Quantum supremacy: state when a quantum device can solve a problem that no classical

computer can solve in any feasible amount of time (irrespective of the usefulness of the
problem).

Two main categories of QKD are:

● Prepare-and-measure protocols : focus on measuring unknown quantum states. This type of

protocol can be used to detect eavesdropping, as well as how much data was potentially
intercepted.

● Entanglement-based protocols: focus on quantum states in which two objects are linked
together, forming a combined quantum state. In this method, if an eavesdropper accesses
a previously trusted node and changes something, the other involved parties will know.

Quantum cryptography is considered future proof : it is believed that no future changes in

technology can crack quantum cryptography.

National Mission on Quantum Technologies and Applications (NMQTA): Budget 2020 allocated
Rs 8000 Crore to the mission for a period of five years.
● Quantum Information and Computing (QuIC) lab at the Raman Research Institute, Bangalore.
● Quantum-Enabled Science & Technology (QuEST) a research program by the Department of
Science & Technology.

Quantum Frontier mission: It is an initiative of the Prime Minister's Science, Technology, and
Innovation Advisory Council (PM-STIAC) which aims to initiate work in the understanding and
control of quantum mechanical systems.

Supercomputers

supercomputers use more than one central processing unit (CPU).

Supercomputing is measured in floating-point operations per second (FLOPS).
Floating-point is a method of encoding real numbers within the limits of finite precision available on
computers.
They work on parallel computing or parallelism where many processors work together.
1 Mega FLOPS: Equal to 1 million FLOPS.
● 1 Giga FLOPS: Equal to 1 billion FLOPS.
● 1 Tera FLOPS: Equal to 1 trillion FLOPS.
● 1 Peta FLOPS: It can be measured as 1.000 teraflops (10^15).

National Supercomputing Mission

Jointly steered by: Ministry of Electronics & Information Technology and Department of Science and
Technology.
Implemented by: C-DAC and Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore
Mission envisages empowering our national academic and R&D institutions spread over the country
by installing a vast supercomputing grid comprising of more than 70 high-performance computing
(HPC) facilities.
Eg: PARAM Shivay [IIT (BHU)], PARAM Shakti (IIT Kharagpur),PARAM Brahma (IISER, Pune) etc.
4 major pillars of NSM are Infrastructure, Applications, R&D, Human resource development

India’s Supercomputers:
● Pratyush : Located in Indian Institute of Meteorology.
● Mihir: Located in the National Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasting.
● PARAM Siddhi : It will be India ' s largest High-Performance Computing and Artificial
Intelligence (HPC-AI) supercomputer. The supercomputer will have a speed oshf 210 AI Petaflops.
● Param Shakti and Param Brahma: Installed at IIT-Kharagpur and IISER, Pune.

Why can't money be digitized?

- The Internet is centralized- trust deficit.
- Internet has abundance- no scarcity
- Hacking possible

Blockchain

● Blockchain is a distributed or decentralized ledger technology which was first introduced in the
design and development of cryptocurrency, Bitcoin in 2009.
● Blockchain technology is an amalgamation of various technologies such as distributed systems,
cryptography, etc
● Blockchain is a series of blocks, where each block contains details of transactions executed over
the network, hash(address) of the previous block, timestamp etc.
● Data and transactions stored in blocks are secured against tampering using cryptographic hash
algorithms and are validated and verified through consensus (consensus protocols) across nodes
of the Blockchain network.
● Blockchain platforms are being developed to offer Blockchain based digital transaction platforms.
Popular blockchain platforms include Hyperledger, Cosmos, Polkadot, Redbelly, Ethereum etc.

Unlike in centralized systems like banks, we ourselves can maintain the ledger of our transactions
(money, land records, IPR data, health records etc.) in a decentralized manner through the use of
blockchain.
Each set of transactions is recorded on a block. You need a record of previous transactions to
validate future ones. This will create a chain of blocks called blockchain.

