Why Students Procrastinate: A Qualitative Approach

Katrin B. Klingsieck, Axel Grund, Sebastian Schmid, Stefan Fries

Journal of College Student Development, Volume 54, Number 4,

July/August 2013, pp. 397-412 (Article)

Published by Johns Hopkins University Press

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1353/csd.2013.0060

For additional information about this article

https://muse.jhu.edu/article/513471
Why Students Procrastinate: A Qualitative
Approach
Katrin B. Klingsieck   Axel Grund   Sebastian Schmid   Stefan Fries

In this study we adopted an impartial view on Solomon & Rothblum, 1984). Students
academic procrastination in order to gain new have reported that procrastination typically
insights for the development of intervention accounts for more than one third of their daily
programs. Following a qualitative approach, we activities and often manifests itself through
thereby explored antecedents of procrastination sleeping, reading, or watching TV (Pychyl,
by attending to the actual voices and experiences Lee, Thibodeau, & Blunt, 2000).
of 29 students. Students’ subjective theories were
in line with some antecedents that previous Academic Procrastination:
research had addressed (lack of motivation or Consequences and
volitional control), but also revealed relatively Intervention Programs
new aspects of academic procrastination that
concern students’ social relatedness and task The results of a variety of studies suggest that
competence. Considering these findings, we students often suffer as a result of chronic
suggest ideas on how to assist students and how procrastination for the following reasons.
to design intervention programs. First, procrastination led to underperformance
or reduced academic performance (Ferrari,
Procrastination—needlessly putting off until Johnson, & McCown, 1995; Tice & Baumeister,
tomorrow what could be done today—is a 1997). Second, students who procrastinated
ubiquitous phenomenon around which a large experienced less stress early in the semester,
body of research has evolved in recent decades. but more stress later and more stress overall
Steel (2007) provides a concise summary of the (Tice & Baumeister, 1997). Procrastinators
variety of current definitions of procrastination: were also more anxious throughout the entire
“To procrastinate is to voluntarily delay an semester (Rothblum, Solomon, & Murakami,
intended course of action, despite expecting 1986) and more agitated before a test (Lay &
to be worse off for the delay” (p. 66). The Schouwenburg, 1993) compared with students
majority of procrastination research has who did not procrastinate. Third, study
focused on academic procrastination (e.g., results show significant negative correlations
postponement of studying for an exam between self-reported procrastination and
or writing a term paper), which is highly health (Sirois, 2004; Sirois, Melia-Gordan,
prevalent in academic contexts. Estimates & Pychyl, 2003; Tice & Baumeister, 1997)
indicate that up to 70% of college students and between self-reported procrastination and
consider themselves procrastinators (e.g., financial well-being (Elliot, 2002; as cited in
Schouwenburg, 1995), and that 50% procrasti­ Steel, 2007). Thus, procrastination not only
nate consistently and problematically (e.g., impedes academic success, but might also

Katrin B. Klingsieck is Assistant Professor of Psychology at the University of Paderborn. Axel Grund is a
postdoctoral research fellow of Psychology at the University of Bielefeld. Sebastian Schmid is a postdoctoral
research fellow of Psychology at the University of Regensburg. Stefan Fries is Professor of Psychology at
the University of Bielefeld.
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 Klingsieck, Grund, Schmid, & Fries

impair the general development of college train of thought. First, procrasti­nation research
students: procrastination decreases the quality has focused on explaining procrastination
and quantity of learning while simultaneously as a dispositional variable, thereby relating
increasing the severity of stress, anxiety, it to traits and other trait-like personality
and health-related problems and decreasing variables (e.g., van Eerde, 2003, 2004). Thus,
financial well-being. Not surprisingly, then, most of the existing research has reported
between 60% (Solomon & Rothblum, 1984) correlations between instruments that assess
and 95% (O’Brien, 2002; as cited in Steel, procrastination and instruments that assess
2007) of procrastinating students wished to other constructs (e.g., conscientiousness; for a
reduce their procrastination. meta-analysis see Steel, 2007). Consequently,
It goes without saying that the develop­ procrastination research has rarely considered
ment of procrastination interventions is the situational aspects of procrastination.
indispensable. In line with the results of Second, due to the predominant quantitative
studies on the correlates of procrastination, design in procrastination research, it has
most interventions have either focused on hardly accounted for students’ perspectives of
teaching strategies (e.g., goal setting, time their own procrastination and their subjective
management, planning, monitoring, and theories about procrastination. The focus on
creating the right environment for studying) personal aspects of procrastination and the
or on implementing therapeutic strategies predominant quantitative research design might
(e.g., cognitive restructuring; for an overview of entail some form of myopia or foreclosure,
interventions see Schouwenburg, Lay, Pychyl, causing researchers to neglect aspects that
& Ferrari, 2004). These interventions have had might be important for interventions. On
mixed results concerning their effectiveness. the one hand, researchers might overlook
Unfortunately, further publications that situational aspects of procrastination; on the
include reliable outcome data (i.e., sufficient other hand, they might fail to see specific,
group size, double-blind attention-placebo personal aspects, because the methods used to
trails) regarding procrastination interventions assess procrastination and the other constructs
are scarce. According to the only existing are always aligned with a specific research
meta-analysis of the few studies that did background. Therefore, focusing on students’
include reliable outcome data, procrastination actual voices and subjective theories might
intervention programs achieved only marginal reveal new insights for theoretical groundwork
overall effectiveness (Ferrari et al., 1995). in procrastination research and for the develop­
A possible explanation for the marginal ment of more effective interventions.
effectiveness of interventions could be that
these interventions have not included essential Purpose of Study
aspects of procrastination. Given that the
interventions are based on specific theoretical The purpose of this study was to extend the
considerations (e.g., procrastination is a self- current understanding of academic procrasti­
management problem; van Essen, van den nation and to provide new ideas for college
Heuvel, & Ossebaard, 2004), important ideas personnel who assist procrastinating students
for interventions might remain undeveloped and design procrastination interventions. We
because specific reasons and correlates of pro­ focused on exploring the antecedents (i.e.,
crasti­nation are unidentified. Two character­ triggers) of academic procrastination because
istics of procrastination research support this they play a crucial role in reconstructing

