applied thermodynamics

INTRODUCTION TO FUELS

The various types of fuels like liquid, solid and gaseous fuels are available
for firing in boilers, furnaces and other combustion equipments. The
selection of right type of fuel depends on various factors such as
availability, storage, handling, pollution and landed cost of fuel. The
knowledge of the fuel properties helps in selecting the right fuel for the
right purpose and efficient use of the fuel. The following characteristics,
determined by laboratory tests, are generally used for assessing the nature
and quality of fuels.
 PROPERTIES OF LIQUID FUELS

Liquid fuels like furnace oil and LSHS are predominantly used in industrial application. The
various properties of liquid fuels are given below.

Density
This is defined as the ratio of the mass of the fuel to the volume of the fuel at a reference
temperature of 15°C. Density is measured by an instrument called hydrometer. The
knowledge of density is useful for quantity calculations and assessing ignition quality. The
unit of density is kg/m3.

Specific gravity
This is defined as the ratio of the weight of a given volume of oil to the weight of the same
volume of water at a given temperature. The density of fuel, relative to water, is called
specific gravity. The specific gravity of water is defined as 1. Since specific gravity is a ratio,
it has no units. The measurement of specific gravity is generally made by a hydrometer.
Specific gravity is used in calculations involving weights and volumes. The specific gravity of
various fuel oils are given in Table
PROPERTIES OF LIQUID FUELS
 PROPERTIES OF LIQUID FUELS
(VISCOSITY)

The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its internal resistance to flow.

Viscosity depends on temperature and decreases as the temperature
increases. Any numerical value for viscosity has no meaning unless the
temperature is also specified. Viscosity is measured in Stokes / Centistokes.
Sometimes viscosity is also quoted in Engler, Saybolt or Redwood. Each type
of oil has its own temperature - viscosity relationship. The measurement of
viscosity is made with an instrument called Viscometer. Viscosity is the most
important characteristic in the storage and use of fuel oil. It influences the
degree of pre-heat required for handling, storage and satisfactory
atomization. If the oil is too viscous, it may become difficult to pump, hard
to light the burner, and tough to operate. Poor atomization may result in the
formation of carbon deposits on the burner tips or on the walls. Therefore
pre-heating is necessary for proper atomization.
 PROPERTIES OF LIQUID FUELS

Flash Point
The flash point of a fuel is the lowest temperature at which the fuel can be heated so
that the vapour gives off flashes momentarily when an open flame is passed over it.
Flash point for furnace oil is 66°C.

Pour Point
The pour point of a fuel is the lowest temperature at which it will pour or flow when
cooled under prescribed conditions. It is a very rough indication of the lowest
temperature at which fuel oil is readily pumpable.

Specific Heat
Specific heat is the amount of kCals needed to raise the temperature of 1 kg of oil by
1°C. The unit of specific heat is kCal/kg°C. It varies from 0.22 to 0.28 depending on the
oil specific gravity. The specific heat determines how much steam or electrical energy
it takes to heat oil to a desired temperature. Light oils have a low specific heat,
whereas heavier oils have a higher specific heat.
 PROPERTIES OF LIQUID FUELS

Calorific Value
The calorific value is the measurement of heat or energy produced, and is
measured either as gross calorific value or net calorific value. The difference
being the latent heat of condensation of the water vapour produced during
the combustion process. Gross calorific value (GCV) assumes all vapour
produced during the combustion process is fully condensed. Net calorific
value (NCV) assumes the water leaves with the combustion products without
fully being condensed. Fuels should be compared based on the net calorific
value. The calorific value of coal varies considerably depending on the ash,
moisture content and the type of coal while calorific value of fuel oils are
much more consistent. The typical Gross Calorific Values of some of the
commonly used liquid fuels are given below:
TYPICAL SPECIFICATION OF FUEL OILS
 STORAGE OF FUEL OIL

