cleaning purposes (Donkor,

1
216). In addition to basic raw materials, other substances are added to the

composition in order to improve its application. For examples soap made for

medicinal purposes other medicinal importance ingredients are added to it to

produce medicated soaps (Abayeh et al 2015). In addition to potassium and sodium

salt, other metals such as calcium, magnesium and chromium are also used to

produce metallic insoluble soap that are not used as cleaning agents, but are used

for other purposes. Other properties of the soap such as hardness are function of

the metallic element present in the salt. For example soap made up of Sodium salts

shows little hardness compare to potassium salts soaps, provided the same fat or oil

is used in both cases. These are characteristically different from soaps made from

divalent metals such as magnesium, calcium, aluminum or iron which are not

water soluble, Soaps are used for laundry and cleaning purposes (James et al,

2016).Industrial manufactured bar soaps first became available in the late

eighteenth century. This happened when advertising campaigns in Europe and the

United States, promoted popular awareness of the relationship between cleanliness

and health. Until recently, the production of toilet soap remained a primitive art, its

2
manufacture being essentially the treatment of fat with alkali, a chemical process

which is the same whether the production is done in a backyard or in a factory

(Davlin, 2016). It is generally known that soap is produced by the saponification of

a triglyceride (fat or oil). In the process the triglyceride is reacted with a strong

alkali such as; potassium or sodium hydroxide to produce glycerol and fatty acid

salts. The salt of the fatty acid is called soap (Adaku and Melody, 2013).The

equations below represent typical saponification reactions.

3
Fatty Acidsare straight-chain monocarboxylic acids. The commonest fatty acid

used in soap making contains a range of C 10-C20 and most often have an even

number of carbon atoms including the carboxyl group carbon. Examples of such

Saturated fatty acid is palmitic acid (CH 3-(CH2)14-CO2H ), while unsaturated fatty

acids is oleic acid, C17H33COOH.

It is generally believed that the highest soluble metal is potassium although this

depends on the species of the plant material and the type of soil where the plant

grows (Ramakrishna, 2004). The structure of the soap molecule is represented

below:

A good soap is biodegradable when it does not contain chemicals that cannot be

made to their natural elements. Neither does it contain chemicals that can be

harmful to the environment or cause undue destruction to the environment (Aremu

and Amos, 2010).

4
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

Certain liquid soaps, after its application leaves oily stains on the object. Hence,

there is the need to prepare a liquid soap that overcomes this challenge.

1.3 AIMS OF THE STUDY

The basic aim of this project is to produce a liquid soap which can be used in

household (domestic washing and cleansing) and also in industries for washing of

factory tools and machines. It aims at producing a liquid soap which is capable of

removing stains and dirt so as to ensure a neat and healthy environment.

1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The study on the production of the liquid soap is significant in homes, offices

industries etc it is used in the washing off of dirt from our cloths, dishes,

equipments etc. to ensure neatness and proper cleansing.

The significant of this study tends to connect the relationship that has to do with

cleanliness and health. It tend to provide good health to people by ensuring a well

and thorough cleaning of household materials, industrial facilities and equipment

as well as cleaning the entire surroundings to ensure good health.

5
Beside to equip the student to technical scientific knowledge of how to produce

soap after normal school life.

1.5 SCOPE OF THE PROJECT

The objective are to compare the qualities of the soaps made from this palm kernel

oil and the processes involved in the soap production to that of a reference product.

The work entails working out the soap formula and using the formulations to

produce soap. These includes,

 To choose an appropriate raw materials.

 To get accurate weight.

 Follow precautions strictly.

 Adhere to quality control measure

The soap so produced will be tested analytically to determine their various physical

and chemical properties. The results that will be obtained from the various

analytical tests will be made to aid further research on the project.

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

6
2.1 HISTORY OF SOAP

The earliest recorded evidence of the production of soap-like materials dates back

to around 2800BC in ancient Babylon. In the reign of Nabonichis, (556 –

539BCE), a recipe for soaps consisted of Uhulu (ashes), cypress (oil) and sesame

(seed oil) were used for washing the stones for the servant girls. A formula for

soap consisting of water alkali and cassia oil was written on a Babylonian clay

tablet around 2200BC. The Ebers payrus (Egypt 1550BC) indicates that ancient

Egyptians bathed regularly and combined animal and vegetable oils with alkaline

salts to create a soap like substance. Egyptians documents mention that a soap-like

substance was used in the preparation of wool for weaving (Kyari, 2008).