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Student Procrastination

the conditions and contexts of academic characteristics (Lay, 1990; Milgram, Sroloff,
procrastination. The question guiding our & Rosenbaum, 1988; Schouwenburg et al.,
research was: Why do students procrastinate? 2004). Although there have been numerous
Our aims for the study were twofold: (a) to efforts to relate trait procrastination to several
ensure a thorough investigation of the ante­ traits or other trait-like personality variables,
cedents and (b) to attend to the actual voices thereby building an extensive nomological
and experiences of students. Therefore, we network in this realm (e.g., van Eerde, 2003,
adopted a qualitative approach implemented 2004), research on situational or action-
through interviews with students. A quali­ oriented aspects of procrastination has been
tative approach enabled us to identify new scarce. The composition of the Procrastination
aspects of procrastination in a way that Assessment Scale–Students (PASS; Solomon
would counterbalance the aforementioned & Rothblum, 1984) emphasizes this fact. The
shortcomings of the predominant quantitative PASS is the only instrument, among many that
research approach. This idea goes along with assess academic procrastination, that examines
the need for additional in-depth qualitative the reasons for procrastination. These reasons,
research on procrastination voiced by the however, also limit the focus to personal
authors of one qualitative study (Schraw, reasons for procrastination (evaluation anxiety,
Wadkins, & Olafson, 2007). We aimed to perfectionism, difficulty making decisions,
answer that need and designed this study to dependency and help-seeking, task aversiveness,
complement previous research. Schraw and lack of self-confidence, laziness, lack of assertion,
colleagues (2007) identified three sources of fear of success, feeling overwhelmed, poor time
antecedents to academic procrastination: self management, rebellion against control, risk-
(interest, organizational skills), teacher (clear taking, and peer influence).
expectations for the course, well-organized Here, we review central research contri­
course materials, tests and graded assignments), bu­tions concerning both personal and situa­
and task (low background knowledge, task tional lines of reasoning (for a detailed
difficulty). We intended to provide a more review, refer to the meta-analysis by Steel,
precise differentiation to map the antecedents 2007). The purpose of these studies was to
of academic procrastination more fully. show how procrastination correlates with
personality traits, behavioral patterns, and
LITERATURE REVIEW situational characteristics. Thus, the majority
of studies required participants to complete
Research on procrastination and its antecedents a questionnaire or a series of questionnaires
is organized along two different lines of that operationalized procrastination and the
reasoning. The first regards procrastination as a constructs that related to procrastination.
personality variable (trait procrastination) and Because procrastination research has largely
investigates persons who tend to procrastinate focused on academic procrastination, all
habitually, regardless of the situation. The studies took place in an academic context.
second line of research conceptualizes Almost all of these studies utilized a sample of
procrastination as a behavioral phenomenon students in their early to mid-20s. Overall, the
that depends on situational factors; that is, samples comprised an even number of female
the purposeful delay of tasks within a specific and male students and included students from
setting (Ferrari, 1998) or with specific task a wide range of fields of study.

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 Klingsieck, Grund, Schmid, & Fries

