STM 006 | GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2

REVIEWER FOR FIRST PERIODOCAL EXAM

MODULE 1: CONTINUING THE JOURNEY TO GENERAL CHEMISTRY

• Chemistry is the study of matter — what it consists of what its properties are, and how it
changes.
• Chemistry is known central science because it links together the different fields of science.

MODULE 2: TO USE THE KINETIC MOLECULAR MODEL TO EXPLAIN PROPERTIES OF

STATES OF MATTER.

The kinetic molecular theory of matter offers a description of the microscopic properties of
atoms (or molecules) and their interactions, leading to observable macroscopic properties
(such as pressure, volume, temperature).

• THE KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY OF MATTER STATES THAT:

1) Matter is made up of particles that are constantly moving.
2) All particles have energy, but the energy varies depending on the temperature the
sample of matter is in. This in turn determines whether the substance exists in the solid,
liquid, or gaseous state. Molecules in the solid phase have the least amount of energy,
while gas particles have the greatest amount of energy.
3) The temperature of a substance is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the
particles.
4) A change in phase may occur when the
energy of the particles is changed.
5) There are spaces between particles of matter.
The average amount of empty space between
molecules gets progressively larger as a
sample of matter moves from the solid to the
liquid and gas phases.
6) There are attractive forces between
atoms/molecules, and these become stronger
as the particles move closer together. These
attractive forces are called intermolecular
forces.

MODULE 3: DESCRIBING AND DIFFERENTIATING THE TYPES OF INTERMOLECULAR

FORCES

ELECTRONEGATIVITY - Ability of an atom to attract a pair of electrons in chemical bond

FLUORINE – has the highest electronegativity with 3.98
FRANCIUM – lowest electronegativity with 0.7

INTRAMOLECULAR FORCES – bond between atoms

1) IONIC BOND complete transfer of electrons between metal (cation) to non-metals
(anion).
2) COVALENT BOND - atoms of non-metals are sharing their electrons in order to achieve
the octet configuration.
POLAR BOND - Formed when atoms of slightly different electronegativities share
electrons.
NON POLAR - Formed between same atoms and almost the same electronegativity.
3) METALLIC BOND - attraction of the mobile electrons—referred to as sea of electrons—
and the fixed positively charged metal ions.
 APPROXIMATE DIFFERENCE BOND TYPE

0 TO 0.4 NON-POLAR BOND

0.5 TO 1.9 POLAR BOND

2 OR GREATER IONIC BOND

INTERMOLECULAR FORCES – bond between molecules

1) LONDON DISPERSION - is a temporary attractive force that results when the electrons in
two adjacent atoms occupy positions that make the atoms form temporary dipoles.
FOR NON POLAR – Example – Cl molecule and Cl molecule
2) DIPOLE – DIPOLE - occur when the partial charges formed within one molecule are
attracted to an opposite partial charge in a nearby molecule.
FOR POLAR – Example – HCl molecule and HCl molecule
3) HYDROGEN BONDING - attractive force between the hydrogen attached to a highly
electronegative atom such as Nitrogen (N), Fluorine (F) and Oxygen (O).

MODULE 4: DESCRIBING THE PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS

• The liquid state of matter is an intermediate phase between solid and gas.
• Evaporation is the process of changing from a liquid or solid state into vapor.
• Vapor pressure is a measure of the tendency of a material to change into the gaseous or
vapor state, and it increases with temperature.
• Surface tension could be defined as the property of the surface of a liquid that allows it to
resist an external force, due to the cohesive nature of the water molecules.
• The boiling point of a substance is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid
equals the pressure surrounding the liquid and the liquid changes into a vapor.

RELATIONSHIP:
↑INTERMOLECULAR FORCES ↓VAPOR PRESSURE ↑BOILING POINT – stronger bonds means
dugay mag boil ug gamay ang vapor pressure (ability to change into gaseous) example: water
↓INTERMOLECULAR FORCES ↑VAPOR PRESSURE ↓BOILING POINT – weaker bond means
dali ra mag boil and taas ang vapor pressure. Example: Alcohol

MODULE 5: DIFFERENTIATING THE TYPES OF SOLID

• Solids are characterized by an extended three-dimensional arrangement of atoms.

