Hinduism in India

Hello learners welcome to the session on Major religion in India

Hinduism in India
Hinduism is the religion of the Hindus, a name given to the Universal Religion which
hailed supreme in India.
It is the oldest of all living religions. This is not founded by any prophet.
Buddhism, Christianity and Mohammedanism owe their origin to the prophets. Their
dates are fixed.
But no such date can be fixed for Hinduism. Hinduism is not born of the teachings of
particular prophets.
It is not based on a set of dogmas preached by a particular set of teachers.
It is free from religious fanaticism.

Hinduism is also known by the names Sanatana-Dharma and Vaidika-Dharma.

Sanatana-Dharma means eternal religion. Hinduism is as old as the world itself.
Hinduism is the mother of all religions. Hindu scriptures are the oldest in the world,
Sanatana-Dharma is so called, not only because it is eternal, but also because it is
protected by God and because it can make us eternal.

Vaidika-Dharma means the religion of the Vedas. The Vedas are the foundational
scriptures of Hinduism.
The ancient Rishis and sages of India have expressed their intuitive spiritual
experiences (Aparoksha-Anubhuti) in the Upanishads. These experiences are direct
and infallible.
Hinduism regards the spiritual experiences of the Rishis of yore as its authority.
The priceless truths that have been discovered by the Hindu Rishis and sages through
millennia constitute the glory of Hinduism. Therefore, Hinduism is a revealed
religion.

Hinduism allows absolute freedom to the rational mind of man. Hinduism never
demands any undue restraint upon the freedom of human reason, the freedom of
thought, feeling and will of man.
It allows the widest freedom in matters of faith and worship.
Hinduism is a religion of freedom. It allows absolute freedom to the human reason
and heart with regard to questions such as nature of God, soul, creation, form of
worship and the goal of life.

Hinduism does not condemn those who deny God as the creator and ruler of the
world, who do not accept the existence of an eternal soul and the state of Moksha or
state of liberation.
Hinduism does not render the upholders of such views unfit to be recognised as pious
and honourable members of the Hindu religious society.

The religious hospitality of Hinduism is proverbial. Hinduism is extremely catholic

and liberal.
This is the fundamental feature of Hinduism. Hinduism pays respects to all religions.
It does not revile any other religion. It accepts and honours truth—wherever it may
come from and whatever garb it may put on.

That part of the great Aryan race which migrated from Central Asia, through the
mountain passes into India, settled first in the districts near the river Sindhu, now
called the Indus, on the other side of the river.
The Persians pronounced the word Sindhu as Hindu, and named their Aryan brethren
Hindus.
Hindu is only a corrupt form of Sindhu.
The Hindu Aryans spread themselves over the plains of the Ganga.
Hindu culture and Hindu civilisation were at their zenith in the days of yore.
Greeks and Romans imitated the Hindus and absorbed Hindu thoughts.
Even now Hindu culture and Hindu civilisation stand foremost in the world.
No religion has produced so many great saints, sages, Yogins, Rishis, Maharshis,
prophets, Acharyas, benefactors, heroes, poets, statesmen and kings.

Each and every province of the country has produced intellectual giants, poets and
saints.
Even now India abounds in Rishis, philosophers, saints and high intellectuals.
Even now she abounds in sages and great souls.
No religion is so very elastic and tolerant like Hinduism.
Hinduism is very stern and rigid regarding the fundamentals.
It is very elastic in readjusting to the externals and non-essentials.
That is the reason why it has succeeded in living through millennia

The glory of Hinduism is ineffable. It has within it all the features of a universal
religion.
Its Dharmas are universal. Its doctrines are sublime. Its philosophy is grand. Its ethics
is soul-elevating.
Its scriptures are wonderful. Its Sadhanas or Yoga-Vedantic practices are unique.

Glorious has been the past of this religion; still more glorious is its future.
It has a message to give to a world rent asunder by hatred, dissension and war—the
message of cosmic love, truth and non-violence, the gospel of unity of Self or
Upanishadic oneness.

More than nine-in-ten of the world’s Hindus live in India.

There are more than 1.1 billion Hindus in the world and roughly 94% of them live in
India, according to Pew Research Center projections for 2020. Eight-in-ten Indians
(79.8%) identify as Hindu, according to the country’s 2011 census.
Far fewer Indians are of other religions, including Islam (14.2%), Christianity (2.3%)
and Sikhism (1.7%).

The vast majority of India’s Hindus believe in God (98%), including eight-in-ten who
say they believe in God with absolute certainty.
Even though Hinduism is sometimes referred to as a polytheistic religion, very few
Hindus (7%) take the position that there are multiple gods.
The prevailing view, held by 61% of Hindus, is that there is one God “with many
manifestations.” About three-in-ten Indian Hindus (29%) say simply: “There is only
one God.”

