Cultural Variations refer to the differences in social behaviors that different cultures exhibit around the

world.
1. Religion comes from ‘religare’ a Latin word means ‘to bind together’. It is a system of beliefs and
practices as well as systems of actions directed toward entities which are above men. It is an organized
system of ideas about the spiritual sphere or the supernatural.
2. Ethnicity is the expression of the set of cultural ideas held by a distinct ethics or indigenous group.
3. Nationality is the legal relationship that binds a person and a country. It allows the state to protect
and have jurisdiction over a person.
Social Differences are the differences among the individuals on the basis of social characteristics and
qualities.
1. Gender is the socially-constructed characteristics of being male or female. It serves as guide on how
males and females think and act about themselves.
2. Socio-economic Status refers to the category of persons who have more or less the same socio-
economic privileges: These are Upper class, Middle class, and Lower class.
3. Exceptionality refers to the state of being intellectually gifted and/or having physically or mentally
challenged conditions.
 Personality/ behavior
 Communication (learning disability, speech impairment, and hearing
 problems)
 Intellect (mild intellectual & mental development disabilities)
 Physical appearance (blind-low vision)
 Or a combination of more than one specific exceptionality/disability.
Variation within Cultures:
1. Subculture is a segment of society that shares a distinctive pattern of mores, folkways, and values
which differ from the pattern of larger society. These are groups that have specific cultural traits that set them
apart from the dominant culture.
2. Counter Culture is a group whose values and norms place it at odds with mainstream society or a
group that actively rejects dominant cultural values and norms. In most Western countries, the 1960s saw the
rise of different countercultural groups and social movements that sought to dismantle the different inequalities
that were then part of the dominant culture, such as racism (Civil Rights movement), sexism (modern Feminist
movement) and homophobia (Gay rights movement).
3. High Culture/ Popular Culture are different variations in culture. “High culture" is a term now used in a
number of different ways in academic discourse most common meaning is the set of cultural products,
mainly in the arts, held in the highest esteem by a culture. “Popular culture” is a culture based on the tastes
of ordinary people rather than an educated elite.
Political Identity is almost always associated with a group affiliation and describes the ways in which
being a member of a particular group might express specific political opinions and attitudes. Various
factors can construct an identity, including race, nationality, where a person lives and a person's gender and
sexuality:
1. Partisan Politics
Political identity frequently refers to a specific political party affiliation or partisan identity. For many
voters, belonging to a political party is not simply a voting decision. In the U.S., being a Democrat or a
Republican is an important expression of a person's views on life; partisan affiliation signifies membership in a
group that defines a worldview and a core set of common values. As political parties benefit from political
identity of this kind, since it makes for very loyal and reliable voters, parties seek to cultivate partisan loyalty
among their members.
2. Race and Identity
Political identity can also be shaped by race. For example, in the U.S., prior to the passage of the13th
Amendment, race determined whether a human being could legally be another's property. Until the
dismantlement of legal segregation in the 1950s and ‘60s, race often determined whether citizens could vote,
with whom they could associate, where they went to school and other fundamental aspects of life. Moreover,
between 1924 and 1965, race determined who was and was not eligible to immigrate to the United States.
3. Class and Identity
Another possible factor that shapes political identity can be economic class. Peoples’ interests, outlook
and life prospects are frequently conditioned by their economic circumstances. For instance, factory workers
may be very different from one another in a variety of ways, yet they share a very basic set of common
experiences that comes from their shared condition as factory workers. As workers, they have in common a set
of interests, hardships and goals. The same is true of hedge fund managers, farm laborers, nurses, high school
teachers and university professors.
4. Colonialism and Identity
Many colonial societies operated by distinguishing the identities of “native subjects,” who enjoyed fewer
rights and liberties from European “settlers.” Sometimes this identity was race-based, such as in Belgian
Rwanda. Often, as in British India and French Algeria, colonists used their ideas of custom and culture as a
basis for distinguishing “the native” as a kind of political identity and subject that required European
governance.

