Module 1 | Introduction to Soil Mechanics

Learning Objectives
At the end of this module, the students will be able to:
• Define Soil Mechanics.
• Explain the Origin of Soil.
• Soil Identification and Classification

DEFINITION OF SOIL MECHANICS

Soil mechanics is a branch of soil physics and applied mechanics that describes the physical properties
and behavior of soil under the application of external stress. Soil mechanics is used to analyze the
deformations of and flow of fluids within natural and man-made structures that are supported on or
made of soil, or structures that are buried in soils.
• Example applications are building and bridge foundations, retaining walls, dams, and buried
pipeline systems.
Soil - is a relatively thin surface layer of the Earth’s crust. One of the common mistakes is thinking that
the term soil refers to the solid particles of the soil only.
Basic Soil Composition:
• Solid – which refers to the minerals
• Voids – which can be air or water or both.
Three Phases of Soil Element:
The soil phase describes the percentage by volume and weight of the constituent members of the soil,
namely solids, water, and air.

ORIGIN OF SOIL
The primary mechanism of soil creation is the weathering of rock. All rock types (igneous rock,
metamorphic rock, and sedimentary rock) may be broken down into small particles to create soil.
Weathering mechanisms are physical weathering, chemical weathering, and biological weathering.
 • Physical weathering – includes temperature effects, freeze, and thaw of water in cracks, rain,
wind, impact, and other mechanisms. (agent: water, temperature, and other physical
mechanism)
• Chemical weathering – includes dissolution of matter composing a rock and precipitation in the
form of another mineral. (agent: chemical reaction)
• Biological weathering – in this type of weathering, living organisms contribute through organic
compounds containing molecules that acidify and corrode rock minerals. (agent: enzymes,
microbes, and other living organisms)

SOIL IDENTIFICATION AND CLASSIFICATION:

Three Major Divisions of Soil:
1. CGS (Coarse – Grained Soil) – Gravel and Sand
- Good load quality
- Good drainage quality
2. FGS (Fine–Grained Soil) – Silt and Clay
- Particles can be seen through a microscope
- Very poor load quality
- Not good in drainage
- Clay absorbs water
3. OS (organic Soil) – Organic Silt and Clay, peak, muck
- Cannot sustain any kind of load
- Color: gray to black and with odor.

Soil Classification System

• AASHTO (American Association of State Highways and Transportation Office)
• USCS (Unified Soil Classification System)
• USDA (United States Department of Agriculture)
Module 2 | INDEX PROPERTIES OF SOIL

Learning Objectives
At the end of this module, the students will be able to:
• Differentiate and explain the different types of soil.
• Understand and perform the particle size distribution of soil using sieve analysis and Hydrometer
Analysis.
• Explain the different soil classification systems and classify the soil based on them.
• Solve problems related to soil classification.

SOIL TYPE
Soils are divided into 2 groups based on the ability of a soil mass to hold together by itself (cohesive) and
those having no ability, or strength, to hold together by itself (cohesionless) and an additional type which
is organic.
1. Cohesive Soils: these soils generally contain a sufficient
clay content to effectively 'glue' the mass together. As
such, they also have the ability to be molded or shaped.
This property of being molded is called 'plasticity' and
describes the ability of the soil to be rolled into thin rods
3.0 mm in diameter without breaking. These soils have
internal strength, can be compacted and compressed, and
generally are suitable for foundation materials under
optimum moisture conditions. Most fine-grained soils
have some cohesion and are usually composed of
significant amounts of silt and/or clay.

2. Cohesionless Soils: these soils have no strength of or on their own.

There is usually a complete absence of clay or fine particles from
which cohesion is derived. Sand and gravel are good examples of
cohesionless soils. However, if sandy or gravely soils are geologically
or structurally confined, they can exhibit strength properties, but the
strength is due to the confinement, not the material itself.
3. Organic soil: they are typically spongy, crumbly, and compressible. This type of
soil is undesirable for use in supporting structures.

A. GRAIN PROPERTIES: Its main focus is the particle size distribution of soil.
Grain Size Classification
 1. Coarse – grained soil: also referred to as granular soil
a. Gravel
b. Sand
2. Fine – grained soil:
a. Silt
b. Clay

Grain Size Analysis

The grain size distribution of coarsed soil is generally determined by means size of sieve analysis. For a
finer grained soil, the grain size distribution can be obtained by means of hydrometer analysis. A sieve
analysis is conducted by taking a measured amount of dry, well pulverized soil and passing it through a
stack of progressively finer sieve with a pan at the bottom.

Mechanical Analysis of Soils

Mechanical analysis is the determination of the size range of particles present in a soil, expressed as a
percentage of the total dry weight. Two methods generally are used to find the particle-size distribution
of soil:
(1) sieve analysis—for particle sizes larger than 0.075 mm in diameter, and
(2) hydrometer analysis—for particle sizes smaller than 0.075 mm in diameter.