Personal Antecedents of intentions than nonprocrastinators (Dewitte

Procrastination & Lens, 2000). Another study (Dewitte &
Schouwenburg, 2002) followed 54 first-year
Research in this realm has focused on exploring students over the 11 weeks that preceded
the nomological network of trait procrastination their exams. They had to report their study
by relating it to the facets of the five-factor intentions and behavior, the reasons they
model (Costa & McCrae, 1992; e.g., van failed to implement their intentions, and the
Eerde, 2003, 2004; Watson, 2001). The results perceived impact of their studying behavior
of meta-analyses (Steel, 2007; van Eerde, 2003, on their final grades. The results showed
2004) have shown that most studies focused that in situations of motivational conflict,
on neuroticism and conscientiousness. In procrastinators did not resist temptations
the case of neuroticism and its related traits, or shield themselves from distractions while
procrastination correlated positively, and most working on a task. Apparently, the intention–
often moderately, with neuroticism, irrational action gap (Steel, 2007) was as an antecedent
beliefs (e.g., fear of failure, perfectionism), to procrastination in these studies.
self-handicapping, and depression; it correlated
negatively and moderately with self-efficacy Situational Antecedents of
and self-esteem. Regarding conscientiousness Procrastination
and its related traits, procrastination cor­ Most of the research concerning situational
related negatively, and mostly strongly, with antecedents has focused on the task that stu­
conscientiousness, organizational skills, dents procrastinated. Steel (2007) reported 2
achievement motivation and achievement task-specific factors of procrastination; namely,
striving, and self-discipline; it correlated the timing of rewards and punishments and the
positively with distractibility. Extraversion, degree of task aversiveness. Research has also
excitement seeking, and impulsivity correlated considered the difficulty and attractiveness of a
positively with procrastination. The facets task (Ferrari & Scher, 2000; Harris & Sutton,
of agreeableness (i.e., low rebelliousness, 1983; Senécal, Lavoie, & Koestner, 1997),
low hostility, and low disagreeableness) showing that the more difficult a task was, the
correlated negatively with procrastination; more likely participants were to procrastinate.
openness to experience, however, correlated In one study (Ferrari & Scher, 2000), for 5
minimally with procrastination. Moreover, consecutive days, 37 college students listed the
intelligence correlated also minimally with daily academic and nonacademic tasks they
procrastination, consistent with the result of intended to complete and recorded whether
another study in which student procrastinators they actually completed them. Participants
did not differ in intellectual performance from were more likely to procrastinate on tasks
nonprocrastinators (Ferrari, 1991). they found difficult than tasks they found
Procrastinators and nonprocrasti­nat­ less difficult. Studies have also considered
ors did, however, differ on volitional variables the ambiguity (Harris & Sutton, 1983) and
(e.g., Dewitte & Lens, 2000; Dewitte & plausibility of a task (Milgram, Dangour, &
Schouwenburg, 2002; Lay & Burns, 1991; Raviv, 1992), indicating the more ambiguous
Wolters, 2003). In a study of 35 first-year and the less plausible a task was, the more likely
college students, for example, procrastinators participants were to procrastinate. In another
formulated the same amount of intentions, study (Milgram et al., 1992), 112 college
but implemented significantly fewer of these students had to complete several questionnaires

400 Journal of College Student Development

Student Procrastination

at home. Milgram and colleagues provided the relying on antecedents with high face validity,
students with either plausible or implausible researchers may have overlooked essential
research rationales. The students in the antecedents of procrastination that could
group that had received plausible rationales provide new insights for the development
procrastinated significantly less in completing of interventions. For example, although
the questionnaires than students in the group procrastination researchers have extensively
that had received implausible rationales. examined the Big Five and other personality
The same was true for the time-pressure and variables, they may have overlooked situational
bindingness of completing a task (Ferrari & aspects of procrastination. Furthermore,
Scher, 2000; Harris & Sutton, 1983; Milgram although research has covered intellectual and
et al., 1992) and the exertion and anxiety volitional competencies, other competencies
associated with a task (Ferrari & Scher, 2000). might also play a role in procrastination.
In addition to these task-specific antecedents, Therefore, the purpose of this study
context variables, such as the relationship to was to explore antecedents of academic
other tasks (Harris & Sutton, 1983), type procrastination in an impartial way, avoiding
of feedback (performance feedback vs. no the influence of any theoretical bias. To ensure
feedback), type of test associated with the task a thorough exploration of antecedents and
(performance vs. interest), and autonomy in attend to the actual voices and experiences of
time management (Senécal et al., 1997), all students, we adopted a qualitative approach,
correlated with procrastination. conducting and analyzing interviews obtained
from a student sample. The aim of this
The Present Study qualitative content analysis (cf. Mayring,
2004) was to develop a comprehensive cate­
In summary, most quantitative research gory system pertaining to the antecedents of
on the antecedents of procrastination has academic procrastination.
concentrated on conscientiousness, anxiety,
impulsiveness, volitional aspects, task-inherent METHOD
characteristics and variables concerning the
Sample
proximal context of task completion. Student
procrastinators and nonprocrastinators do Participants included 29 students attending a
not seem to differ in intellectual performance medium-sized German university (11 males,
(Ferrari, 1991; Steel, 2007); considerable 18 females). Their ages ranged from 19 to 29
differences, however, emerge with regard to years (M = 23.2, SD = 2.8). The participants
conscientiousness, neuroticism, impulsiveness, were enrolled in 17 different fields of study
and volitional competencies. Consistent with with the majority in educational sciences
these results, most interventions have focused (n = 5), biology (n = 3), and computer sciences
on training programs that offer strategies (n = 3). Their time as students ranged from
for different facets of self-regula­tion or on 2 to 14 semesters (M = 6, SD = 3). Two
implementing therapeutic strategies, such interviewers recruited the participants on
as cognitive restructuring (e.g., Schouwen­ the university campus during lunch or other
burg et al., 2004). Without doubt, these free periods, intentionally seeking a variety
interventions—and the antecedents that of study fields, ages, and semesters studied.
procrastination research has focused on— They asked students whether they could spare
display high face validity; however, by merely some time for an interview study concerning