TYPES OF SOLID
1) CRYSTALLINE SOLID - components can be arranged in a regular repeating three-
dimensional array
2) AMORPHOUS SOLID - irregular or curved surfaces, do not give well resolved x-ray
diffraction patterns, and melt over a wide range of temperature.
- Both types of solid can be determined by melting point (the point at which materials
changes from a solid to a liquid).
MODULE 7: IDENTIFYING THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF SOLUTIONS

• SOLUTION is a homogeneous mixture composed of two or more substances.

• SOLVENT is the component that is present in greater quantity, it also determines the state
of matter in which the solution exists.
• SOLUTE is the component in lesser quantity.
• CONCENTRATION refers to the amount of solute in a solution or solvent.
TWO WAYS TO COMPUTE THE CONCENTRATION OF THE SOLUTION

𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
% BY MASS = ( ) 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
% BY VOLUME = ( ) 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

MODULE 8: DISTINGUISHING THE ENERGY CHANGES IN CHEMICAL

• Exothermic- a process that releases energy in the form of heat. Example: Burning a match,
bonfire
• Endothermic - a process or reaction that absorbs energy in the form of heat. Example:
Photosynthesis, Evaporation, Melting
• The First Law of Thermodynamics states that energy can be converted from one form
to another with the interaction of heat, work and internal energy, but it cannot be created
nor destroyed, under any circumstances.
• FORMULA: △U= q + w
U = the total change in internal energy of a system
q = q is the heat exchanged between a system and its surroundings
w = w is the work done by or on the system

SIGN CONVENTIONS FOR WORK AND HEAT

PROCESS SIGN
HEAT ABSORBED BY THE SYSTEM FROM THE SURROUNDINGS (ENDOTHERMIC) +q

HEAT ABSORBED BY THE SURROUNDINGS FROM THE SYSTEM (EXOTHERMIC) -q

WORK DONE ON THE SYSTEM BY THE SURROUNDINGS +w

WORK DONE BY THE SYSTEM ON THE SURROUNDINGS -w

MODULE 9: DESCRIBING HEAT FLOW AND CALORIMETRY

• The magnitude of the heat flow by measuring the magnitude of the temperature change
the heat flow procedures.
• CALORIMETRY – measures the heat flow (the amount of heat released or absorbed during
a chemical reaction)
• HEAT FLOW FORMULA: q=mc△T
q = total heat flow
m= mass
C=specific heat,
∆T=change in temperature = Tfinal –Tinitial
• SPECIFIC HEAT - is an intensive property which refers to the heat capacity of one gram
substance.
• SPECIFIC HEAT OF WATER (COMMONLY USED) 4.184 𝐽/𝑔℃
MODULE 10: DETERMINING FACTORS AFFECTING REACTION RATE

• Reaction kinetics is the study of the rate of chemical reactions, and reaction rates can
vary greatly over a large range of time scales.
• According to the collision theory of reactivity, reactions occur when reactant molecules
“effectively collide.”
• EFFECTIVE COLLISION occur when the reactant molecules must be oriented in space
correctly
• ACTIVATION ENERGY - minimum amount of kinetic energy for an effective collision to
occur.

FOUR FACTORS AFFECTING THE REACTION RATE

1) CONCENTRATION - Increasing the concentration of one or more reactants will often

increase the rate of reaction. This occurs because a higher concentration of a reactant
will lead to more collisions of that reactant in a period.
2) PHYSICAL STATE OF THE REACTANTS AND SURFACE AREA - the rate of reaction
will be limited by the surface area of the phases that are in contact.
3) TEMPERATURE - An increase in temperature typically increases the rate of
reaction. An increase in temperature will raise the average kinetic energy of the
reactant molecules.
4) PRESENCE OF CATALYST - A catalyst is a substance that accelerates a reaction by
participating in it without being consumed.

MODULE 11: APPLYING COLLISION THEORY IN EXPLAINING CHEMICAL REACTIONS

According to the collision theory, the following criteria must be met in order for a chemical reaction
to occur:

1. Molecules must collide with sufficient energy, known as the activation energy, so that
chemical bonds can break.
2. Molecules must collide with the proper orientation.
3. A collision that meets these two criteria, and that results in a chemical reaction, is known as
a successful collision or an effective collision.