 Cultural variations refer to the differences in social behaviors that different cultures exhibit around the world.
These are religion, ethnicity, and nationality.

 Social differences are the differences among the individuals on the basis of social characteristics and
qualities. These are gender, socio-economic status, and exceptionality.

 Variation within cultures is segmented into subcultures, counter culture, high culture, and popular culture.

 Political identity is almost always associated with a group affiliation and describes the ways in which being a
member of a particular group might express specific political opinions and attitudes.

Anthropology is the study of humans and human behavior and societies in the past and present. It is a
wide-ranging, including, fossil remains, non-human primate anatomy and behavior, artifacts from past cultures,
past and present languages, and all the prehistoric and contemporary cultures of the world.
Sociology is the scientific study of society, patterns of social relationships, social interaction, and
culture. It is the systematic interpretation of codes and conducts in the form of language, symbols, face
expressions, dress, food, music etc. used by people in society.

SOCIOLOGY

 Auguste Comte:

o French philosopher
o Founder of sociology
o Founder of the doctrine of positivism
o Regarded as the first philosopher of science in the modern sense
 Harriet Martineau:
o Born in 1802 in Norwich, England
o Self-taught expert in political economic theory
o Prolific writer on politics, economics, morals, and social life
 o Unitarian faith influenced her staunchly moral perspective
o Critic of inequality and injustice faced by various groups including girls, women, slaves, and
wage slaves
 Karl Marx:
o Philosopher, social scientist, historian, and revolutionary
o Most influential socialist thinker of the 19th century
o Father of Modern Socialism
o Associated with communism and conflict theory
 Emile Durkheim:
o French sociologist, social psychologist, and philosopher
o Formalized the academic discipline of sociology
o Commonly cited as one of the principal architects of modern social science
o Often regarded as the father of sociology along with Karl Marx and Max Weber
 Max Weber:
o German sociologist, philosopher, jurist, and political economist
o Profoundly influenced social theory and social research
o Known for his impactful ideas in the field of sociology

ANTHROPOLOGY

 Franz Boas:
o German-American anthropologist
o Pioneer of modern anthropology
o Often called the "Father of American Anthropology"
o Associated with the movement of anthropological historicism
 Bronislaw Malinowski:
o Polish anthropologist
o One of the most important 20th-century anthropologists
o Also referred to as a sociologist and ethnographer
o Considered the father of ethnographic methodology due to his ideas on participant observation
 Alfred Reginald Radcliffe Brown:
o English social anthropologist
o Developed the theory of structural functionalism and coadaptation

POLITICAL SCIENCE

 Walter Lippmann:
o American writer, reporter, and political commentator
o Introduced the concept of the Cold War
o Coined the term "stereotype" in its modern psychological meaning
o Critiqued media and democracy in his newspaper column and books

Social change refers to an alteration of mechanism within the social structure, characterized by changes
in cultural symbols, rules of behavior, social organizations, or value systems.
Cultural Change is the modification of a society through innovation, invention, discovery, or contact with
other societies.
Political change refers to a subject matter that is in constant flux. It deals not only with the major
processes of growth, decay and breakdown but also with a ceaseless ferment of adaptation and adjustment of
political systems. It highlights the magnitude and variety of the changes that occurred in the world’s political
systems.
Sources/ Agents of Change:
1. Innovation is a social creation and institutionalization of new ideas. It is the invention of something new;
it can be an idea, a process, a practice, a device, or a tool.
2. Action of leaders represents a trigger to social change. A leader is someone who has the power to
influence others or who is in charge or in command of a social situation. Authority is legitimate power in which
people believe the differences in power is just and proper, that is, people see leaders as entitled to give orders.
3. Social Conflicts (Social Contradictions) is defined as the struggles for agency or power in society. It
occurs when two or more actors oppose each other in social interaction, reciprocally exerting social power in
an effort to attain scarce or incompatible goals and prevent the opponent from attaining them.