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academic procrastination and then briefed The interviewers first asked the participants
students that we were especially interested in whether they were familiar with academic
the actual voices and experiences of students procrastination. Consecutively, the interviewers
on this issue. If students were interested in asked the participants to remember a situation
participating, the interviewers led them to a in which they had put off doing something
quiet room and then provided the participants they had intended to do. To investigate the
with thorough information about the study antecedents of procrastination, the interviewers
conditions (i.e., that the interviews would be explored this past procrastination experience by
confidential and anonymous, that interviewers probing for reasons (e.g., What kind of personal
would digitally record the entire interview, that or situational aspects caused this procrastinating
participants could ask for a complete deletion behavior?), symptoms (e.g., How did you realize
of their interview data at any time, and that that you were procrastinating?), and influencing
participants could call off the interview factors (e.g., What kind of factors influenced
anytime during the interview process). After your procrastinating behavior?) related to this
the participants had verbally given their experience. At the end of the interview, the
consent to these conditions, the interviewers interviewers asked the participants to list the
asked a few questions covering demographic reasons, symptoms, and influencing factors
aspects (age, field of study, number of semesters for their academic procrastination in general.
studied). After the interview, the interviewers Although the interviewers used a written
debriefed the participants in detail about interview guide covering the topics to be
the aim of the study and asked whether the addressed, they did not arrange the questions
participants wanted to listen to the interview in a fixed order or wording. Instead, they
and/or erase it. If the participants were asked the questions whenever and however it
interested in academic procrastination, the seemed most natural. The interviews took 18
interviewers provided more information. All minutes on average. We included all interviews
participants were highly interested in the in the analysis.
topic; moreover, they turned out to be highly
information-rich (Patton, 1990) concerning Content Analysis and Category
academic procrastination. The participants System
received some popular German candy for First, our research assistants transcribed all
their participation. interviews. Then, we (the first and second
authors) segmented the interviews into
Procedure idea units. We understood an idea unit as
The trained interviewers followed a semi­ “a segment of text that is comprehensible
structured interview guide (see Schilling, 2006; by itself and contains one idea, episode, or
Tesch, 1990). The interviews covered a variety piece of information” (Tesch, 1990, p. 116).
of topics concerning a past procrastination Afterward, we eliminated every idea unit but
experience (e.g., symptoms, frequency, influ­ those concerning antecedents of academic
enc­ing factors, consequences). For the purpose procrastination. All antecedents represented
of this article, we concentrated on the parts of aspects that the interviewees used to explain
the interviews pertaining to the antecedents of their procrastination.
procrastination; therefore, we only describe the The aim of the analysis was to develop a
steps taken to prepare and interpret the data category system referring to the antecedents
for these parts. of academic procrastination. We developed

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the category system iteratively, following a strategy related to the content analysis process.
deductive–inductive procedure of qualitative We discussed the themes with two inde­
content analysis (cf. Mayring, 2004). We pendent auditors at several points. One of the
started coding with a small set of interviews that auditors had rich experience in conducting
covered a limited set of themes. These themes and analyzing qualitative research. The other
were derived from theoretical considerations auditor contributed broad knowledge about
concerning the antecedents of academic procrastination research and was especially
procrastination (e.g., anxiety). Whenever we involved in developing the deductively derived
encountered an idea unit that seemed relevant categories. Over the course of content analysis,
from a theoretical perspective, but was not the auditors continually made suggestions
covered by the already existing themes, we for revising some of the themes, mainly
added a new theme (e.g., procedural task encouraging us to combine overlapping themes
competence). For themes with low agreement, and to clarify some themes.
we either defined the theme more precisely or In total, the coders categorized 582
excluded it from the category system. We then segments from the 29 interviews into themes
applied the revised category system to another related to the antecedents of academic procrasti­
set of interviews. We repeated this procedure of nation. All participants contributed to these
application, revision, and reapplication several segments. We calculated intercoder agreement
times, ultimately developing a hierarchically for the all-encompassing category system
organized category system. Simultaneously, (i.e., including interview topics that are not
we developed and refined a coding manual discussed in this report) by applying Cohen’s
containing a description of each theme, kappa to three random interviews containing
examples of typical statements, and coding 588 segments; the agreement between coders
rules pertaining to the inclusion and exclusion was good (κ = .84). Additionally, we con­
of segments. We then trained an independent ducted a misfit analysis (Schilling, 2006),
group of research assistants to code the covering those statements that coders could
interview segments by using the coding not categorize but that seemed related to
manual. Eventually, they coded all segments antecedents of academic procrastination. The
of all interviews according to this manual. participants had formulated the majority of
To minimize bias in our analysis process, these statements very vaguely (see the Findings
we pursued two strategies. The first strategy section for more information).
was to allocate the different steps to different
individuals. We, the first and second authors, FINDINGS
developed the interview guide, segmented all
interviews, and developed the coding manual. The category system consists of three levels of
The trained interviewers were not involved abstraction. The structure of the interview data
in the development of the interview guide suggested drawing the first and most abstract
and the category system or in the coding distinction between personal antecedents
of the interviews; and the trained coders (245 segments) and situational antecedents
were not involved in the development of the (284 segments). Whereas personal antecedents
interview guide and the category system or in incorporates all aspects that were primarily asso­
conducting the interviews. We, the authors, ci­ated with genuine personal attributes of the
were involved in neither conducting nor interviewee, situational antecedents incorporates
finally coding the interviews. The second all aspects that were primarily traceable to