It can be potentially hazardous to store furnace oil in barrels. A better practice

is to store it in cylindrical tanks, either above or below the ground. Furnace oil,
that is delivered, may contain dust, water and other contaminants. The sizing
of storage tank facility is very important. A recommended storage estimate is
to provide for at least 10 days of normal consumption. Industrial heating fuel
storage tanks are generally vertical mild steel tanks mounted above ground. It
is prudent for safety and environmental reasons to build bund walls around
tanks to contain accidental spillages. As a certain amount of settlement of
solids and sludge will occur in tanks over time, cleaning should be carried out
at regular intervals-annually for heavy fuels and every two years for light fuels.
A little care should be taken when oil is decanted from the tanker to storage
tank. All leaks from joints, flanges and pipelines must be attended at the
earliest. Fuel oil should be free from possible contaminants such as dirt, sludge
and water before it is fed to the combustion system.
 REMOVAL OF CONTAMINANTS

Furnace oil arrives at the factory site either in tank lorries by road or by rail.
Oil is then decanted into the main storage tank. To prevent contaminants
such as rags, cotton waste, loose nuts or bolts or screws entering the system
and damaging the pump, coarse strainer of 10 mesh size (not more than 3
holes per linear inch) is positioned on the entry pipe to the storage tanks.
Progressively finer strainers should be provided at various points in the oil
supply system to filter away finer contaminants such as external dust and
dirt, sludge or free carbon. It is advisable to provide these filters in duplicate
to enable one filter to be cleaned while oil supply is maintained through the
other.
REMOVAL OF CONTAMINANTS
REMOVAL OF CONTAMINANTS
 PUMPING

Heavy fuel oils are best pumped using positive displacement pumps, as they
are able to get fuel moving when it is cold. A circulation gear pump running
on LDO should give between 7000- 10000 hours of service. Diaphragm
pumps have a shorter service life, but are easier and less expensive to repair.
A centrifugal pump is not recommended, because as the oil viscosity
increases, the efficiency of the pump drops sharply and the horsepower
required increases. Light fuels are best pumped with centrifugal or turbine
pumps. When higher pressures are required, piston or diaphragm pumps
should be used.
 STORAGE TEMPERATURE AND PUMPING TEMPERATURE

The viscosity of furnace oil and LSHS increases with decrease in temperature,
which makes it difficult to pump the oil. At low ambient temperatures (below
25°C), furnace oil is not easily pumpable. To circumvent this, preheating of oil
is accomplished in two ways: (a) the entire tank may be preheated. In this
form of bulk heating, steam coils are placed at the bottom of the tank, which
is fully insulated; (b) the oil can be heated as it flows out with an outflow
heater. To reduce steam requirements, it is advisable to insulate tanks where
bulk heating is used. Bulk heating may be necessary if flow rates are high
enough to make outflow heaters of adequate capacity impractical, or when a
fuel such as Low Sulphur Heavy Stock (LSHS) is used. In the case of outflow
heating, only the oil, which leaves the tank, is heated to the pumping
temperature. The outflow heater is essentially a heat exchanger with steam
or electricity as the heating medium.
 PROPERTIES OF COAL

Coal Classification
Coal is classified into three major types namely anthracite, bituminous, and
lignite. However there is no clear demarcation between them and coal is also
further classified as semianthracite, semi-bituminous, and sub-bituminous.
Anthracite is the oldest coal from geological perspective. It is a hard coal
composed mainly of carbon with little volatile content and practically no
moisture. Lignite is the youngest coal from geological perspective. It is a soft
coal composed mainly of volatile matter and moisture content with low fixed
carbon. Fixed carbon refers to carbon in its free state, not combined with
other elements. Volatile matter refers to those combustible constituents of
coal that vaporize when coal is heated. The common coals used in Indian
industry are bituminous and sub-bituminous coal. The gradation of Indian
coal based on its calorific value is as follows:
PROPERTIES OF COAL

Normally D, E and F coal grades are available to Indian Industry.

 PROPERTIES OF COAL

The chemical composition of coal has a strong influence on its

combustibility. The properties of coal are broadly classified as

 Physical properties

 Chemical properties

Physical Properties

Heating Value:
The heating value of coal varies from coal field to coal field. The typical
GCVs for various coals are given in the Table
PROPERTIES OF COAL
 PROPERTIES OF COAL