In the Roman History, the “Sapo” was the Latin word for soap. It was likely

borrowed from early Germanic language and is cognate with the Latin sebum

called “Tallow”, which appears in Pliny, the Elder’s account. The Elder’s Historian

Naturalists, discuss the manufacture of soap from Tallow and Ashes. But the only

uses to be mentioned for it are as pomade for hair (Hassan et al, 2007).

7
 He mentioned disapprovingly that men of the Gauls and Germans were more

likely to use it than their female counterparts. Then, Aretaceus of Capadocia wrote

on this in the first century AD. He observed that those substances that are made

into balls are called soaps (Olabanji and Ajayi, 2012).

A popular belief encountered in some places claims that soap takes its name from a

supposed “Mount sapo”, where animal sacrifices were supposed to take place. The

Tallow from these scarifies would then have mixed with ashes from fires,

associated with these sacrifices and with water to produce soap. But there is no

evidence of a mount sapo within the Roman world and no evidence for the

approcryphal story (Asiagwu, 2013).

In France, the semi-industrialized professional manufacturers of soap by the

second half of the 15th century, was concentrated in a few centers of province –

Toulon, Hyeres and Marseille which supplies the rest of France. In Marseille

production was concentrated in at least two factories and soap production tended to

eclipse the other provincial centers. The English manufacturers were based in

8
London. Time soaps were later produced in Europe from the 16 th century, using

vegetable oils (such as Olive oil) as opposed to animal fats.

Many of these soaps are still produced, both industrially and by small-scale

artisans. The castile soap is a popular example of the vegetable oil soaps derived

by the oldest “white soap” of Italy (kyari, 2008).

In modern times, the use of soap has become universal in industrialized nations

due to a better understanding of the role of hygiene in reducing the population size

of pathogenic micro organisms. Industrially manufactured bar soaps first became

available in the late eighteenth century as advertising campaigns in Europe and the

United States promotes popular awareness of the relationship between cleanliness

and health. Until the industrial Revolution, soap making was conducted on a small

scale and the product was rough. Andrew Pears started making a high quality,

transparent soap in 1789 in London. His son-in-law named Thomas J Barratt,

opened a factory in Islworth in 1862. William Gossage produced low-price good-

quality soap from the 1850’s. Robert Spear Hudson began manufacturing a soap

powder in 1837, initially by grinding the soap with a mortar and pestle. An

9
American manufacturer, Benjamin T. Babbitt introduced marketing innovations

that included sale of bar soap and distribution of product samples. William Hesketh

Lever and his brother James, bought a small soap work in Washington in 1886 and

founded what is still one of the largest soap businesses, formerly called lever

Brothers and now called Unilever. This soap business was among the first to

employ large-scale advertising campaigns (Thorsten, 2005).

2.2 FUNCTIONS AND USES OF SOAP

Soaps have a principal function of removing dirt. Its use is inevitable as man and

his environment are always contaminated with dirt. Domestically, soaps are used

for household washing of dishes, cleaning of the floor and any other domestic

appliances. The soap help to wash off dirt found anywhere at home. Soaps are also

used for bathing and washing of cloths. It is responsible for keeping a home neat

and tidy.

Soaps are used in offices for clearing up of office equipments, the floor and

windows etc. It is also used mainly in industries for the washing of machine and its

surroundings. Its use is also applied in the clearing of the safety wears such as the
10
lab coats, safety boots, safety gloves etc. The soap helps to keep the industrial,

environment clean and makes it convenient enough for operation. Amidst this

major function of keeping man and its environment clean, no matter where and

when, the soap tends to provide a safe and healthy life in man and animals as there

is a close relationship between cleanliness and health.

The closeness comes in the sense that a dirty environment can cause bacterial and

virus infection of man which can lead to ill health of man and may lead to death.

Also the cleaning of non living objects of any kind helps in maintaining the

equipment so as to last for a longer taste of time (Aremu, Ibrahim and bamidele,

2015).