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 Klingsieck, Grund, Schmid, & Fries

situational factors and factors beyond the not intrinsically motivated, for example,
genuine personal attributes of the interviewee. because they lacked interest in the activity.
On the next level, the personal antecedents In contrast, pressurization refers to a form of
are divided into 5 categories (motivational procrastination due to thrill-seeking behavior.
antecedents, volitional antecedents, emotional In the interviews, participants reported
antecedents, competence-related antecedents, delaying tasks and decisions because they
and trait-like antecedents) and the situational believed they performed best under pressure.
antecedents are split into 3 categories (social Strategic delay encompasses a variety of
antecedents, antecedents related to external different prioritizing and time-management
structure, and task-inherent antecedents). Each of strategies (e.g., “I set my personal deadline well
these categories comprises a different number of in advance of the official deadline. Then I can
themes, cumulating in 23 themes in the whole postpone the task and still be done in time”).
category system. We developed 14 themes The category volitional antecedents (m = 32)
deductively (based on theoretical assumptions comprises deficit-oriented themes con­cern­ing
before coding the interview material) and 9 the planning and performance phase of an
themes inductively (based on the interview act, namely, absent self-discipline, insuf­fi­cient
material). Of all segments, we could not assign goal shielding (i.e., shielding current goals
53 of them to a specific theme; these concerned from distracting information), and lack of self-
personal and situational aspects which the structuring. As for goal shielding, participants
participants had phrased ambiguously. How­ever, reported being easily distracted when starting
many of these segments seemed to follow the on a task. In the case of self-discipline, most
underlying theme of “I am a procrastinator— participants reported not being able to sit down
what can I do about it?”, reflecting a somewhat to start a task, although they actually wanted
resigned way of living with one’s vices. to. Regarding self-structuring, they reported
Table 1 is a summary of all themes. having difficulties organizing their tasks or
Category and theme labels are shown below keeping their personal organizer up to date.
in italics with segment frequency shown as m The category emotional antecedents has a
value (the absolute number of times a theme very limited scope; it merely includes anxiety
was mentioned in the interviews) to gather an (m = 5). Participants reported being afraid of
initial impression of how cognitively available a potential negative consequences due to failure
theme was to interviewees. The categories and and/or of feeling disappointed due to failure.
the themes are described in detail below. The underlying theme of the category
competence-related antecedents (m = 42) is the
Personal Antecedents lack of competence needed to accomplish a
Personal antecedents comprise motivational, task. On the one hand, participants’ statements
volitional, emotional, competence-related, and concerned a lack of competence in the
trait-like antecedents. The category motiva­ estimation of time needed; on the other hand, a
tional antecedents has the widest scope of all sufficient degree of procedural task competence
personal antecedents (m = 113), including seemed to be important for participants to start
themes associated with the initiation of acts their intended activities on time. In the case
originating in the person. The themes range of the former, participants reported having
from intrinsic motivation and pressurization to underestimated the time needed to accomplish
forms of strategic delay. Participants reported a task; consequently, they started to work on
that they procrastinated because they were the task too late (e.g., “Yes, I always think I

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Table 1.
Antecedents of Academic Procrastination by Category and Theme
Categories Themes ma

Personal Antecedents 245

Motivational Antecedents 113
Intrinsic Motivation 51
Strategic Delay 44
Pressurization 18
Volitional Antecedents 32
Self-Discipline 8
Goal Shielding 8
Self-Structuring 16
Emotional Antecedents 5
Anxiety 5
Competence-Related Antecedents 42
Estimation of Time Needed 14
Procedural Task Competence 28
Trait-Like Antecedents 53
Spontaneity 11
Problems With Decision Making 7
Laziness 35
Situational Antecedents 284
Social Antecedents 46
Group vs. Individual Task 23
Significant Others’ Attitudes Toward 17
Procrastination
Role Models for Procrastination 6
Antecedents Related to External Structure 179
Amount of Other Tasks/Appointments 54
Diversion by Other Tasks/Good Weather/ 89
Friends/Social Events
Degree of External Structure 36
Task-Inherent Antecedents 59
Scope of a Task 10
Demandingness of a Task 4
Attractiveness of a Task 14
Extrinsic Incentives 14
(Perceived) Task Importance 17
a m = Absolute number of times (segment frequency) themes were mentioned in the participant interviews.