Analysis of Coal
There are two methods: ultimate analysis and proximate analysis. The ultimate analysis
determines all coal component elements, solid or gaseous and the proximate analysis
determines only the fixed carbon, volatile matter, moisture and ash percentages. The
ultimate analysis is determined in a properly equipped laboratory by a skilled chemist,
while proximate analysis can be determined with a simple apparatus. It may be noted that
proximate has no connection with the word “approximate”.
Measurement of Moisture
Determination of moisture is carried out by placing a sample of powdered raw coal of size
200- micron size in an uncovered crucible and it is placed in the oven kept at 108±2°C
along with the lid. Then the sample is cooled to room temperature and weighed again.
The loss in weight represents moisture.
Measurement of Volatile Matter
Fresh sample of crushed coal is weighed, placed in a covered crucible, and heated in a
furnace at 900 ± 15°C. For the methodologies including that for carbon and ash, refer to IS
1350 part I:1984, part III, IV. The sample is cooled and weighed. Loss of weight represents
moisture and volatile matter. The remainder is coke (fixed carbon and ash).
 PROPERTIES OF COAL

Measurement of Carbon and Ash

The cover from the crucible used in the last test is removed and the crucible is
heated over the Bunsen burner until all the carbon is burned. The residue is
weighed, which is the incombustible ash. The difference in weight from the
previous weighing is the fixed carbon. In actual practice Fixed Carbon or FC derived
by subtracting from 100 the value of moisture, volatile matter and ash.
Proximate Analysis
Proximate analysis indicates the percentage by weight of the Fixed Carbon,
Volatiles, Ash, and Moisture Content in coal. The amounts of fixed carbon and
volatile combustible matter directly contribute to the heating value of coal. Fixed
carbon acts as a main heat generator during burning. High volatile matter content
indicates easy ignition of fuel. The ash content is important in the design of the
furnace grate, combustion volume, pollution control equipment and ash handling
systems of a furnace. A typical proximate analysis of various coal is given in the
Table
 PROPERTIES OF COAL

TYPICAL PROXIMATE ANALYSIS OF VARIOUS COALS

(IN PERCENTAGE)
 SIGNIFICANCE OF VARIOUS PARAMETERS IN
PROXIMATE ANALYSIS

(a) Fixed carbon:

Fixed carbon is the solid fuel left in the furnace after volatile matter is distilled off. It
consists mostly of carbon but also contains some hydrogen, oxygen, sulphur and
nitrogen not driven off with the gases. Fixed carbon gives a rough estimate of heating
value of coal.
(b) Volatile Matter:
Volatile matters are the methane, hydrocarbons, hydrogen and carbon monoxide,
and incombustible gases like carbon dioxide and nitrogen found in coal. Thus the
volatile matter is an index of the gaseous fuels present. Typical range of volatile
matter is 20 to 35%. Volatile Matter
• Proportionately increases flame length, and helps in easier ignition of coal.
• Sets minimum limit on the furnace height and volume.
• Influences secondary air requirement and distribution aspects.
• Influences secondary oil support
 SIGNIFICANCE OF VARIOUS PARAMETERS IN
PROXIMATE ANALYSIS

(c) Ash Content:

Ash is an impurity that will not burn. Typical range is 5 to 40%

Ash
• Reduces handling and burning capacity.
• Increases handling costs.
• Affects combustion efficiency and boiler efficiency
• Causes clinkering and slagging.

(d) Moisture Content:

Moisture in coal must be transported, handled and stored. Since it replaces

combustible matter, it decreases the heat content per kg of coal. Typical range is 0.5
to 10% Moisture
• Increases heat loss, due to evaporation and superheating of vapour
• Helps, to a limit, in binding fines.
• Aids radiation heat transfer.
 SIGNIFICANCE OF VARIOUS PARAMETERS IN
PROXIMATE ANALYSIS

(e) Sulphur Content:

Typical range is 0.5 to 0.8% normally.

Sulphur
• Affects clinkering and slagging tendencies
• Corrodes chimney and other equipment such as air heaters and economisers
• Limits exit flue gas temperature.