Sieve analysis consists of shaking the soil sample through a set of sieves that have progressively smaller
openings. U.S. standard sieve numbers and the sizes of openings are given in the table below.
EXAMPLE:
Opening Mass of soil Cumulative mass Percent
SIEVE No.
(mm) retained (g) retained (∑) Passing (%)
4 4.75 0
10 2.0 40
20 0.850 60
40 0.425 89
60 0.25 140
80 0.18 122
100 0.15 210
200 0.075 56
PAN 0 12

A particle-size distribution curve can be used to determine the following four parameters for a given soil:
1. Effective size (D10) – this parameter is the diameter in the particle-size distribution curve that
corresponds to 10% finer. The effective size of granular soil is a good measure to estimate the
hydraulic conductivity and drainage through the soil.
2. Uniformity coefficient (Cu) – the parameter is defined as
𝐷60
𝐶𝑈 =
𝐷10
Where D60 = diameter corresponding to 60% finer.
3. Coefficient of gradation or coefficient of curvature (Cc) – the parameter is defined as
𝐷302
𝐶𝐶 =
𝐷60 𝑥 𝐷10
4. Sorting coefficient (SO) – this parameter is another measure of uniformity and is generally
encountered in geologic works and expressed as
𝐷75
𝑆𝑜 = √
𝐷25
The sorting coefficient is not frequently used as a parameter by geotechnical engineers.

The particle-size distribution curve shows not only the range of particle sizes present in a soil,
but also the type of distribution of various-size particles. Such types of distributions are
 demonstrated in figure. Curve I represent a type of soil in which most of the soil grains are the same
size. This is called poorly graded soil. Curve II represents a soil in which the particle sizes are
distributed over a wide range, termed well graded. A well-graded soil has a uniformity coefficient
greater than about 4 for gravels and 6 for sands, and a coefficient of gradation between 1 and 3 (for
gravels and sands). A soil might have a combination of two or more uniformly graded fractions.
Curve III represents such a soil. This type of soil is termed gap graded.

Hydrometer analysis is based on the principle of sedimentation of soil grains in water. When a soil
specimen is dispersed in water, the particles settle at different velocities, depending on their shape, size,
and weight, and the viscosity of the water.
B. AGGREGATE PROPERTIES
Physical Properties of Soil
1. Void Ratio (e) – the ratio of the volume of the voids to the volume of solid.
2. Porosity (n) – the ratio of the volume of the voids to the total volume of soil.
3. Degree of Saturation (S) – the ratio of the volume of water to the volume of the voids. Note that
degree of saturation must be in percent.
4. Water Content / Moisture Content (ω) – the ratio of the mass of water to the mass of solid. It is
present in percent form.
5. Unit Weight – the weight of soil per unit volume.
a. Moist / Wet / Bulk Unit Weight (γm) – the weight of moist soil per unit volume.
b. Dry Unit Weight (γd) – the weight of solid in the soil per unit volume.
c. Saturated Unit Weight (γsat) – the weight of saturated soil per unit volume. Saturated
define as the voids is fill up with water.
d. Submerged / Effective / Buoyant Unit Weight (γ’) – due to the buoyant principle it is
define as the effective weight of soil under submerged condition per unit volume.
e. Zero Air Void Unit Weight @ Dry State. (γzav) – dry unit weight of soil under zero air void
condition. Zero air void means saturated state.
6. Air content (AC) – Volume of air in the voids.
7. Air Void (AV) – volume of air in the soil.

SOLID – WATER – AIR RELATIONSHIP

The total volume of a given soil sample can be expressed as:

𝑉 = 𝑉𝑠 + 𝑉𝑣 = 𝑉𝑠 + 𝑉𝑤 + 𝑉𝑎
Where:
Vs = volume of soil solids
Vv = volume of voids
Vw = volume of water in the voids
Va = volume of air in the voids
Assume that the weight of air is negligible, the total weight of the sample as:
𝑊 = 𝑊𝑠 + 𝑊𝑤
where:
Ws = weight of soil solids
Ww = weight of water
Phase Relationships:
The water content or moisture content (w) is the ratio of the weight of water to the weight of soil solids,
i.e.
𝑊𝑤
𝑤=
𝑊𝑠
The degree of saturation or saturation ratio (S) is the ratio of the volume of water to the total volume of
void spaces, i.e.
𝑉𝑤
𝑆=
𝑉𝑣
The degree of saturation can range between the limits of zero for a completely dry soil and one (or
100%) for a fully saturated soil.
The void ratio (e) is the ratio of the volume of voids to the volume of soil solids, i.e.
𝑉𝑣
𝑒=
𝑉𝑠
The porosity (n) is the ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume of soil, i.e.
𝑉𝑣
𝑛=
𝑉
As V = VV + Vs, void ratio and porosity are interrelated as follows:
𝑛
𝑒=
1−𝑛
and
𝑒
𝑛=
1+𝑒
The specific volume (v) is the total volume which contains a unit volume of solids, i.e.
𝑉
𝑣 = =1+𝑒
𝑉𝑠
The air content or air void ratio (A) is the ratio of volume of air to the total volume of soil, i.e.
𝑉𝑎
𝐴=
𝑉
The bulk unit weight (γ) of a soil is the ratio of the total mass to the total volume, i.e.
𝑀
γ=
𝑉
The specific gravity of the soil particles (Gs) is given by
𝑀𝑠 ρ𝑠
G𝑠 = =
𝑉𝑠 ρ𝑤 ρw
where ρs is the particle density.