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 Klingsieck, Grund, Schmid, & Fries

will have enough time left”). For the latter, others’ attitudes toward procrastination, and
participants reported having procrastinated on role models for procrastination. In the case of
a task because they just did not know what to the theme group tasks versus individual tasks,
do or how to do it and did not seek help (e.g., participants reported not procrastinating
“I can imagine, that these are often things I do activities that involved interdependence (e.g.,
not exactly know how to sort out”). Previous “Well, in the beginning of my studies, I did
procrastination research has not considered not put anything off, because I was working
these competence-related antecedents. together with other people”). Participants often
In addition to these rather process-oriented explained this behavior through their moral
aspects, personal antecedents also include standards or some kind of cooperation ethics.
the category trait-like antecedents (m = 53), The theme significant others’ attitudes toward
composed of spontaneity, problems with decision procrastination comprises the attitudes of peers,
making, and laziness. As for spontaneity, who for our participants were mostly either
participants reported procrastinating because indifferent or positive (e.g., “Well, some are
of their spontaneous lifestyle, which was sort of impressed like, ‘Wow, no way! You got
reflected by a somewhat happy-go-lucky away with it!’”), and the attitudes of parents and
attitude. In the case of problems with decision teachers, which were negative. In the theme role
making, participants reported not being able models for procrastination, role models could be
to come to a decision without extensively—or found among family and friends (e.g., “because
even obsessively—weighing all the advantages my sisters are very similar with regard to
and disadvantages (e.g., “Well, I am not a procrastination”). Role models for procrastination,
decisive person. Before I decide I delay”). however, represents a very small theme (m = 6).
Notably, relatively few statements reflected Other research has not yet considered social
themes that characterize dispositional aspects aspects like performing a group task versus
of procrastination (m = 53). Participants’ performing an individual task, attitudes of
statements tended to reflect modifiable peers/family/teachers, and the presence of role
personal aspects (e.g., motivational, volitional, models among family and friends. In light of
and competence-related) rather than stable our findings, it seems especially surprising that
personal aspects. previous research has virtually neglected social
aspects of procrastination.
Situational Antecedents The category antecedents related to external
In the category system, situational antecedents has structure has the widest scope of all situational
the same scope as personal antecedents (m = 284) antecedents (m = 179). Themes range from
and these are arranged at the same level of amount of other tasks and diversion by other
abstraction. Situational antecedents comprise activities to degree of external structure. In
social antecedents, antecedents related to exter­ general, participants reported procrastinating
nal structure, and task-inherent antecedents. on an activity because they had to do other
The category social antecedents (m = 46) important things or attend to other appoint­
encompasses aspects that not only involve the ments (e.g., “Yes, because there are more tasks
persons themselves (e.g., their motivation), coming up”); however, they often admitted
but also relates to the social setting and the that this congestion of tasks was due to past
attitudes of others towards a procrastination procrastination episodes. Thus, the theme
episode. This category comprises the themes diversion by other tasks is closely linked to a lack
group tasks versus individual tasks, significant of both goal shielding and self-discipline found in

406 Journal of College Student Development

Student Procrastination

the category volitional antecedents. Participants voiced by students. This category system
reported social temptations as the most frequent distinguishes between personal and situational
distractions (e.g., “If you have people around antecedents (described above) and goes well
you and the weather is good, then there are beyond the three sources of antecedents of
lots of other things to do”). The theme degree another qualitative study (i.e., self, teacher,
of external structure includes aspects of structure and task; Schraw et al., 2007). Although the
on a macro level (e.g., degrees of freedom in majority of themes resemble antecedents that
organizing the course of study over the years: the procrastination literature has previously
“At the university, you have many liberties”) addressed (e.g., themes in motivational and
and on a micro level (e.g., nonbinding deadlines volitional antecedents), we did find both
for assignments and/or missing homework: personal (e.g., procedural task competence) and
“Procrastination happens more, I think, if the situational antecedents (e.g., themes in social
work assignment is not precise enough”). antecedents) that procrastination research has
The category task-inherent antecedents yet to consider. For example, our findings
(m = 59) encompasses the scope of a task about motivational antecedents, such as intrinsic
(procrastination is more pronounced for more motivation, were in line with previous findings
comprehensive tasks), the demandingness of (e.g., Schraw et al., 2007). Furthermore,
a task (procrastination is more pronounced the theme pressurization resembles arousal
for demanding tasks), the attractiveness of procrastination, a form of procrastination that
a task (procrastination is more pronounced Ferrari (1992) introduced and Steel (2010) has
for unattractive tasks), extrinsic incentives questioned in previous studies. The themes self-
(procrastination is more pronounced for tasks discipline, goal shielding, and self-structuring in
lacking incentives), and the task importance. For volitional antecedents coincided with previous
the latter, participants reported procrastinating research that viewed procrastination as a
for two contrasting reasons: first, because the manifestation of volitional problems (e.g.,
task was unimportant (e.g., “Well, I don’t Dewitte & Lens, 2000; Wolters, 2003), while
put off very important things anymore, but the theme anxiety in emotional antecedents
insignificant stuff—very often”) and second, resembles the personal side of avoidance
because the task was extremely important procrastination which previous studies have
(e.g., “If the situation is very important, mentioned (e.g., Ferrari, 1992). However,
yes, it is possible that a decision is not in the category competence-related antecedent
made immediately”). we identified two new aspects: estimation
The findings concerning situational ante­ of time needed (students reported having
cedents suggest that future procrastination underestimated the time needed to accomplish
research should not neglect the context in a task; consequently, they started working
which individuals must carry out an intended on the task too late) and procedural task
activity. Otherwise, a model of procrastination competence (students reported not knowing
might not be comprehensive. how to accomplish a task and not knowing
where to seek help). Investigating competence-
DISCUSSION related antecedents of procrastination in more
depth seems to be particularly promising,
The purpose of this study led to the development because competency trainings could be
of a comprehensive category system for easily integrated into interventions (e.g., by
analyzing the experiences with procrastination repetitive practice). Concerning the category