Chemical Properties

Ultimate Analysis:
The ultimate analysis indicates the various elemental chemical constituents such as
Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Sulphur, etc. It is useful in determining the quantity of air
required for combustion and the volume and composition of the combustion gases.
This information is required for the calculation of flame temperature and the flue
duct design etc. Typical ultimate analyses of various coals are given in the Table
 SIGNIFICANCE OF VARIOUS PARAMETERS IN
PROXIMATE ANALYSIS

TYPICAL ULTIMATE ANALYSIS OF COALS

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ULTIMATE ANALYSIS

AND PROXIMATE ANALYSIS
 PREPARATION OF COAL

Preparation of coal prior to feeding into the boiler is an important step for achieving good
combustion. Large and irregular lumps of coal may cause the following problems:
1. Poor combustion conditions and inadequate furnace temperature.
2. Higher excess air resulting in higher stack loss.
3. Increase of un burnts in the ash.
4. Low thermal efficiency.
(a) Sizing of Coal
Proper coal sizing is one of the key measures to ensure efficient combustion. Proper coal sizing,
with specific relevance to the type of firing system, helps towards even burning, reduced ash
losses and better combustion efficiency. Coal is reduced in size by crushing and pulverizing. Pre-
crushed coal can be economical for smaller units, especially those which are stoker fired. In a coal
handling system, crushing is limited to a top size of 6 or 4 mm. The devices most commonly used
for crushing are the rotary breaker, the roll crusher and the hammer mill. It is necessary to screen
the coal before crushing, so that only oversized coal is fed to the crusher. This helps to reduce
power consumption in the crusher. Recommended practices in coal crushing are:
1. Incorporation of a screen to separate fines and small particles to avoid extra fine generation in
crushing.
2. Incorporation of a magnetic separator to separate iron pieces in coal, which may damage the crusher.
 PREPARATION OF COAL

PROPER SIZE OF COAL FOR VARIOUS TYPES OF FIRING SYSTEM

 PREPARATION OF COAL

(b) Conditioning of Coal

The fines in coal present problems in combustion on account of segregation
effects. Segregation of fines from larger coal pieces can be reduced to a
great extent by conditioning coal with water. Water helps fine particles to
stick to the bigger lumps due to surface tension of the moisture, thus
stopping fines from falling through grate bars or being carried away by the
furnace draft. While tempering the coal, care should be taken to ensure
that moisture addition is uniform and preferably done in a moving or falling
stream of coal. If the percentage of fines in the coal is very high, wetting of
coal can decrease the percentage of unburnt carbon and the excess air level
required to be supplied for combustion.
 PREPARATION OF COAL

EXTENT OF WETTING: FINES VS SURFACE MOISTURE IN COAL

 PREPARATION OF COAL

(c) Blending of Coal

In case of coal lots having excessive fines, it is advisable to blend the predominantly
lumped coal with lots containing excessive fines. Coal blending may thus help to limit
the extent of fines in coal being fired to not more than 25%. Blending of different
qualities of coal may also help to supply a uniform coal feed to the boiler.
PROXIMATE ANALYSIS OF TYPICAL COAL
 PREPARATION OF COAL

ULTIMATE ANALYSIS OF VARIOUS COALS

 PROPERTIES OF GASEOUS FUELS

Gaseous fuels in common use are liquefied petroleum gases (LPG), Natural
gas, producer gas, blast furnace gas, coke oven gas etc. The calorific value
of gaseous fuel is expressed in Kilocalories per normal cubic meter
(kCal/Nm3) i.e. at normal temperature (20°C) and pressure (760 mm Hg).

Calorific Value
Since most gas combustion appliances cannot utilize the heat content of
the water vapour, gross calorific value is of little interest. Fuel should be
compared based on the net calorific value. This is especially true for
natural gas, since increased hydrogen content results in high water
formation during combustion.
 PROPERTIES OF GASEOUS FUELS

Typical physical and chemical properties of various gaseous fuels are

given in Table
 NATURAL GAS

Methane is the main constituent of Natural gas and accounting for about 95% of
the total volume. Other components are: Ethane, Propane, Butane, Pentane,
Nitrogen, Carbon Dioxide, and traces of other gases. Very small amounts of sulphur
compounds are also present. Since methane is the largest component of natural
gas, generally properties of methane are used when comparing the properties of
natural gas to other fuels. Natural gas is a high calorific value fuel requiring no
storage facilities. It mixes with air readily and does not produce smoke or soot. It
has no sulphur content. It is lighter than air and disperses into air easily in case of
leak. A typical comparison of carbon contents in oil, coal and gas is given in the
table
COMPARISON OF CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF
VARIOUS FUELS
 PROPERTIES OF AGRO RESIDUES