Transaction details

Hash number

Hash of previous block

Work number

The transaction details will generate a One Way Function, which will be a unique Hash Number. If
the transaction detail changes, the hash function will also change. And it will also be then required
to change the details in subsequent blocks.
New Transaction :
● Your friends will check the previous ledger ● Validate ● Add to the chain
Hash (#)/ref no. (unique fingerprint);
○ Generated on basis of 1 and 3 compartment
● New transaction
○ If any illegitimate content : Ref # will change completely
○ Validated - added to chain of blocks.
● Block chain
○ Not centralized
○ Everyone has a copy, and any one can validate

● Since all are linked you can’t randomly change any record.
○ Change resistant and Hack proof.
● Can be validated/invalidated by anyone
○ Digital scarcity + Decentralization

● Missing = Accountability
To prevent this, work needs to be done to change any block chain and that work should be tough
to do. This is where the Work Number is important.
Lot of computational power required Because work number of all block used to change.
Moreover, new blocks are constantly being added. Therefore it becomes very difficult to change a
block chain. The longest chain would obviously be more secure.

New transactions need to be validated. Why would someone validate transactions / remain a good
actor?
● Validation here is calculation of work number for a particular block. This is also known as mining.
● Reasons for remaining a good actor :
1. You need a lot of computational power for validation.
2. Every time you validate new currency : you will get tokens. These tokens have value
only till the time your chain has validity.

For validation, trust can be established through three processes:

1. Proof of Work
2. Proof of stake
3. Proof of authority

Proof of work : Bitcoin

● Proof of work means calculation of work number for validation of new transactions. It is a highly
complex problem requiring lots of computational power and electricity. You will get certain tokens
for demonstrating proof of work.
● Problem : every validation is a competition between miners, therefore lots of computational
power gets wasted. This leads to environmental problems / water wastage in cooling systems
● 51 % attack : if one actor has more computational power than all the others in the system, (rest
have 49%) then this actor can choose to include or exclude any transaction it wants.
● This person can solve the computational puzzle faster than all others and this person will
constantly have the longest chain

Proof of stake : ethereum

● Every person who wishes to validate a new transaction needs to put certain tokens they have on
stake. Usually there is no competition as the block creator is the one who has maximum tokens.
 ● Since almost always the same person gets to validate, there is no reward for making a block, so
the block creator earns only a transaction fee.
● PoS replaces miners with validators and rewards only the top stakeholders, resulting in less
energy consumption

Proof of authority
● Consensus protocol is based on value of identity. There are limited number of moderators and it
is close to a centralized system.
● Reputation based system.
● No mining / validation

● Ethereum switched to merge software mechanism that uses proof of stake (PoS) mechanism.
This will help slash energy requirements.
● Ethereum is a decentralized blockchain platform used to build decentralized Apps and Smart
Contracts as well as a cryptocurrency.
● From proof of work to proof of stake consensus mechanism.

BlockChain : National Strategy

● National Blockchain Framework : strategy for the next 5 years
● Need: Reports predicts that by 2030, Blockchain would be used as a foundational technology for
30% of the global customer base.
● Plan: MeitY has initiated a project on design and development of a NBF for creation of a shared
Blockchain infrastructure and offering Blockchain as-a-Service (BaaS). Initially, NBF would be used
for e governance domain transitioning to incorporate various use cases over time

Presidio Principles : Foundational Values for a decentralized future:released by world economic forum

Blockchain : Potential Applications

● Currency : crypto ● Banking and Finance : Transaction ledgers ● Inventory : Supply Chain
Management ● Health : patient records : digital health mission ● Property and ownership records ●
Smart contracts : update regularly ● IPR and asset protection ● Good governance : India Chain ●
Corruption : audits

Blockchain : Cryptocurrency
● Cryptocurrency → digital currency secured by cryptography → medium of exchange where the
ownership data is stored in a computerized database; Based on→ Blockchain technology
● Cryptography- The science of protecting information by transforming it into a secure format
through encryption.
● Decentralized; Security; Anonymity; Speed; Ease of transfer; Cross border trade;

Advantages:
● Wallet- the account addresses of the user which is accessible only by a private and a public key;
the private key is unique and known only to the owner of the wallet.
● Instantaneous transaction →help save time of both the parties; everything is being done on the
internet.
● International monetary market : work in countries with unstable economy; poor institutional
strength;
Disadvantages
● Vulnerability: It’s hidden nature of transaction →illegal activities → terror-funding, money
laundering and tax-evasion.
● The RBI & Ministry of Finance issued statements on cryptocurrencies ;
● Frauds and scams – Squid cryptocurrency
● Payments in one go: Payments cannot be reversed back; no rollback and no central legal
authority;

During a transaction between, say A and B, there public keys are revealed till the transaction is not
mined/ validated. In this time, a quantum computer can trace the private key of the two people
using their public key. But for now, the mining time < time taken by quantum computer.
Web 3.0
● Web 1.0, also called the Static Web, which enabled easy access to information. However, the
information was largely disorganized and difficult to navigate.
● The Social Web, or Web 2.0, made the internet a lot more interactive thanks to advancements in
web technologies like Javascript, HTML5, CSS3, etc., which enabled startups to build interactive
web platforms such as YouTube, Facebook, Wikipedia and many more.
For example: if we open facebook, we see different data based on our preferences (interactive).
Problems in Web 2.0: Data not secure, informed consent not taken, we are the product.