Many Indian Hindus regularly perform puja – a worship practice that often involves
prayer and giving offerings to deities.
Most Hindus in India perform puja at home daily (55%). Fewer Hindus perform puja
at temples daily (20%).
Hindu women are much more likely than men to perform puja in their home daily
(64% vs. 47%), but there is no gender gap when it comes to performing puja at
temples.
 Introduction of Vedanta Philosophy and Upanishad
Vedanta (derived from veda, knowledge; anta, end), literally means end or completion of
knowledge. Veda is also the term that designates the ancient scriptures (Shastras) of India, the
earliest of which date to circa 1,500 – 1,200 BCE. Vedanta, then also means “end of the
Veda”, and in this technically to the final sections of the four-fold Vedas, the so-called
Upanishads (600-300 BCE).
Vedanta Philosophy
“Vedanta” most commonly refers to one of the six schools of Orthodox Indian Darshanas
(viewpoints or ways of seeing) that emerged between the 7th and 8th century CE.
This wad the period of an important revival of “Hinduism” in India in response to the
increasing pluralism of traditions rooted in the Vedas and others – Buddhism and Jainism –
that were not.
“Hinduism” here is an umbrella term for a great diversity of religious traditions that share an
allegiance to the Vedas as authoritive scripture.
At the popular level, the revival of Hinduism took the form of various movements of intense
religious devotion (bhakti), for example, the Vishnu-Krishna worship of the Alvars of South
India.
At the scholarly level, the revival of Hinduism took the form of Vedanta: the attempt to unify
and systematize the teachings of the insights of the Vedic scriptural heritage of India.
Gaudapada, 7th or 8th century, is regarded as the earliest formulator of Vedanta, but Sankara,
8th century, is considered the first great expounder of Vedanta. Gaudipada allegedly taught
Govinda, Sankara’s guru.
Multiple Schools of Vedanta emerged between the 8th and 6th century under the guidance of
highly influential gurus.
Advaita Vedanta
Sankara 8th – 9th century.
Sri Sampradaya
Ramanuja 12th Century
Brahma Sampradaya
Madhva 13th Century
Hamsa Sampraday
Nimbarka 13th Century
Rudha Sampraday
Vallabha 15th and 16th Century
Caitanya Sampraday
Caitanya 16th Century
Each school of Vedanta aimed to systematically explain the nature of ultimate reality and the
goal of human life in accordance with the teachings of the Upanishads.
All schools of Vedanta maintain that the goal of human life is to realize Brahman (the
ultimate reality), to be united with the transcendental ground of the universe.
Schools of Vedanta differ with respect to how they conceive of Brahman, what realization of
and union with Brahman involves, and how this is achieved.
Exploring the Updanishad
Upanishad
Upa –(Near), Ni- (Down), Sad (to sit): Sitting near the teacher
The Upanishads
Composed between 600-300 BCE by various rishis (seers)
Added as the final sections of the division of Veda texts. (Vedanta=end of the Veda)
Upanishads are classified as sruti (“that which is heard”) and are authoritative texts.
Philosophical commentary on the early portions of the Vedas but grounded in the direct
experiences of the rishis.
 Christianity in India
Introduction
In India, after Muslims, Christians make up the second-largest religious minority.
In India, there are 21 million Christians, or 2% of the country's overall population.
Roman Catholics make up the largest single Christian community in India with 16.5 million
people.
The number of Protestants worldwide is about 4.5. (Europa 1740). Kerala, one of the oldest
Christian communities in the world, has the highest concentration of Christians.
A Brief History
The history of the beginning of Christianity in India has generated debate among historians
because there is a paucity of documentary evidence.
The church was founded in India by the apostle Thomas in 52 A.D., according to legend and
tradition. He converted many people to Christianity by travelling along established trade
routes, including members of the royal family (Mundadan 25).
Many more foreign missionaries followed his lead and converted a large number of people to
Christianity.
Evangelizing to those from the lower castes and outcasts, Jesuit Saint Francis Xavier
expanded the Christian community westward in the 16th century.
The early Christians were drawn to Christianity's ideals of humility and renunciation of
material possessions. Christianity was viewed as "the poor man's religion" (Kooliman 102)
Protestant missionaries started working in India in the eighteenth century, which resulted in
the expansion of Christian communities (Bogard; Mayhew 47). "These new Christians were
almost entirely drawn from the most underprivileged and deplorable sectors of society"
(Kooliman 5).
Christianity and trade
The East India Trading Company's trade with India sparked a lifelong fascination with the
country. The trading corporation expanded its scope beyond simple commercial concerns and
rose to power in India.
During the period of 1770–1818, "almost a third of India was to come under the control of
the Company through wars and annexations" (Pathak 3).
It's interesting to note that numerous St. Thomas Christians were pepper harvesters. Growing
peppers was practically their only monopoly (Mundadan 155). The majority of the pepper
that was sent to Portugal was grown by church members.

IMPACT OF CHRISTIANITY IN INDIA

EDUCATION

The majority of Christian missionary work in India entailed opening top-notch educational
institutions. Of course, the influence of the Christian community does not stop there.
Printing presses came along with the schools, which helped in the spread of all sorts of
literature. In actuality, English and modern vernacular education were pioneered by early
overseas missionaries.
In his History of Indian Education, R. L. Rawat makes the argument that India will always be
grateful to the missionaries for the creation of textbooks, dictionaries, and grammars as well
as for their fervent efforts to expand education.
Observing the masses of individuals from all socioeconomic groups and religious affiliations
who use whatever power they can muster to get their kids into Christian schools is
undoubtedly one way to gauge the influence of Christianity in India.
Lower kindergarten is where the rush starts, and it continues through university institutions.
This happens even when parents—whether Hindu, Muslim, or Sikh—have to consent to
having their kids study the Bible as a required subject in school.
Language and Literature

In India, Christians have significantly influenced the fields of languages, literature, and
journalism. Tamil alphabetic characters were changed by Constanzio Beschi (1680–1747) to
make them more appropriate for printing.
In addition, he created a four-volume Tamil dictionary with sections for words, synonyms,
classes, and rhymes.
Notable translations of classic Tamil literature into English include those by G. U. Pope
(1820–1908) and Bishop Robert Caldwell (1815–1891), respectively.
Other Christian authors who created some of the earliest Tamil novels are Vedanayagam
Pillai (1824-1889) and H. A. Krishna Pillai (1827-1900).
In his book The Discovery of India, Jawaharlal Nehru recognises the role that the early
missionaries, particularly the Baptists of Serampore, had in the country's transition away
from the sway of Persian and Sanskrit.
According to Nehru, the publishing of books and newspapers by the missionaries and the
spread of English-language schooling undoubtedly reduced the influence of the classics and
facilitated the emergence and development of regional languages.
Nehru says that although missionaries dealing with the major languages had little trouble,
"they struggled with the dialects of the prehistoric hill tribes and forest tribes. Many Indian
languages were created as a result of Christian missionaries' ambition to translate the Bible
into as many languages as they could.
Although Christian mission work in India has not always been admirable or praiseworthy, it
has clearly been of immense benefit to India in this regard as well as in the preservation of
folklore " (Nehru, pp. 317–318).