The use of locally available agro residues is on the rise. This includes rice husk,
coconut shells, groundnut shells, Coffee husk, Wheat stalk etc. The properties of a
few of them are given in the table
PROXIMATE ANALYSIS OF TYPICAL AGRO RESIDUES
 PROPERTIES OF AGRO RESIDUES

ULTIMATE ANALYSIS OF TYPICAL AGRO RESIDUES

 COMBUSTION

PRINCIPLE OF COMBUSTION
Combustion refers to the rapid oxidation of fuel accompanied by the production of
heat, or heat and light. Complete combustion of a fuel is possible only in the
presence of an adequate supply of oxygen. Oxygen (O2) is one of the most common
elements on earth making up 20.9% of our air. Rapid fuel oxidation results in large
amounts of heat. Solid or liquid fuels must be changed to a gas before they will
burn. Usually heat is required to change liquids or solids into gases. Fuel gases will
burn in their normal state if enough air is present. Most of the 79% of air (that is not
oxygen) is nitrogen, with traces of other elements. Nitrogen is considered to be a
temperature reducing dilutant that must be present to obtain the oxygen required
for combustion. Nitrogen reduces combustion efficiency by absorbing heat from the
combustion of fuels and diluting the flue gases. This reduces the heat available for
transfer through the heat exchange surfaces. It also increases the volume of
combustion by-products, which then have to travel through the heat exchanger and
up the stack faster to allow the introduction of additional fuel air mixture.
 COMBUSTION

This nitrogen also can combine with oxygen (particularly at high flame
temperatures) to produce oxides of nitrogen (NOx), which are toxic
pollutants. Carbon, hydrogen and sulphur in the fuel combine with oxygen in
the air to form carbon dioxide, water vapour and sulphur dioxide, releasing
8084 kCals, 28922 kCals & 2224 kCals of heat respectively. Under certain
conditions, Carbon may also combine with Oxygen to form Carbon
Monoxide, which results in the release of a smaller quantity of heat (2430
kCals/kg of carbon) Carbon burned to CO2 will produce more heat per
pound of fuel than when CO or smoke are produced.
 COMBUSTION

Each kilogram of CO formed means a loss of 5654 kCal of heat.(8084-2430).

 3 T’S OF COMBUSTION

The objective of good combustion is to release all of the heat in the fuel.
This is accomplished by controlling the “three T’s” of combustion which are
(1) Temperature high enough to ignite and maintain ignition of the fuel, (2)
Turbulence or intimate mixing of the fuel and oxygen, and (3) Time
sufficient for complete combustion. Commonly used fuels like natural gas
and propane generally consist of carbon and hydrogen. Water vapor is a by-
product of burning hydrogen. This robs heat from the flue gases, which
would otherwise be available for more heat transfer. Natural gas contains
more hydrogen and less carbon per kg than fuel oils and as such produces
more water vapor. Consequently, more heat will be carried away by exhaust
while firing natural gas.
 3 T’S OF COMBUSTION

Too much, or too little fuel with the available combustion air may potentially result
in unburned fuel and carbon monoxide generation. A very specific amount of O2 is
needed for perfect combustion and some additional (excess) air is required for
ensuring complete combustion. However, too much excess air will result in heat and
efficiency losses.
 COMBUSTION OF OIL

Heating Oil to Correct Viscosity

When atomizing oil, it is necessary to heat it enough to get the desired
viscosity. This temperature varies slightly for each grade of oil. The lighter
oils do not usually require pre-heating. Typical viscosity at the burner tip (
for LAP, MAP & HAP burners) for furnace oil should be 100 Redwood
seconds-1 which would require heating the oil to about 105°C.

Rules for combustion of oil

1. Atomize the oil completely to produce a fine uniform spray
2. Mix the air and fuel thoroughly
3. Introduce enough air for combustion, but limit the excess air to a
maximum of 15%
4. Keep the burners in good condition
 STOICHIOMETRIC COMBUSTION

The efficiency of a boiler or furnace depends on efficiency of the combustion system.