● Web 2.0 : you are the product

● Web 3.0 : you are the owner
new iteration of the World Wide Web
which would incorporate concepts such as
decentralization, distributed ledger such
as block chain technologies, and
token-based economics.
● Data is stored in blockchain over many
computers around the world
● Token based economics : Example :
odyssey website : alternative to
YouTube : creators earn library tokens for
making others watch
● Post on many computers around the
world : cannot be taken down or
censored.
● Who runs it : DAO for every company
● Decentralized autonomous organization : no CEO, no one controlling authority
● Most tokens : decision on rules etc
● Anonymized identity
● Decentralization: core tenet of Web 3.0; could be stored in multiple locations simultaneously;
break down massive databases currently held by internet giants like Meta and Google;
● Democratize net: Greater control to user; data security;
● Trustless and permissionless: run on decentralized peer-to-peer networks – Trustless (i.e., the
network will allow participants to interact directly without going through a trusted intermediary);
permissionless (meaning that anyone can participate without authorization from a governing body)
● dApp- Decentralized applications (dApps): applications built on blockchain; use smart contracts
to enable service delivery in a programmatic approach;
● DeFi - Decentralized finance (DeFi): use blockchain for enabling financial services
● DAOs - providing structure and governance in a decentralized approach.

Web 3.0 challenges

● Consensus approach: slow development, decisions; ● Regulation ● Data privacy ● Malafide use
● Not decentralised: controlled by capitalists, big firms; ● Business models: averse to
decentralization; stakeholders, assets drive economy; ● Finances: acceptance and illegality of
crypto e.g. torrent
Non Fungible Tokens:
● Digital identifier, similar to a certificate of ownership that represents a digital or physical asset;
financial security consisting of digital data stored in a blockchain, a form of distributed ledger;
● What is fungibility?
Fungibility means subdivision into units as well as mutual substitution
Example : Rs. 2000 note. ● Subdivided : yes, 500 x 4 notes ● Mutual substitution : yes, both have
the same value
● Other cases : 1 kg gold bar, 100 gm diamond: NFT : not possible

● NFT is a Digital file such as photo file(JPEG),Animated image(GIF),music file (MP3) etc. Stored
using blockchain Technology.
● They cannot be subdivided and/or their individual subunits can not be exchanged with one
another. Because their values are different based on buyer’s preference, So NFTs are non-
fungible.

Internet Of Things
It is a seamless connected network of embedded objects/ devices, with identifiers, in which
Machine to Machine (M2M) communication without any human intervention is possible using
standard and interoperable communication protocols.
Phones, Tablets and PCs are not included as part of IoT.

LiFi

E-SIM
● an eSIM is an embedded SIM
○ It has same hardware of a regular SIM card chip
○ It is a permanently embedded part of the motherboard of a device.
● e-SIM acting as a unique identifier for telecom operators to reach the exact smartphone when
they make a call or send a text.
● users switch operators without having to replace any physical SIM cards.
● Convenience: The ability to store multiple SIM profiles in your eSIM also means you can switch
between profiles easily, without the need of activating a SIM repeatedly or physically switching
cards repeatedly.
● Security: In case of theft of phone, SIM card can not be misused as it is embedded part of smart
phone
RFID
● It is an electronic tag that can exchange data with an RFID reader through radio waves.
● In this, an antenna broadcasts energy to tag, which in turn return modulated energy back in form
of back-scatter.
● It is faster connection, and operational range is about 100m.
● RFID tag typically sends out information hence only one-way information
1. Active RFIDs use their own power source, mostly batteries.

2. Passive RFIDs are activated through the reader using the electromagnetic energy it
transmits.

3. Unlike Barcodes, RFIDs do not require direct line of sight to identify objects.

Frequency: Low, High, Ultra high.

Applications: Asset tracking, Race timing, Attendee tracking, inventory management.