Field of Medicine
Finally, an order banning sati in East India Company properties was signed by Lord William
Bentinck in 1829.
Another area where Christians have significantly impacted India's welfare and general well-
being is the realm of medicine.
Late in the sixteenth century, Jesuits built infirmaries next to their residences.
In 1799, John Thomas, a collaborator of William Carey, started his work.
Almost every missionary group established medical facilities of various types in India during
the nineteenth century. Two have received recognition on a global scale.
The Christian Medical College Hospital in Vellore developed from Dr. Ida Scudder's
roadside clinics, which she initially started in 1895.
The first, the Christian Medical College Hospital in Ludhiana, was established by Dr. Edith
Brown in 1893.
Despite the influx of missionaries throughout the colonial era, there are still few Christians in
India, especially when compared to the country's 846,302,688 overall population (Europa
1726).
The establishment of the Church of South India and Church of North India in 1947 and 1970,
respectively, reduced ties among Protestant churches.
However, there are still representations of minor fundamentalist sects all over India, resulting
in a kaleidoscope mixture of ethnic groups, languages, cultures, viewpoints, theologies, and
customs.
Christians and churches interact with surrounding society in a wide range of ways, from
being a powerful minority in the state of Kerala to having a big impact on other southern and
northeastern states (Europa 1740).
 Vedanta Philosophy and Upanished

Hello learners, in this session, let us discuss on the six primary concepts of Upanished

I. Brahman
Beyond Maya, there is an unchanging reality called Brahman (lit. “to expand”)
The Upanishads emphasize the impermanence of the empirical world, physical reality as we
experience it through our sense. MAYA

Four Claims About Brahman

Brahman is the fundamental principle of the universe. ( Kena Upanishad IV and V)

Brahman is the reality in all, and all things are in Brahman. (Svetasvatara Upanishad, IV.2-4)

Brahman is the state of non-duality. (Brhadaranyaka Upanishad, IV.v.14-15)

Brahman is Ineffable. (Kena Upanishad, 1.5-9)

BRAHMAN AS THE IMPERSONAL ABSOLUTE

These central claims of the Upanishads about Brahman suggest that Brahman is not a personal
being, not a being with attributes that characterize “persons” (e.g., self-awareness,
perspectival experience, deliberative rationality, and being the subject of intentional states).

On this view, Brahman is formless or attributeless (nirguna) and not a personal God.
If Brahman is without from, then “gods” represent different provisional manifestations of
brahman in maya. The trimurti (three forms) represent Brahman manifested in the processes of
creation, preservation, and dissolution and recreation of the cosmos.

BRAHMAN AS CREATOR?

The Upanishads speak of Brahman as creator. However even where brahman is conceived of in
personal terms, “Creation” refers to a necessary emanation of the universe from the being of
Brahman, like the flowing of a web from a spider.

The Upanishads affirm eternal, cyclical processes of the origination of order, its evolution,
eventual dissolution.
“Bliss (Ananda) is Brahman, for from bliss all beings are born; by bliss, when born, they live;
and into bliss they enter at their death” (Taittiriyaka Upanishad, III.6)
II. ATMAN

The True Self (Atman)

The Upanishads teach the existence of a true Self called Atmen.

Atman is distinguished from the individual personality or ego formed through attachments to
sense objects.
The true self of each person is not identical with the body or person’s mind as conditioned by
sense experience.
“That Self (Atman) is not this, it is not that (neti,neti). It is unseizable, for it cannot be seized;
indestructible, for it cannot be destroyed; unattached, for it does not attach itself; is unbound,
does not tremble, is not injured” Brhadaranyaka Upanishad, iv.v.15
III AVIDYA

The human perspective is characterized by ignorance (avidya) of the true nature of reality and
the self.

Human persona identify themselves with their body or with their individual states of
consciousness formed through contact with and attachment to sense objects. This is the false
ego or false self.

IV SAMSARA AND KARMA

The Upanishads teach that all life forms move through repeated cycles of birth, death, and
rebirth, until final liberation from this cycle.

The cycle o the death and rebirth is called Samsara

Its fuel or energy is called Karma

The termination of the cycle is called Moksha

Rebirth is fueled and directed by Karma (Sanskrit root kri, meaning “action”)
Broadly stated, karma is a law od cause and effect according to which actions in one lifetime
influence action in a subsequent life.

Attachment to material forms of existence (modes of false ego) is the basic karmic energy that
fuels samsara. The form of one’s karma is shaped by the specific nature of one’s attachments.
Rebirth is not restricted to rebirth as a human being, but it extends to the animal world and
other realms of existence. The form of one’s karma (good or bad) determines the realm of
existence into which one is reborn.

Rebirth is not desirable. It implies that a person is still trapped in ignorance about the nature of
reality through various attachments to sense objects.

VI MOKSHA

Moksha is the state of release from samsara.

Attachments=>False Ego=>Karma=>Samsara

What is required is a dismantling or dissolution of the false ego. Therefore, we must let go of our
attachments to sense objects or materials forms of existence.

DESTRUCTION OF THE FALSE EGO

Spiritual discipline dismantles the false ego:

Spiritual Practice Consists in Observing Moral Laws (aimed at renunciation of material

attachments) and Meditation.
Meditation

Having heard and reflected on the word of Brahman in the scriptures, one must practice
concentration on the truth of Brahman and the self, repeating mantras such as OM ( which
signifies the cosmic power of Brahman) or Aham Brahmasmi (I am Brahman)

THE UTIMATE STATE (MOKSHA)

Spiritual practice leads to moksha (Liberation)

Moksha is freedom from samsara and thus freedom from suffering.

Moksha is absolute consciousness; “Brahman realization” and “Self-realization” since the
true nature of reality (Brahman) and the true self (Atman) is perceived.

Realization of Brahman and the

self Sat-chit-ananda

Being (sat)

Consciousness (chit)

Bliss (Ananda)

Satchitananda is also the name of Brahman.

So, moksha is union with Brahman.