The amount of air required for complete combustion of the fuel depends on the
elemental constituents of the fuel that is Carbon, Hydrogen, and Sulphur etc. This
amount of air is called stoichiometric air. For ideal combustion process for burning
one kg of a typical fuel oil containing 86% Carbon, 12% Hydrogen, 2% Sulphur,
theoretically required quantity of air is 14.1 kg. This is the minimum air that would
be required if mixing of fuel and air by the burner and combustion is perfect. The
combustion products are primarily Carbon Dioxide (CO2), water vapor (H2O) and
Sulphur Dioxide (SO2), which pass through the chimney along with the Nitrogen (N2)
in the air,. After surrendering useful heat in the heat absorption area of a furnace or
boiler, the combustion products or fuel gases leave the system through the chimney,
carrying away a significant quantity of heat with them.
 CALCULATION OF STOICHIOMETRIC AIR

The specifications of furnace oil from lab analysis is given below:

GCV of fuel: 10880 kCal/kg

 CALCULATION FOR REQUIREMENT OF THEORETICAL
AMOUNT OF AIR

Considering a sample of 100 kg of furnace oil. The chemical reactions are:

CALCULATION FOR REQUIREMENT OF THEORETICAL
AMOUNT OF AIR
CALCULATION FOR REQUIREMENT OF THEORETICAL
AMOUNT OF AIR
CALCULATION OF THEORETICAL CO2 CONTENT IN
FLUE GASES
CALCULATION OF CONSTITUENTS OF FLUE GAS
WITH EXCESS AIR
CALCULATION OF CONSTITUENTS OF FLUE GAS
WITH EXCESS AIR
CALCULATION OF CONSTITUENTS OF FLUE GAS
WITH EXCESS AIR
 VAPOR POWER CYCLES

We know that the Carnot cycle is most efficient cycle operating between
two specified temperature limits. However; the Carnot cycle is not a suitable
model for steam power cycle since:

 The turbine has to handle steam with low quality which will cause
erosion and wear in turbine blades.

 It is impractical to design a compressor that handles two phase.

 It is difficult to control the condensation process that precisely as to end

up with the desired at point 4.
 VAPOR POWER CYCLES

Other issues include: isentropic compression to extremely high pressure and

isothermal heat transfer at variable pressures. Thus, the Carnot cycle cannot be
approximated in actual devices and is not a realistic model for vapor power cycles.
 IDEAL RANKINE CYCLE

The Rankine cycle is the ideal cycle for vapor power plants; it includes the
following four reversible processes:
IDEAL RANKINE CYCLE
 ENERGY ANALYSIS FOR THE CYCLE

All four components of the Rankine cycle are steady-state steady-flow devices. The
potential and kinetic energy effects can be neglected. The first law per unit mass of
steam can be written as:
 DEVIATION OF ACTUAL VAPOR POWER CYCLE FROM
IDEAL CYCLE

As a result of irreversibilities in various components such as fluid friction and heat

loss to the surroundings, the actual cycle deviates from the ideal Rankine cycle. The
deviations of actual pumps and turbines from the isentropic ones can be
accounted for by utilizing isentropic efficiencies defined as:
DEVIATION OF ACTUAL VAPOR POWER CYCLE FROM
IDEAL CYCLE
 INCREASING THE EFFICIENCY OF RANKINE CYCLE

We know that the efficiency is proportional to:

That is, to increase the efficiency one should increase the average temperature at
which heat is transferred to the working fluid in the boiler, and/or decrease the
average temperature at which heat is rejected from the working fluid in the
condenser.
 DECREASING THE OF CONDENSER PRESSURE (LOWER TL)

Lowering the condenser pressure will increase the area enclosed by the cycle on a
T-s diagram which indicates that the net work will increase. Thus, the thermal
efficiency of the cycle will be increased.
 SUPERHEATING THE STEAM TO HIGH TEMPERATURES
(INCREASE Th)

Superheating the steam will increase the net work output and the efficiency of the
cycle. It also decreases the moisture contents of the steam at the turbine exit. The
temperature to which steam can be superheated is limited by metallurgical
considerations (~ 620°C).
 INCREASING THE BOILER PRESSURE (INCREASE TH)

Increasing the operating pressure of the boiler leads to an increase in the

temperature at which heat is transferred to the steam and thus raises the
efficiency of the cycle.
 THE IDEAL REHEAT RANKINE CYCLE