Near Field Communication

● NFC is the technology that allows compatible devices to establish radio communication with
each other by touching them together or bringing them into a distance maximum of 10 cm.
● NFC works on Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) technology and Magnetic induction
principle
● However, RFID and NFC also have many differences.
NFC is both unidirectional + Bi-directional. RFID is unidirectional.

● When electrons flow through a conductor, they create a magnetic field. And when magnetic
fields change, they can cause electrons to flow through a conductor. This relationship -- known as
inductive coupling.
● In NFC also the reader or the mobile acts as the active device whose antenna or the coil
releases a sinusoidal carrier wave and creates a magnetic field. Then the passive tags present in
that field gets energy from the reader and change the properties of the receiving frequency.
Applications: contactless payments, info./data sharing, in-store check-ins, smart watch etc.
Edge Computing
● It enables data to be analysed, processed, transferred at edge of a network.
● It means, data is analyzed locally, closer to where it is stored, in real time without latency.
● Basic difference between edge computing and cloud computing lies in where data processing
takes place.
● Cloud Computing: It means storing and accessing data and programs over Internet instead of
your computer's hard drive.
● Existing Internet of Things (loT) systems perform all their computations in cloud using data
centers.
● Edge Computing: It manages massive amounts of data generated by loT devices by storing and
processing data locally.
Benefits: High speed ● Reduced latency ● Better reliability and security● Very important in IOT.

Big Data: Volume, Value, Variety, Veracity, Variability, Velocity.

Digital Signature
● It is a way to ensure integrity of data recorded onto a blockchain. Akin to a physical signature on
a paper, digital signature is for digital documents. It binds a person / entity to a digital document

Digital Certificate

B uses its private key and the hash algorithm to encrypt the document.
R uses the public key of B and the hash algorithm to receive the document.

Digital Certificate

Verification by public key and hash algorithm: ensures that document has not been altered, but you
have no idea about the true identity of the sender as it depends on the public key which is
publically available.
Solution : digital certificate : electronic credentials issued by a trusted third party. It not only verifies
the identity of the owner but also verifies that the owner owns public key.

● Digital certificates are electronic credentials issued by a trusted third party. It not only verifies the
identity of the owner, but also verifies that the owner owns the public key.
● It contains the certificate owner’s name, owner’s public key, certificate issuer’s name and
certificate issuer’s digital signature.
● Trusted 3rd party : issues digital certificates.
D2M Technology
(DTH-> Direct To Home)
● Direct To Mobile Tech—>broadcast video and other forms of multimedia content directly to
mobile phones (a miniaturized dish inside phone)● It does not require an active internet connection
Concept
● D2M is based on the convergence of broadband and broadcast, using which mobile phones can
receive terrestrial digital TV. ● It would be similar to how people listen to FM radio on their phones,
where a receiver within the phone can tap into radio frequencies. ● Using D2M, multimedia content
can also be beamed to phones directly.
Benefits: ● It can be used to directly broadcast content related to citizen-centric information,
counter fake news, issue emergency alerts and offer assistance in disaster management.

CrysXPP
● Researchers from IIT Kharagpur in collaboration with the IndoKorea Science and Technology
Center (IKST) have developed a method called CrysXPP.
● It is a machine learning (ML) system that enables rapid prediction of various material properties
with high precision.

Web 5.0
● Former Twitter CEO recently announced his vision for a new decentralized web platform that is
being called Web 5.0.
● Objective—> “ownership of data and identity to individuals”.
● It is a Decentralized Web Platform that enables developers to leverage Decentralized Identifiers,
Verifiable Credentials, and Decentralized Web Nodes to write Decentralized Web Apps.
● Web 5.0 is Web 2.0 plus Web 3.0 that will allow users to own their identity on the Internet and
control their data.
● It aimed at building an extra decentralized web that puts one in control of your data and identity.

Web 1.0 : Read only web

Web 2.0 : Social Web
Web 3.0 : Semantic Web
Web 4.0 (Mobile Web) (Symbiotic Web)

Different types of biometrics:

Behavioral: Typing, Navigation, Physical, Interaction style
Physical: Signature, Face, Eyes, Fingerprints, Voice
Chemical and vein: DNA, vein

India Stack
● India stack is a collection of open APIs (Application Programming Interface) and digital public
goods
● IndiaStack includes APIs of Aadhaar, Unified Payment Interface (UPI), Co-Win, DigiLocker,
Aarogya Setu, eSanjeevani, UMANG, DIKSHA, etc
● Its objective is to unlock the economic opportunities of identity, data, and payments at population
scale
IPR
IPRs are the rights given to persons over the creations of their minds. They usually give the
creator an exclusive right over the use of his/her creation for a certain period of time.
•It can include creations such as a new drug composition, business module, product, software and
so on.
Trademarks, Trade Secret, Industrial Design, Patents, Copyrights.