Review: Six Primary Concepts in the Upanishads

1. Brahman
2. Atman
3. Avidya
4. Samsara
5. Moksha
6. Karma
 Islam in India
INTRODUCTION:
• Islam is a prominent international religion that was established by the Prophet
Muhammad in Arabia in the 7th century CE.
• The Arabic phrase islam, meaning "submission," illustrates the core religious concept of
Islam—that the believer (called a Muslim from the active form of islam) accepts
surrender to Allah's God will.
• Allah is regarded as the one God—the world's creator, sustainer, and restorer.
• The sacred texts, the Qurn (commonly written Koran in English), which Allah revealed to
his prophet, Muhammad, convey Allah's will, to which humans must submit.
• In Islam, Muhammad is regarded as the final in a line of prophets (along with Adam,
Noah, Abraham, Moses, Solomon, and Jesus), and his message both consummates and
completes the "revelations" credited to prior prophets.
• The religion taught by Muhammad to a small group of followers grew fast over the
Middle East to Africa, Europe, the Indian subcontinent, the Malay Peninsula, and China,
while maintaining its emphasis on absolute monotheism and rigorous obedience to some
basic religious traditions.
• By the early twenty-first century, there were about 1.5 billion Muslims worldwide.
• Despite the fact that several religious movements have emerged within Islam, all Muslims
are united by a shared religion and a sense of belonging to a single community.
HISTORY OF ISLAM:
• Islam is considered to have originated in 610 CE, when Muhammad, a profoundly
spiritual and righteous man who spent months praying and contemplating himself in a
solitary cave near the town of Mecca, is said to have received heavenly
communications.
• According to legend, one morning Muhammad heard the voice of the angel Gabriel,
through whom Allah communicated words of wisdom. The words were originally
spoken by Muhammad, then by his students, and ultimately written down as the Holy
Qur'an.
• Thus, Muslims see the Qur'an as direct revelations from Allah rather than the creation
of Muhammad.
• Islam, which literally means "resignation," was based on the Prophet Muhammad's
teachings as a statement of surrender to Allah's will.
• The sacred scripture of Islam, the Qur'an, includes the Prophet's teachings that Allah
revealed to Muhammad.
• Traditional Muslims believe that Allah is the one real God, without a partner or equal,
and that the inspiration for this belief system comes directly from God and the
 Prophet Muhammad, the vehicle selected by God to communicate these teachings to
the entire people.
• Muhammad is said to have returned from the cave enlightened. On his return, the first
person he preached to was his wife Khadija, who became the first disciple of this new
religion.
• This inspired Muhammad to begin preaching the revelations to the general people
through his speeches.
• Many people were moved by Qur'anic passages and converted to Islam of their own
free will. However, because the rising popularity of Islam threatened the lives of
Muhammad and his students, the whole community relocated from Mecca to Medina
around 622 CE.
• This journey became known as Hijra and became a significant event in the history of
Islam.
• The day of this migration marks the beginning of the Muslim calendar. With the
acceptance of Islam by the inhabitants of Medina, the expansion of this new religion
gained speed.
• Muhammad later captured and converted Mecca with well-organized finances and a
large army. He did not stop there, but dispatched ambassadors to many areas of
Arabia.
• Today, Islam is the world's second most populous religion, with over 23% of the
world's population identifying as Muslim.
• The main message of the Qur'an is faith in Allah, the one and only real God. Islam's
believers are typically classified into two groups: Sunni and Shia. Despite adhering to
the same faith, each group interprets some Islamic events and teachings differently.
• Many medieval Muslim thinkers pursued humanistic, rational and scientific
discourses in their search for knowledge, meaning and values.
• A wide range of Islamic writings on history and philosophical theology show that
medieval Islamic thought was open to the humanistic ideas of individualism,
secularism, skepticism and liberalism.

ISLAM UNIVERSAL VALUES:

• Islam supports some universal ideals that must influence our current ethical frameworks
and legal perceptions.
• The term "universal" refers to overarching and general ideas and concepts that the
Qur'an and Prophet's traditions uphold for all human beings, not only Muslims,
regardless of colour, ethnicity, gender, or religion.
• The four principles become more than just a set of regulations; they become a religious,
moral, legal, individual, and communal responsibility.
DIGNITY OF THE HUMAN BEING:
• This ideal applies to all people, regardless of their views, religion, colour, or ethnicity.
• Certain faculties, most notably reason and free choice, display this dignity. Dignifying
humanity necessitates the respect and preservation of the individual's well-being and
freedom of choice.
PLURALISM AND TOLERATION OF DIVERSITY:
• Another fundamental Islamic principle is the equality of all persons, regardless of
colour, race, or ethnicity.
• Recognition of variety enables for mutual acceptance, toleration, and appreciation of
difference, which goes beyond simply tolerance or resignation."
•
JUSTICE AND EXCELLENCE:
Like human dignity, it (justice) is a universal, irreducible value that applies to everyone.
Justice implies diversity of sides, differing views, and thus requires impartiality.
INDIVIDUAL AND PUBLIC LIBERTIES:
 Individual rights include the security of life and property, the protection of honour
and dignity, the sanctity and security of private life against state violation, the security
of personal freedoms, the protection of religious sentiments, and the equality of all
Muslims and non-Muslims before the law.
 The right to protest against tyranny, freedom of expression, freedom of association,
freedom of conscience and conviction, protection against arbitrary detention, and the
right to participate in public life are all examples of political rights. The right to the
needs of life (food, housing, clothes, and education) is included in socio economic
rights.
 4. Religion and Philosophy in Ancient India

Hello learners,
In this session, let us discuss on the Religion and Philosophy in Ancient India

• In classical India, philosophy was understood as contributing to human well-being by