2.3 TYPES OF SOAP

There are various types of soap depending on the form and formulations. The soap

is grouped into three forms. The bar soaps, Detergents and liquid soaps (Aremu et

al, 2016).

BAR SOAP: The Bar soap is made from fatty acids and inorganic water soluble

bases. The oil is sourced from mutton tallow, palm kernel oil which undergoes

11
traditional Process after extraction. During the saponification process, a

continuous process converts the raw materials into liquid glycerin product which

colorant and fragrance are added before making soap into desired texture, sizes of

bars pressed decorating and stamping as desired (Chatterjee, 2015).

DETERGENT: Detergent soaps are soaps made into dried powdery forms of tiny

particles. During the saponification process, the soap are dried, mixed, suspension

in a big tank, it is heated and subjected into high pressure to form small droplet.

These droplets fall from the top of the tower system as they pass through hot air

which further converts it to dry granule. Screening process is done to make all

granules uniform and cooled, some fragrance and bleach is added. In traditional

method, the saponification is monitored such that oxygen peroxide is added to

make it rise more and more. All the additives would be added and it is poured and

spread while still hot, when it cools into thick palate, it is squeezed into uniform

size powdery with hands (Kyari, 2008).

LIQUID SOAP: The liquid soap is also a form of soap made in liquid form. The

two processes common to these are; continuous blending process and batch kettle

12
boiling process. Again stabilizers are added to ensure stability and uniformity of

the end product. During the continuous blending process in a mixer, dry and liquid

ingredients are blended to make a stable mixture homogenous color and fragrances

(perfume) are added (Kyari, 2008).

Castile soap: A mild soap originally made in Spain with pure olive oil. Today

many “castile” soaps are made with other vegetable oils. Castile is a good cleanser,

producing a rich lather.

Cream soaps: Soaps containing cold cream materials, and moisturizers. Cream

soaps are good for dry and delicate skin

Deodorant soap: Are soaps to which antibacterial agents have been added to

reduce odor-causing bacteria.

Floating soaps: soaps which have air bubbles incorporated to have low density.

This causes the bar to float.

Hypo-allergenic soaps: Mild formula soaps, low in potent irritants. They

generally produce a poor lather.

13
Milled soaps: these are the most commonly used, mass produced soaps. Milling is

referred to the mixing of color and soap flakes.

Oatmeal soap: A rough textured soap to which oatmeal has been added as a mild

abrasive and lather. Good for normal skin.

2.4 PROPERTIES OF SOAP

Soaps have both physical and chemical nature. There are certain properties which

is required of soap for its convenient use without irritation and its ability to

perform the desired result. These properties are explained below:

1) It is less harmful and does not cause irritation while used.

2) Soaps undergo emulsification (process by which emulsion is formed).

3) Soaps are non acidic. They result from a reaction of neutralization and

saponification.

4) Soaps exhibits saponification reaction in which fats are broken down

(hydrolyzed) to yield crude soap that is impure of fatty acids and glycerol.

5) Soaps act as surfactants in conjunction with water. The cleaning action of

soap is attributed to the outside with polar carboxylic groups, encasing a

14
hydrophobic pocket that surrounds the grease particles, allowing them to dissolve

in water and rinse away. The exterior of the micelle is hydrophilic (attracted to

water) and the interior is hydrophilic which dissolve grease.

6) Soap is biodegradable (can be broken down by micro organism).

2.5 SAPONIFICATION VALUE

It is important to the industrial user to know the amount of free fatty acid present,

since this determines in large measure of the refining loss. The saponification

number is the number of milligrams of sodium hydroxide required to neutralize the

fatty acids resulting from the complete hydrolysis of 1g of fat, wax or resin

(Aiwizea, 2012)

The loss is estimated by subtracting this amount from the amount of fat originally

taken for the test.

2.6 SAPONIFICATION

15
The reaction in making soap (saponification) is a base (usually NaOH or KOH)

hydrolysis of triglycerides to make three salts (soap) and glycerol. The molecules

crystallize differently depending on the base used. NaOH produces a harder bar

while KOH produces a soft soap and is used more frequently for liquid soaps (Zhu

et al, 2004).