Copyright describe the rights that creators have 60 years. Copyrights Act,
over their literary and artistic works Original work: 60 1950.
years after the death
of the author.

Patent exclusive right granted for an invention 20 years The Patent Act,
related to From the date of 1970.
1. Product filing of application.
2. Process 2005
That is amendment-
1. New compliant with
2. Inventive step the TRIPS.
3. Industrial application capablility
should be obtained in each country
a new technical solution to a problem
of any field

Trademark sign capable of distinguishing the 10 years The

goods or services of one enterprise From the date of Trademarks Act
from those of other enterprises filing of application. of 1999.

word, symbol, slogan, logo, brand

label, name, signature, letter, numeral
or any combination of them.

Industrial design ornamental or aesthetic aspect of an 15 years (Indian)

article. Designs Act,
3D- shape/surface 2000
2D- pattern/color.

Geographical specific geographical origin, 10 years Geographical

Indicators Qualities, reputation, characteristic of Renewable for 10 Indications
place of origin. years. Act, 2003
TRIPS
Lisbon agreement- India not a member

Trade Secrets confidential information which may be valid as long as one Contracts Act
sold or licensed does not discover it IPC
formulae, recipes, pattern, technique, independently.
compilation, method, program,
process, device or product
mechanism.
What cannot be patented?
● Frivolous inventions. E.g. schoolbag, laptop bag ● Anything seriously harmful to public order,
morality, humans, animals, plants or environment. ● Atomic energy related inventions. ● Mere
discovery of a scientific principle or the formulation of an abstract theory or discovery of a living
thing ● Plants-seeds varieties, biological process to create them
● Animals breeding; Medical treatment of humans and animals ● Mere discovery of a new form of
a known substance which does not result in the increased efficiency. ● Mere re-arrangement or
duplication of known devices. ● Mere aggregation of properties of the components e.g. lemon +
sugar + water = juice
● Traditional knowledge. E.g. Ayurvedic information. ● Mathematical formula, business method,
method of playing game for ex :helicopter shot. ● computer program, presentation of information,
integrated circuit ● literary, dramatic, musical or artistic work; cinema-TV shows

Compulsory Licensing
● It enables a competent government authority to license the use of a patented invention to a third
party or government agency without the consent of the patent holder.
● Section 92 of the Patent Act, 1970, provides for issuing CL by the central government (permitted
under the WTO’s TRIPS (IPR) Agreement) in circumstances of “national emergency or in
● circumstances of extreme urgency or in case of public non-commercial use”.

Compulsory license in India is authorized by the controller general to third parties

The application for compulsory license is made to the controller general on the expiry of 3 years.
Controller general can also suo moto issue CL.
India’s first CL: Natco Pharma.

Parallel Import
● It is importation without the consent of the patent holder of a patented product marketed in
another country either by the patent holder or with the patent holder's consent.
● For example : USA based company Pfizer sells a drug Lipitor in congo for $1 / pill.
● Same drug is needed by India but India gets the drug at $5 / pill
● India can use parallel import to get the drug.

Evergreening of patent
● Ever-greening of patent: Section 3(d) Indian Patent Act doesn’t allow the renewal of a patent
over a product by introducing minor changes to it. It has been an issue of concern for
pharmaceutical companies (Ex: Novartis issue on the patent of cancer drug Glivec).
● Done by pharma companies to extend patent term beyond 20 years

Traditional Knowledge Digital Library (TKDL)

is a pioneering initiative of India to prevent misappropriation of the country’s traditional medicinal
knowledge at International Patent Offices on which healthcare needs of more than 70% population
and livelihood of millions of people in India is dependent.
TKDL is a vital tool to fight against biopiracy and erroneous filing of patents.

Utility Model
● A Utility Model just like a Patent also protects inventions/innovations but for a shorter period.
● The main difference between a Patent and Utility Model is that the requirements for granting a
Utility Model are less stringent than for Patents.
● A product or process which is Novel and Industrial applicable passes for Utility Model, inventive
step is not a requirement.
● The term of protection for utility models is shorter than for patents,(usually between 6 and 15
years)