Other important relationships are listed below:

𝐺𝑠𝑤 = 𝑒S

𝑒 − 𝐺𝑠 𝑤
𝐴= ; 𝐴 = 𝑛(1 − 𝑆)
1 + 𝑒
 𝐺𝑠 + 𝑆𝑒
γ= γ
1 + 𝑒 𝑤
For a completely dry soil (S = 0):
𝐺𝑠 γ𝑤
γ𝑑 =
1 + 𝑒

For a completely saturated soil (S = 1):

𝐺𝑠 + 𝑒
γ𝑠𝑎𝑡 = γ
1 + 𝑒 𝑤

The relative density (ID) is used to express the relationship between the in-situ void ratio (e), or the void
ratio of a sample, and the limiting values emax and emin representing the loosest and densest possible soil
packing states respectively. The relative density is defined as:
1 1
−
𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑒 γ𝑑(𝑚𝑖𝑛) γ𝑑
I𝐷 = =
𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛 1 1
−
γ𝑑(𝑚𝑖𝑛) γ𝑑(𝑚𝑎𝑥)

Thus, the relative density of a soil in its densest possible state (e = emin) is 1 (or 100%) and in its loosest
possible state (e = emax) is 0.

Bouyant Unit Weight also known as effective unit weight or submerged unit weight, is a measure of the
effective weight of a substance when it is submerged in a fluid, especially water.
𝛾 ′ = (γ𝑠𝑎𝑡 − γ𝑤 )

For a critical hydraulic gradient: It is defined as the hydraulic gradient, where particles start to outflow
from soil samples.

Effective Stress = 0:
γ𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝐿 − γ𝑤 (𝐿 + ℎ) = 0
γ𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝐿 − γ𝑤 𝐿 − γ𝑤 ℎ = 0
(γ𝑠𝑎𝑡 − γ𝑤 )𝐿 − γ𝑤 ℎ = 0
𝛾 ′ 𝐿 = γ𝑤 ℎ

ℎ 𝛾′ 𝐺𝑆 − 1
𝑖= = =
𝐿 𝛾𝑤 1+𝑒

Sample Problem 1:
A soil sample weighs 14.46 N and has a volume of 0.000991 m3. The specific gravity is 2.65. The volume
of air is 0.000167 m3. Find the dry unit weight of the original soil sample (kN/m3). Answer: 𝟏𝟎. 𝟐𝟒
𝐤𝐍/𝐦3
Sample Problem 2.
A mold having a volume of 0.10 ft3 was filled with moist soil. The weight of the soil in the mold was
found to be 12.00 lb. The soil was oven-dried and the weight after drying was 10.50 lb. The specific
gravity of solids was known to be 2.70. Determine the water content, void ratio, porosity, degree of
saturation, total unit weight, and dry unit weight. Answer: w = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟐𝟗%, 𝐞 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟎𝟓, n = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟕𝟕, S = 𝟔𝟑.
𝟖𝟎%, γ = 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝐥𝐛/𝐟𝐭𝟑, γd = 𝟏05 𝐥𝐛/𝐟𝐭𝟑

Sample Problem 3.
The dry density of a sand with a porosity of 0.387 is 1600 kg/m3. Find the void ratio of the soil and the
specific gravity of soil solids. Answer: e: 0.631; Gs = 2.61

Sample Problem 4.
The soil sample in natural state having a volume of 0.0012m3 weighs 1.73kg. The degree of saturation
being 61.6%. After drying in an oven, the final weight of sample was 1.44kg. Find the specific gravity of
solid, void ration of the sample and the critical hydraulic gradient. Answer: Gs = 1.97; e = 0.643; i = 0.59

Sample Problem 5.
A proposed embankment fill requires 5000m3 of compaction soil. The void ratio of the compacted fill is
specific as 0.70. Three borrow pits are available as described in the following table.
What is the total cost for acquiring soil from Borrow Pit Void Ratio Cost/m3
a) Borrow Pit A A 0.85 P830
b) Borrow Pit B B 0.95 P760
c) Borrow Pit C C 1.10 P720