The two most commonly used methods to make soap at home are called the cold

process and the hot process. Both require a heat source and careful calculations to

ensure that no caustic base is left unreacted in the soap. The hot process uses heat

to speed the reaction resulting in fully saponified soap by the time the soap is

16
poured soap into molds. The cold process uses just enough heat to ensure that all

the fat is melted prior to reacting it with the base. The cold process is more

preferable because it is simpler, requires less time and energy, while resulting in a

liquid bathing soap. In this project, the cold method will be use. During

saponification, the amount of base required to make a soap using specific oil must

be calculated.

To calculate the amount of NaOH required, the table above must referred to. The

figures in the third column (NaOH – solid Soap) give the grams of base required to

saponify 1 gram of the oil. For example, 1.0 gram of castor oil would require

0.127g of solid NaOH. During saponification, 5 % excess of the oil will be used to

ensure that nearly all of the sodium hydroxide is consumed in the saponification

process. Otherwise, the soap will be too basic and could be harmful to use. If 100 g

of castor oil is used, then the amount of NaOH required (assuming a 5% excess of

oil) would be 95 g oil x 0.127 g NaOH/1.0 g oil = 12.065 g of solid NaOH. Water

is also required for this soap. For most soaps, a good amount of water is 35% of the

17
mass of oil used. In this case, the amount of water required would be 35g. It is

sometimes desirable to use more than one kind of oil (Kochhar, 2007).

2.7 CHEMISTRY OF SOAP PRODUCTION

The basic chemical reaction in soap making is shown below:

3NaOH (aq) + C17H35 (COO)3 C3H5(l) 3C17H35 (COONa) + wC3H5(OH)3

The process is known as saponification. The controlling chemical reaction is after

separation from the valuable glycerin to neutralize fatty acid with caustic soda

solution. Since the solubility of the sodium salts of the various fatty acids differ

considerably. The raw material used was chosen according to the properties

desired with due consideration to the market price (Thorsten, 2005).

The basic structure of all soap is essentially the same, consisting of a long

hydrophobic (water-fearing) hydrocarbon tail and a hydrophilic (water loving)

anionic head. The length of the hydrocarbon chain varies with the type of fat or oil

but is usually quite long. The anionic charge on the carboxylate head is usually

balanced by either a positively charged potassium (k +) or sodium (Na+) cation. In

making soap, triglycerides in fat or oils are heated in the presence of a strong alkali
18
base such as sodium hydroxide, producing three molecules of soap for every

molecules of glycerol (Phansteil et al, 2007). This process is called saponification

and is illustrated in the figure below.

fat or oil glycerol soaps

The mechanism of the reaction is a nucleophilic acyl substitution. In the reaction

to generate soap, three sequential hydrolysis reactions occur at each of the ester

functional groups of the triacylglycerol. Figure below depicts the mechanism

of saponification.

2.7.1 REMOVAL OF TRIHYDRIC ALCOHOL FROM SOAP

Trihydric alcohol or glycerin is generally humectants (retaining or preserving

moisture). This result from the glyceride ion combining with the hydroxide

component of sodium hydroxide. Hence, glycerin is a natural product when

19
making natural soap. Glycerin if left in soap makes the soap sweat in a high

humidity and cause it to get soft.

Being humectants, the trihydric alcohol (glycerin) in the soap naturally retains the

moisture in the skin. Unfortunately, this important ingredient is removed from

commercially produced soaps. Commercial soaps are often drying to the skin

because the glycerin is removed. This is because glycerin itself can be sold as a

separate product. It is often used in cosmetics, pharmaceutical, and even in food

products (James, 2016).

2.7.2 SALTING OUT SOAP

Salting out is a purification method that utilizes the reduced solubility of certain

molecules in the solution of very high ionic strength. Common salt is added to

precipitate out all the soap from the aqueous solution. Adding of common salt to

soap solution decreases the solubility of soap due to which all the soap precipitate

out of the solution in the solid form it also increase the washing potency of the

soap. This process is called salting out of soap (Austin, 2000).

20
 CHAPTER THREE

MATERIAL AND METHODS

3.1 MATERIALS

Soap is an essential commodity, hence the product of soaps

How to produce liquid soap, liquid soap is prepared with the following apparatus

1. A bowl

2. A spoon

3. Test tube

4. Measuring cylinder

5. Weighing scale

For the production of 10liters of liquid soap

Chemicals

1. Soda ash: being soaked in water to reduce the corrosiveness it is also a base

and a cleaning agent.