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 Klingsieck, Grund, Schmid, & Fries

trait-like antecedents, previous research has Differentiating task characteristics will con­
already considered all antecedents we found tribute to a better understanding of the
in that regard (e.g., Ferrari et al., 1995; procrastinated task itself and to an action-
Solomon & Rothblum, 1984); however, in level analysis of the procrastination episode
contrast to what we expected based on the (see Blunt & Pychyl, 2000; Ferrari & Scher,
literature, relatively few statements reflected 2000). The perceived importance of a task is
themes that characterize dispositional aspects particularly interesting because participants
of procrastination (m = 53). Our participants’ mentioned two opposing scenarios in the
statements tended to reflect modifiable interviews: (a) procrastinating because a task is
personal aspects (e.g., motivational, volitional, unimportant, and (b) procrastinating because
and competence-related) rather than stable it is important. The former might stand for a
personal aspects. functional form of delay related to prioritizing,
Our findings indicate that situational whereas the latter might represent a threat to
fac­tors play a central role in explaining the quality of work and life depending on the
pro­cras­ti­nation. We have identified several personal significance of the delayed task. It is
situational antecedents of academic pro­crasti­ obvious that certain things must be delayed
nation. In fact, contrary to the predomi­ to accomplish others; however, not only the
nant research direction focusing on trait nature of the alternative activity but also a set
procrastination (e.g., van Eerde, 2004), the of norms that may differ across individuals
situational antecedents category had a similar (cf. Milgram et al., 1988) determine whether
impact, in terms of the number of segments, an alternative activity is worth postponing
as personal antecedents. Although the actor– a target activity. Exploring the role of task
observer bias (i.e., the tendency to make importance in more depth will help to draw
personal attributions for the behavior of others a clear distinction between procrastination
and situational attributions for ourselves; Jones and planning (cf. Schraw et al., 2007) and
& Nisbett, 1972) might also be responsible between procrastination and time-management
for this circumstance, these findings support strategies (e.g., prioritizing).
the idea of revitalizing the focus of early We also found situational antecedents
procrastination research on situational and that previous procrastination research had
task-specific aspects of actual procrastination not considered, including diversion by other
episodes (see Schouwenburg et al., 2004). tasks and social antecedents. In particular,
In considering these situational ante­ procrastination research has virtually neglected
cedents, we identified situational antecedents, the social antecedents of procrastination and
(e.g., task aversiveness and degree of external social aspects in general. Until now, research
structure) that previous procrastination research on social aspects has focused on general peer
had already considered (cf. Schraw et al., influence (PASS; Solomon & Rothblum, 1984)
2007; Steel, 2007). Although research has and on social comparisons by procrastinators
fre­q uently referred to task aversiveness as (Ferrari & Patel, 2004). This focus might not
an antecedent of academic procrastination be sufficient because, according to our findings,
(cf. Steel, 2007), it has rarely provided a social aspects seem to play a profound role in
differentiation. Our findings suggest the procrastination. First, procrastination seems
utility of differentiating task aversiveness into to be lower or nonexistent in group activities.
scope, demandingness, attractiveness, extrinsic Second, the attitudes of peers, parents, and
incentives, and (perceived) task importance. teachers seem to promote procrastination.