freeing people from misconceptions about themselves and the world. Ultimate well-
being was conceived as some sort of fulfilment outside the conditions of space and
time. Philosophies, as well as religious traditions, understood themselves as paths to
that final goal
Let’s start with Vedic philosophy
• Religion of the Rig Vedic people was very simple in the sense that it consisted mainly
of worship of numerous deities representing the various phenomena of nature through
prayers.
• It was during the later Vedic period that definite ideas and about the true nature of
soul or Atman and the cosmic principal philosophies or Brahman who represented the
ultimate reality were developed.
• These Vedic philosophical concepts later on gave rise to six different schools of
philosophies called shada darshana. They fall in the category of the orthodox
system as the final authority of the Vedas is recognised by all of them. Let us now
find out more about these six schools of Indian philosophy.
• Samkhya System:
• Yoga
• Nyaya
• Vaisheshika
• Mimamsa
• Vedanta:
• Charvaka school
Let’s learn on each school briefly
Samkhya System:
• The Samkhya philosophy holds that reality is constituted of two principles one female
and the other male i.e. Prakriti, Purusha respectively.
• Prakriti and Purusha are completely independent and absolute. According to this
system, Purusha is mere consciousness; hence it cannot be modified or changed.
Prakriti on the other hand is constituted of three attributes, thought, movement and the
change or transformation of these attributes brings about the change in all objects.
 • The Samkhya philosophy tries to establish some relationship between Purusha and
Prakriti for explaining the creation of the universe. The propounder of this philosophy
was Kapila, who wrote the Samkhya sutra.
• In fact Samkhya school explained the phenomena of the doctrine of evolution and
answered all the questions aroused by the thinkers of those days.
Yoga:
• Yoga literally means the union of the two principal entities. The origin of yoga is
found in the Yogasutra of Patanjali believed to have been written in the second
century BC. By purifying and controlling changes in the mental mechanism,
yoga systematically brings about the release of purusha from prakriti.
• Yogic techniques control the body, mind and sense organs. Thus, this philosophy is
also considered a means of achieving freedom or mukti.
• This freedom could be attained by practising self-control (yama), observation of rules
(niyama), fixed postures (asana), breath control (pranayama), choosing an object
(pratyahara) and fixing the mind (dharna), concentrating on the chosen object
(dhyana) and complete dissolution of self, merging the mind and the object
(Samadhi). Yoga admits the existence of God as a teacher and guide.
Nyaya
• Nyaya is considered as a technique of logical thinking. According to Nyaya, valid
knowledge is defined as the real knowledge, that is, one knows about the object as
it exists.
• For example, it is when one knows a snake as a snake or a cup as a cup. Nyaya
system of philosophy considers God who creates, sustains and destroys the universe.
Gautama is said to be the author of the Nyaya Sutras.
Vaisheshika
• Vaisheshika system is considered as the realistic and objective philosophy of
universe. The reality according to this philosophy has many bases or categories
which are substance, attribute, action, genus, distinct quality and inherence.
• Vaisheshika thinkers believe that all objects of the universe are composed of
five elements–earth, water, air, fire and ether. They believe that God is the
guiding principle.
• The living beings were rewarded or punished according to the law of karma, based on
actions of merit and demerit. Creation and destruction of universe was a cyclic
process and took place in agreement with the wishes of God.
Mimamsa
• Mimamsa philosophy is basically the analysis of interpretation, application and
the use of the text of the Samhita and Brahmana portions of the Veda.
 • According to Mimamsa philosophy Vedas are eternal and possess all knowledge,
and religion means the fulfilment of duties prescribed by the Vedas. This philosophy
encompasses the Nyaya-Vaisheshika systems and emphasizes the concept of valid
knowledge.
• Its main text is known as the Sutras of Gaimini which have been written during the
third century BC. The essence of the system according to Jaimini is Dharma which
is the dispenser of fruits of one’s actions, the law of righteousness itself. This system
lays stress on the ritualistic part of Vedas.
Vedanta
• Vedanta implies the philosophy of the Upanishad, the concluding portion of
the Vedas.
• Shankaracharya wrote the commentaries on the Upanishads, Brahmasutras and
the Bhagavad Gita. Shankaracharya’s discourse or his philosophical views came to
be known as Advaita Vedanta.
• Advaita literally means non-dualism or belief in one reality. Shankaracharya
expounded that ultimate reality is one, it being the Brahman. According to
Vedanta philosophy, ‘Brahman is true, the world is false and self and Brahman are
not different, Shankaracharya believes that the Brahman is existent, unchanging,
the highest truth and the ultimate knowledge.
• He also believes that there is no distinction between Brahman and the self. The
knowledge of Brahman is the essence of all things and the ultimate existence.
Ramanuja was another well known Advaita scholar. Among different schools of
philosophy was found one philosophy which reached the climax of philosophic
thought that the human mind can possibly reach, and that is known as the Vedantic
philosophy.
Charvaka school
• Brihaspati is supposed to be the founder of the Charvaka School of philosophy.
It finds mention in the Vedas and Brihadaranyka Upanishad.
• Thus, it is supposed to be the earliest in the growth of the philosophical knowledge.
It holds that knowledge is the product of the combination of four elements which
leaves no trace after death. Charvaka philosophy deals with the materialistic
philosophy.
• It is also known as the Lokayata Philosophy – the philosophy of the masses.
According to Charvaka there is no other world. Hence, death is the end of humans
and pleasure the ultimate object in life. Charvaka recognises no existence other than
this material world.
• Since God, soul, and heaven, cannot be perceived, they are not recognised by
Charvakas. Out of the five elements earth, water, fire, air and ether, the Charvakas
do not recognise ether as it is not known through perception. The whole universe
according to them is thus consisted of four elements.
Jain philosophy
 • Like the Charvakas, the Jains too do not believe in the Vedas, but they admit the
existence of a soul. They also agree with the orthodox tradition that suffering
(pain) can be stopped by controlling the mind and by seeking right knowledge and
perception and by observing the right conduct. The Jaina philosophy was first
propounded by the tirthankar Rishabha Deva
• There were twenty-four tirthankaras who actually established the Jaina darshan. The
first tirthankar realised that the source of Jaina philosophy was Adinath.
• The twenty fourth and the last tirthankar was named Vardhaman Mahavira who gave
great impetus to Jainism. Mahavira was born in 599 BC. He left worldly life at the
age of thirty and led a very hard life to gain true knowledge.
• After he attained Truth, he was called Mahavira. He strongly believed in
the importance of celibacy or brahamcharya.
Jain Theory of Reality:
• Seven Kinds of Fundamental Elements: The Jainas believe that the natural and
supernatural things of the universe can be traced back to seven fundamental elements.
• They are jiva, ajivaa, astikaya, bandha, samvara, nirjana, and moksa. Substances
like body which exist and envelope (like a cover) are astïkaya. Anastikayas like
‘time’ have no body at all. The substance is the basis of attributes (qualities). The
attributes that we find in a substance are known as dharmas.
• The Jainas believe that things or substance have attributes. These attributes also
change with the change of kala (time). From their point of view, the attributes of a
substance are essential, and eternal or unchangeable. Without essential attributes, a
thing cannot exist. So they are always present in everything. For example,
consciousness (chetana) is the essence of the soul; desire, happiness and sorrow are
its changeable attributes.