Function

It remove stain 1/8kg

21
2. Sulphonic acid: its an acid its make the soap/cause the soap to foam. 1/2kg

3. Sodium Laurly Sulphate (SLS): it’s the main foaming agent, it is being

dissolve in water and then stirred to make it ferment 1/8kg

4. Nitrosol: when dissolved in water it forms and then stirred to make it ferment

1/8kg

5. Sodium tri poly phosphate (STPP): cleaning agent 1/8kg

6. Texapon: its also a foaming agent 1/8kg

7. Citric acid: it serves as preservative. 1 teaspoon

8. Perfume: for fragrance 4 tablespoon

9. Colourant: it gives the soap colour 2 tablespoon

10. Water

Note: the process of making soap is known as saponification

3.2METHODS

Step 1: we poured the Sulphonic acid into a bowl of 20liters

Step 2: we add the Texapon into the bowl containing the Sulphonic acid and stir

22
Step 3: the fermented soda ash is then added to the solution already in the bowl and

then stirred together

Step 4: SLS is then added to the already mixed solution in the bowl and also stirred

together

Step 5: after that we added the STPP and stirred

Step 6: The Nitrosol is poured into another bowl containing water and stirred, after

that is then left for a small time. After the already time left for it, is then added to

the remaining solution.

Step 7: Our preservatives it then added to water before adding it directly to the

solution

Step 8: Our colourant is then dissolved in water and then added to the solution

Step 9: We added perfume into the solution.

3.4 SOAP ANALYSIS

1. Determination of pH

Measure 2ml of the soap added to the 20m of distilled water shaken and the

suspension was allowed to stand for at least 12 hours before the pH meter was
23
inserted into the beaker containing the soap suspension and the reading was

recorded

2. Washing properties

A small amount of soap of soap was used to wash the hand using distilled water.

The laundry properties and the feeling of the soap was taken (very slippery, greasy

or normal).

3. Foam stability

1% of the soap sample was prepared and poured into a test tube. The solution was

shaken vigorously and allowed to stand for 5mins the height of the foam was

observed and recorded in cm.

4. Cleaning properties

A drop of used oil or dirt was used to stain the filter paper. The strips were placed

in test tube containing 1% soap solution. The set up was then shaken vigorously

and was allowed to stand for 2mins. The filter were removed and rinsed with

water. The cleansing power was observed and recorded.

24
 CHAPTER FOUR

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

4.1 RESULT

Parameters Quality

Colour Green

Ph 11.02

Temperature 28oC

Foaming ability Very good

Washing ability Normal

Cleaning properties Very good

4.2 DISCUSSION

In order to arrive at a successful formulation of high quality soap, it is always

necessary to understand not only the performance criteria but also the function of

the components especially the cleansing ability and its ability to form latter in hard

water.

25
The soap produced was a clear blue solution it foams very well with sweet scent in

hard well water. It clean very well as it is able to remove stains especially oil stains

from fabrics. The pH is almost neutral and so does not affect the hand of the user.

pH is alkaline and so the user must wash the hands properly with clean water.

26
 CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 CONCLUSION

Soaps are cleaning compounds produced by the saponification of oils, fats or

grease with an alkali. They are seen to have an integral part of in the society as it is

used for cleaning, to reduce the population size of pathogenic micro-organisms. It

is of three types (the washing soap, liquid soap and detergent). In soap production,

several methods can be employed. Some of these methods are: batch or continuous

process, hot process, cold process etc. But in this content, the cold process was

used to achieve the desired result of the research work. At the end of the work fine

transparent liquid bathing soap was produced using aforementioned materials.

5.2 RECOMMENDTAION

The uses of soap as cleaning agent are of ultimate importance to man and his

environment so therefore;

 Raw materials used for liquid bathing soap should be environmentally

friendly.
27
 Regulatory bodies, National Agency for Food and Drugs Administration

(NAFDAC), should ensure that all products conform to standards.

 More research should be done in order to ensure that raw materials used in

the process of soap are environmentally friendly

28
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