408 Journal of College Student Development

Student Procrastination

Because we found that parents’ and teachers’ future research could utilize daily logs.
attitudes towards students’ procrastination are In the course of suggesting ideas for future
negative, it would be interesting to explore procrastination research, we want to note the
whether these attitudes evoke reactance in the limitations of this study. Our findings are
student, thus encouraging a rebellious form of based upon the verbal reports of university
procrastination (Ferrari et al., 1995). Third, students whom we asked to remember a
students seem to copy their procras­ti­nation procrastination episode. Naturally, these
strategies from role models. Fourth, participants narrations originated in students’ subjective
frequently mentioned social distrac­tions in the theories of procrastination. Because we
theme diversion by other activities. did not explicitly ask them to remember a
Situational antecedents in general (e.g., procrastination episode that had entailed
task-inherent characteristics, group task vs. negative consequences, these subjective
individual task settings, and a single intention theories might not fairly reflect the harmful
vs. multiple intentions) probably interact aspects of procrastination, but instead, they
with personal antecedents (e.g., motivational, might be distorted by students’ wishful
volitional, emotional, and competence-related thinking concerning positive aspects of
antecedents) in a procrastination episode; procrastination. Because our purpose was
our findings give the first hint that this inter­ to explore procrastination in an impartial
action might exist. The findings suggest that way, we decided not to ask them explicitly
the distractions that alternative action oppor­ to remember a procrastination episode that
tunities offer (situational antecedent), together entailed negative consequences. Furthermore,
with the students’ inability to shield their we interviewed the students without assessing
goals (personal antecedent), can encourage their procrastination tendency with one of
procrastination. Students reported that easily the well-known procrastination scales (e.g.,
distracting themselves while working on Lay, 1986). Consequently, we were unaware
a task often resulted in procrastination. whether our sample represented the opinions
Social action opportunities seemed to be and beliefs of students who were chronic
the most frequent distractions. Given that procrastinators, incidental procrastinators,
students’ everyday lives provide ubiquitous or nonprocrastinators. In keeping with our
activity opportunities, students may often intention to draw attention to students’
find themselves having multiple goals (Fries, actual voices and experiences, an assessment
Dietz, & Schmid, 2008; Senécal, Julien, of the students’ procrastination was not
& Guay, 2003). In line with our findings, relevant. However, for future research it
previous research has shown that in such may be worthwhile to examine whether the
situations of goal and motivational conflict, antecedents differ systematically between
procrastinators do not resist temptations or do chronic and incidental procrastinators and,
not shield against distractions while working if so, in what regard. In addition, the sample
on a task (Dewitte & Schouwenburg, 2002); size of our study seems small; however, the
hence, further investigating procrastination 29 participants represent a wide variety of
within a framework of action regulation and study fields, ages, and semesters studied, and
motivational conflicts seems fruitful (cf. Dietz, produced enough interview material to extend
Hofer, & Fries, 2007). To collect and combine the understanding of procrastination.
aspects of the interplay of personal and situation One purpose of the study was to derive
antecedents in several procrastination episodes, new ideas for assisting procrastinating students

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 Klingsieck, Grund, Schmid, & Fries

and designing procrastination interventions. to prevent procrastination; seminars on

Most interventions so far have concentrated how to create assignments and cooperative
on teaching self-management strategies or on learning settings to prevent procrastination
psychotherapeutic methods (for an overview could be another.
see Schouwenburg et al., 2004). Although our Thirdly, student affairs professionals, in
findings indicate that these are fruitful paths to turn, should design an intervention program
follow, they also indicate that situational aspects for detecting and dealing with motivational
of academic procrastination should be taken conflicts. This program should create awareness
into account when developing assignments, of the multiple goals that students pursue in
service programs, and interventions. their daily lives and on the need for successful
First of all, colleges and universities self-regulation in the face of multiple goals and
should provide information about procrasti­ many distracting options. Professionals could
nation and about ways to overcome pro­ supplement existing self-management training
crasti­na­tion to students and faculty. Possible programs (e.g., van Essen et al., 2004) with
dissemination strategies could be via bro­ sessions concerning the implementation of
chures, a procrastination newsletter, a special intentions in the face of motivational conflicts
procrastination homepage, and procrastination (e.g., Gollwitzer, 1999) and with sessions
information days. about establishing an interference-free learning
Secondly, previous research together with environment. Further, training programs
ours indicate that procrastination is a multi­ should focus on the importance of effective
faceted phenomenon. Creating awareness academic help-seeking and should provide
among faculty of these many facets and how students with information about how and
they can impede academic success might help where to seek help when they lack procedural
faculty to effectively help their students who task competence.
struggle with procrastination to overcome On a final note, we suggest that the multi­
it. Altering specific aspects of academic plicity of antecedents calls for tailored inter­
environments could help students reduce ventions. The individual pattern of ante­cedents
their procrastination. Regarding the social should help student affairs profes­sionals assign
antecedents of academic procrastination students to the type of inter­vention (e.g., self-
that we found in our study, establishing management training, cognitive–behavioral
cooperative learning settings that require coaching, tandem learning) that best suits their
interdependence among students seems to procrastination pattern. Such an approach
be a promising approach. Concerning the demands an instrument that incorporates all
task-inherent characteristics (e.g., scope possible antecedents. In testing and expanding
of task), creating tasks that prevent, rather on our exploratory, qualitative findings, future
than promote, procrastination, might be research should contribute to the development
another promising approach. Furthermore, of this instrument and thus encourage the
complementing assignments with information development of tailored interventions.
about writing centers, library help desks, and
similar programs, for example, can support Correspondence concerning this article should be
students to seek help efficiently when they lack addressed to Jun.-Prof. Dr. Katrin B. Klingsieck,
procedural task competence. A procrastination Universität Paderborn, Fach Psychologie; Warburger
newsletter for the faculty could be one way Straße 100, 33098 Paderborn, Germany; katrin.
to inform faculty regularly about strategies klingsieck@uni-paderborn.de

410 Journal of College Student Development

Student Procrastination

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