Philosophy of the Buddha

• Gautama Buddha, who founded the Buddhist philosophy, was born in 563 BC at
Lumbini, a village near Kapilavastu in the foothills of Nepal. His childhood name
was Siddhartha. His mother, Mayadevi, died when he was hardly a few days old. He
was married to Yashodhara, a beautiful princess, at the age of sixteen. After a year of
the marriage, he had a son, whom they named Rahul. But at the age of twenty-nine,
Gautama Buddha renounced family life to find a solution to the world’s continuous
sorrow of death, sickness, poverty, etc.
• He went to the forests and meditated there for six years. Thereafter, he went to
Bodh Gaya (in Bihar) and meditated under a pipal tree.
• It was at this place that he attained enlightenment and came to be known as the
Buddha. Buddha presented simple principles of life and practical ethics that
people could follow easily.
 • He considered the world as full of misery. Man’s duty is to seek liberation from
this painful world.
• He strongly criticised blind faith in the traditional scriptures like the Vedas. Buddha’s
teachings are very practical and suggest how to attain peace of mind and ultimate
liberation from this material world.
• Realization of Four Noble Truths
• There is suffering in human life.
• There is cause of suffering,
• There is cessation of suffering
• Path of Liberation
Eight-fold Path to Liberation (Nirvana)
• Right Vision
• Right Resolve
• Right Speech.
• Right Conduct.
• Right Means of Livelihood
• Right Effort.
• Right Mindfulness
• Right Concentration
 4.1 Religion and Philosophy in Mediaval Period

Hello learners,
In this session, let us discuss on the Religion and Philosophy in Mediaval Period
• Do you know the medieval period in India saw the rise and growth of the Sufi
movement and the Bhakti movement. The two movements brought a new form of
religious expression amongst Muslims and Hindus. The Sufis were mystics who
called for liberalism in Islam.
• They emphasised on an egalitarian society based on universal love. The Bhakti saints
transformed Hinduism by introducing devotion or bhakti as the means to attain God.
For them caste had no meaning and all human beings were equal.
• The Sufi and Bhakti saints played an important role in bringing the Muslims
and Hindus together. By using the local language of the people, they made
religion accessible and meaningful to the common people

The Sufi movement

• Islam was founded by Prophet Muhammad. Islam saw the rise of many religious and
spiritual movements within it. These movements were centered mainly around the
interpretation of the Quran. There were two major sects that arose within Islam – the
Sunnis and Shias. Our country has both the sects, but in many other countries like
Iran, Iraq, Pakistan etc. you will find followers of only one of them. Among the
Sunnis, there are four principal schools of Islamic Law, these are based upon the
Quran and Hadis.
• The greatest challenge to orthodox Sunnism came from the rationalist philosophy or
Mutazilas, who professed strict monotheism. According to them, God is just and
has nothing to do with man’s evil actions. Men are endowed with free will and are
responsible for their own actions.
• Sufism in India: The advent of Sufism in India is said to be in the eleventh and
twelfth centuries.
• In the beginning, the main centers of the Sufis were Multan and Punjab. By the
thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, the Sufis had spread to Kashmir, Bihar,
Bengal and the Deccan.
• It may be mentioned that Sufism had already taken on a definite form before coming
to India. Its fundamental and moral principles, teachings and orders, system of
fasting, prayers and practice of living in khanqahs had already been fixed.
• The Sufis came to India via Afghanistan on their own free will. Their emphasis upon
a pure life, devotional love and service to humanity made them popular and earned
them a place of honour in Indian society.
The importance of the Sufi movement
 • The Sufi movement made a valuable contribution to Indian society. Like the Bhakti
saints who were engaged in breaking down the barriers within Hinduism, the Sufis too
infused a new liberal outlook within Islam. The interaction between early Bhakti and
Sufi ideas laid the foundation for more liberal movements of the fifteenth century.
You will read that Sant Kabir and Guru Nanak had preached a non-sectarian religion
based on universal love. A notable contribution of the Sufis was their service to the
poorer and downtrodden sections of society.
• While the Sultan and ulema often remained aloof from the day-to-day problems of
the people, the Sufi saints maintained close contact with the common people. The Sufi
movement encouraged equality and brotherhood.

The Bhakti movement

• The development of Bhakti movement took place in Tamil Nadu between the
seventh and
• twelfth centuries. It was reflected in the emotional poems of the Nayanars (devotees
of Shiva) and Alvars (devotees of Vishnu). These saints looked upon religion not as
a cold formal worship but as a loving bond based upon love between the worshipped
and worshipper.
• They wrote in local languages, Tamil and Telugu and were therefore able to reach
out to many people. In course of time, the ideas of the South moved up to the North
but it was a very slow process. Sanskrit, which was still the vehicle of thought, was
given a new form. Thus, we find that the Bhagavata Purana of ninth century was not
written in the old Puranic form
• A more effective method for spreading of the Bhakti ideology was the use of local
languages. The Bhakti saints composed their verses in local languages. They also
translated Sanskrit works to make them understandable to a wider audience.
• Thus, we find Jnanadeva writing in Marathi, Kabir, Surdas and Tulsidas in
Hindi, Shankaradeva popularising Assamese, Chaitanya and Chandidas
spreading their message in Bengali, Mirabai in Hindi and Rajasthani.
• In addition, devotional poetry was composed in Kashmiri, Telugu, Kannad,
Odia, Malayalam, Maithili and Gujarati.
• The Bhakti saints believed that salvation can be achieved by all. They made no
distinction of caste, creed or religion before God.
• They themselves came from diverse backgrounds. Ramananda, whose disciples
included Hindus and Muslims, came from a conservative brahman family. His
disciple, Kabir, was a weaver. Guru Nanak was a village accountant’s son. Namdev
was a tailor
• The saints stressed equality, disregarded the caste system and attacked
institutionalised religion. The saints did not confine themselves to purely religious
ideas.
 • They advocated social reforms too. They opposed sati and female infanticide. Women
were encouraged to join kirtans. Mirabai and Lalla (of Kashmir) composed verses
that are popular even today.
• Amongst the non-sectarian Bhakti saints, the most outstanding contribution was made
by Kabir and Guru Nanak. Their ideas were drawn from both Hindu and Islamic
traditions and were aimed at bridging the gulf between the Hindus and the Muslims.
Let us read in some detail about them.
• Kabir (1440-1518) is said to have been the son of a brahman widow, who abandoned
him. He was brought up in the house of a Muslim weaver. Kabir believed that the way
to God was through personally experienced bhakti or devotion.
• He believed that the Creator is One. His God was called by many names - Rama,
Hari, Govinda, Allah, Rahim, Khuda, etc. No wonder then that the Muslims claim
him as Sufi, the Hindus call him Rama-Bhakta and the Sikhs incorporate his songs in
the Adi Granth.
Altogether, when we see in medieval period
• The Bhakti movement was a socio-religious movement that opposed religious bigotry
and social rigidities. It emphasised good character and pure thinking.
• . At a time when society had become stagnant, the Bhakti saints infused new life
and strength. They awakened a new sense of confidence and attempted to redefine
social and religious values.
• Saints like Kabir and Nanak stressed upon the reordering of society along egalitarian
lines. Their call to social equality attracted many a downtrodden. Although Kabir
and Nanak had no intention of founding new religions but following their deaths,
their supporters grouped together as Kabir panthis and Sikhs respectively
• The importance of the Bhakti and Sufi saints lies in the new atmosphere created by
them, which continued to affect the social, religious and political life of India even
in later centuries. Akbar’s liberal ideas were a product of this atmosphere in which
he was born and brought up. The preaching of Guru Nanak was passed down from
generation to generation.
• This resulted in the growth of a separate religious group, with its separate language
and script Gurmukhi and religious book, Guru Granth Sahib. Under Maharaja
Ranjit Singh, the Sikhs grew into a formidable political force in the politics of
North India.
• The major religious movements ca be traced in medieval period of India and
They contributed to the religious ideas and beliefs.
Religion as a means of informal social control in India

Social control: Social control is a concept found in social science disciplines. Social
control is defined as a set of rules and standards in society that keep people bound to
traditional standards and the use of formalised mechanisms. The disciplinary model
foreshadowed the control model.

Formal means of social control:

Formal means of social control are those used by the government and other
organisations to enact social control through law enforcement mechanisms and
sanctions such as fines and imprisonment.
The goals and mechanisms of formal social control in democratic societies are
determined by elected representatives through legislation.
This provides the control mechanisms with a measure of public support and
voluntary compliance. The mechanisms used by the state to impose formal social
control range from the death penalty to curfew laws.
Sanctions are penalties or other forms of enforcement used to provide incentives for
compliance with the law, or rules and regulations.
Criminal sanctions may include severe punishment, such as corporal or capital
punishment, imprisonment, or heavy fines. In the context of civil law, sanctions are
typically monetary fines.
Max Weber's work on the use of violence by the state adds to our understanding of
formal control. In his essay "Politics as Vocation," Weber discusses the definitional
relationship between the state and violence in the early twentieth century. Weber
comes to the conclusion that the state has a monopoly on violence.

Informal means of social control:

Peer and community pressure, bystander intervention in a crime, and collective

responses such as citizen patrol groups are examples of informal social control, or the
reactions of individuals and groups that bring about conformity to norms and laws.
When informal social control is weaker, criminal justice system agents exercise more
control (Black, 1976).
People who know each other informally control each other subconsciously in subtle
ways.

Functions of religion:

Emile Durkheim's work emphasised the benefits of religion for society regardless of
how it is practised or which particular religious beliefs a society prefers.
The ideas of Durkheim still have an impact on contemporary sociological thinking
about the role of religion.
First, religion gives life direction and significance. Many things in life are challenging
to comprehend.
That was undoubtedly the case in ancient times, as we have seen, but even in today's
highly scientific age, many aspects of life and death remain a mystery. Many people
use their religious faith and beliefs to make sense of the things that science is unable
to explain.

Second, religion promotes social stability and cohesion. One of Durkheim's most
significant insights was this.
Social stability is strengthened by religion in at least two ways. First, it provides
people with a shared set of beliefs, making it a crucial socialisation tool.
Second, the communal practise of religion, such as that found in places of worship,
strengthens social ties by physically bringing people together and facilitating
communication and other forms of social interaction.

Related to the previous purpose, religion also serves a third purpose. Religion acts as
a social control mechanism, bolstering social order.
People who practise religion learn moral principles and how to behave in society. The
Ten Commandments are arguably the most well-known set of moral guidelines in the
Judeo-Christian tradition.
One area of informal social control, religion, is still controversial in terms of how it
affects deviance.

A fourth benefit of religion is improved mental and physical health. Religious belief
and practise can improve psychological health by providing consolation in difficult
times and by fostering social interaction with others in places of worship.
Numerous studies show that being religious makes people happier and more satisfied
with their lives overall, not just the elderly.
Additionally, it appears that religion fosters physical health, and some studies even
indicate that those who practise religion have a tendency to live longer than those who
do not (Moberg, 2008).

Religion as a means of informal social control

Depending on the metaphysical claims and moral code of a particular tradition,

religion's power as a social control mechanism may differ. For instance,
reincarnation-affirming Eastern religions hold that the merits one accrues through
good deeds in this life can determine one's existence in the next.
This idea held that leading a good life and helping the unfortunate could secure one a
noble birth in the afterlife, while leading a wicked and depraved life would result in
reincarnation as a miserable cockroach or pig.

People may adhere to normative standards as a result of such beliefs, even in the
absence of official social control mechanisms or outside observation.

Because of this, many people in Indian, Nepalese, and Sri Lankan societies where
these beliefs are prevalent may honour their parents, help the underprivileged, take
care of their children, and respect other people's property even in the absence of any
legal coercion.

According to Karl Marx, the use of religion by the oligarchy to uphold its power and
perpetuate inequality is a tactic. They defend capitalism's guiding principles and put
an end to the proletariat revolution.
Marxists contend that significant scientific advancements are driven by the desire to
make enormous profits, which only serves to strengthen capitalism.
RELIGIOUS REFORMS MOVEMENT IN MODERN INDIA

In the first part of the nineteenth century, Indian society was caste-ridden,
decadent, and rigid.
Certain practises were followed that were not in line with humanitarian
attitudes or beliefs, but were still followed in the name of religion.
Some enlightened Indians, such as Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chand
Vidyasagar, Dayanand Saraswati, and others, began to reform society in
order to prepare it to face the challenges of the West.
Reformist movements such as the Brahmo Samaj, Prarthana Samaj, and
the Aligarh Movement fall into one of two groups.
Arya Samaj and the Deoband movement are examples of revivalist
movements. Both the reformist and revivalist movements relied, to
differing degrees, on an appeal to the religion's lost purity in order to
reform it.

BRAHMO SAMAJ MOVEMENT:

Brahmo Sabha, which was later renamed Brahmo Samaj, was founded in
1828 by Raja Ram Mohan Roy.
Its primary goal was to worship the eternal God. Priesthood, ceremonies,
and sacrifices were all condemned.
It centred on prayers, meditation, and scripture reading. It thought that all
religions should be together.
It was modern India's first intellectual reform movement. It resulted in the
growth of rationalism and enlightenment in India, which aided the
nationalist movement indirectly.
It was the progenitor of all modern India's social, religious, and political
movements. In 1866, the Brahmo Samaj of India, led by Keshub Chandra
Sen, and the Adi Brahmo Samaj, led by Debendranath Tagore, split up.
Debendranath Tagore, Keshub Chandra Sen, Pt. Sivnath Shastri, and
Rabindranath Tagore were prominent leaders.

PRARTHANA SAMAJ:

Dr. Atma Ram Pandurang founded the Prarthana Samaj in Bombay in

1876 with the goal of rational worship and social reform.
R.C. Bhandarkar and Justice Mahadev Govind Ranade were two of the
Samaj's most prominent members.
They devoted themselves to social reform efforts such as inter-caste
dining, inter-caste marriage, widow remarriage, and the betterment of
women's and lower-class lives.
Prarthana Samaj's four-point social programme was: The caste system is
disliked, Education for women , remarriage of a widow, to raise the
marriage age for both men and women.
Mahavdev Govind Ranade founded the Widow Remarriage Association
(1861) and the Deccan Education Society He also founded the Poona
Sarvajanik Sabha.
Religious change, according to Ranade, was inextricably linked to social
reform.
He also believed that inflexible religious notions would lead to failure in
the social, economic, and political realms.
Despite being heavily influenced by Brahmo Samaj's principles,
Prarthana Samaj did not insist on a strict prohibition of idol worship and a
complete rupture from the caste system.

SATYASHODHAK SAMAJ:

Jyotiba Phule led a successful campaign against upper-caste dominance

and brahminical supremacy.
In 1873, he established the SatyashodhakSamaj (Truth Seekers' Society).
The movement's key goals were:
Service to the community
Women and others from lower castes are becoming more educated.
Sarvajanik Satyadharma and Ghulamgin, two of Phule's works, became
sources of inspiration for the common people.
In contrast to the brahmins' sign of Rama, Phule adopted the Rajah Bali
symbol.
The caste system and socioeconomic inequities were to be abolished
completely, according to Phule.
This movement provided depressed communities a feeling of class
identification in opposition to the Brahmins, who were considered as
exploiters.

ARYA SAMAJ MOVEMENT:

As a reaction to Western influences, the Arya Samaj Movement was

revivalist in appearance but not in content.
Dayananda Saraswati created the first Arya Samaj organisation in
Bombay in 1875, and the Samaj's headquarters were eventually
established in Lahore.
The Dayanand Anglo-Vedic (D.A.V.) schools, which began in Lahore in
1886 and attempted to emphasise the importance of Western education,
supplied the nucleus for this movement.
The Arya Samaj was able to instil self-esteem and confidence in Hindus,
helping to debunk the notion of white superiority and Western civilization.
The Arya Samaj initiated the shuddhi (purification) drive to bring
Christians and Muslims back into the Hindu fold.
During the 1920s, this resulted in a growing communalisation of social
life, which subsequently snowballed into communal political
consciousness.
Lala Hansraj, Pandit Gurudutt, Lala Lajpat Rai, and Swami
Shraddhanand, among others, continued the Swami's work after his death.
The thoughts of Swami Dayananda were written in his well-known work,
Satyarth.

YOUNG BENGAL MOVEMENT:

The Hindu College of Calcutta's ideas were at the forefront of the

emerging Bengal movement. Derozians was another moniker for these
intellectuals. This name was given to them in honour of Henry Louis
Vivian Derozio, a professor at the same college.
Through his teaching and the organisation of an association for debate
and discussion on literature, philosophy, history, and science, Derozio
pushed radical ideals.
They believed in the ideals of the French Revolution (1789 A.D.) as well
as British liberal ideas.
Women's rights and education were equally important to the Derozians.
The fundamental reason for their limited success was the social climate at
the time, which was not conducive to radical ideas being adopted.

RAMAKRISHNA MOVEMENT:

Ramakrishna Paramhansa was a mystic who sought religious redemption

via renunciation, meditation, and devotion in the conventional ways.
He was a saint who recognised the underlying unity of all religions and
highlighted that there are numerous paths to God and salvation, and that
man's service is God's service.
The Ramakrishna Movement was founded on the teachings of
Ramakrishna Paramhansa.
In 1987, Swami Vivekananda founded the Ramakrishna Mission, which
was named after his Guru, Swami Ramakrishna Paramhansa. In India, the
institute accomplished a lot of educational and social activity.
In 1893, he also represented India at the first Parliament of Religion,
which was held in Chicago, Illinois.
He used the Ramakrishna Mission to help people in need and to do social
work.
Religious and social transformation are the goals of the mission.
Vivekananda preached the philosophy of service, which he defined as
"serving all beings."
Shiva is worshipped through the service of jiva (living objects). Life is
religion in and of itself. The Divine resides inside man via service.
Vivekananda advocated for the use of technology and modern science to
benefit humanity.

THEOSOPHICAL SOCIETY AND ANNIE BESANT

In the history of modern India's religion, society, and culture,

theosophical society has played a significant role. It was formed in 1875
in the United States by Madame H.P. Blavatsky, a Russian spiritualist,
and Col. H.S. Olcott, an American.
Its goal was to promote old faiths, philosophies, and science studies, as
well as the development of man's divine powers and the formation of a
universal brotherhood of man.
The Theosophical Society's headquarters in Adyar became a knowledge
centre with a collection of rare Sanskrit texts.
The society battled untouchability and campaigned for women's
empowerment. Annie Besant spent her entire life working for the
betterment of Indian society.
"The Indian effort is first and foremost the restoration, strengthening, and
uplifting of the traditional religions," she said of her goal.