To take advantage of the increased efficiencies at higher boiler pressure without

facing the excessive moisture at the final stages of the turbine, reheating is used. In
the ideal reheating cycle, the expansion process takes place in two stages, i.e., the
high-pressure and low-pressure turbines.
THE IDEAL REHEAT RANKINE CYCLE
 THE IDEAL REGENERATIVE RANKINE CYCLE

The regeneration process in steam power plants is accomplished by extracting (or

bleeding) steam from turbine at various stages and feed that steam in heat
exchanger where the feedwater is heated. These heat exchangers are called
regenerator or feedwater heater (FWH). FWH also help removing the air that leaks
in at the condenser (deaerating the feedwater). There are two types of FWH’s, open
and closed.
OPEN (DIRECT‐CONTACT) FEEDWATER HEATERS

An open FWH is basically a mixing chamber where the steam extracted from the
turbine mixes with the feedwater exiting the pump. Ideally, the mixture leaves the
heater as a saturated liquid at the heater pressure.
OPEN (DIRECT‐CONTACT) FEEDWATER HEATERS
OPEN (DIRECT‐CONTACT) FEEDWATER HEATERS
 CLOSED FEEDWATER HEATERS

In closed FWH, heat is transferred from the extracted steam to the feedwater
without any mixing taking place. Thus; two streams can be at different pressures,
since they don’t mix. In an ideal closed FWH, the feedwater is heated to the exit
temperature of the extracted steam, which ideally leaves the heater as a saturated
liquid at the extraction pressure.
IDEAL REGENERATIVE RANKINE CYCLE WITH A CLOSED FWH.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN OPEN FWH AND CLOSED FWH
 COGENERATION

Many system and industries require energy input in the form of heat, called process
heat. Some industries such as chemical, pulp and paper rely heavily on process
heat. The process heat is typically supplied by steam at 5 to 7 atm and 150 to 200 C.
These plants also require large amount of electric power. Therefore, it makes
economical and engineering sense to use the already-existing work potential (in the
steam entering the condenser) to use as process heat. This is called cogeneration.
 COMBINED GAS‐VAPOR POWER CYCLE

Gas-turbine cycles typically operate at considerably higher temperatures

than steam cycles. The maximum fluid temperature at the turbine inlet is
about 620C for modern steam power plants, but over 1425C for gas-
turbine power plants. It is over 1500C at the burner exit of turbojet
engines. It makes engineering sense to take advantage of the very
desirable characteristics of the gas-turbine cycle at high-temperature and
to use the high temperature exhaust gases as the energy source for the
bottoming cycle as a steam power cycle. This is called combined cycle.
Combined cycles can achieve high thermal efficiencies, some of recent
ones have η about 60%.
BRAYTON CYCLE
BRAYTON CYCLE
 BRAYTON CYCLE

 Two const-P processes (combustor, and approximated condensed process) +

two isentropic processes (compressor, turbine)

 Rankine cycle using a single phase, gaseous working fluid –Brayton cycle

 Ideal cycle for the simple gas turbine

BRAYTON CYCLE
GAS-TURBINE REGENERATORTURBINE CYCLE WITH
A REGENERATOR
GAS-TURBINE REGENERATORTURBINE CYCLE WITH
A REGENERATOR
ERICSSON CYCLE
JET PROPULSION
 RECIPROCATING ENGINE POWER CYCLES
••OTTO CYCLE
••DIESEL CYCLE
••STIRLING CYCLE

SOME DEFINITIONS AND TERMS

Bore B : cylinder diameter

Crank angle
TDC : Top dead center
BDC : bottom dead center
Clearance volume
Displacement volume
Compression ratio
Air--fuel ratio
Mean effective pressure (mep))
 RECIPROCATING ENGINE POWER CYCLES
••OTTO CYCLE
••DIESEL CYCLE
••STIRLING CYCLE

SOME DEFINITIONS AND TERMS

THE OTTO CYCLE
 THE OTTO CYCLE

THERMAL EFFICIENCY OF THE OTTO CYCLE AS A FUNCTION OF COMPRESSION RATIO

THE OTTO CYCLE
THE DIESEL CYCLE
(COMPRESSION IGNITION ––CI ENGINE)
THE DIESEL CYCLE
(COMPRESSION IGNITION ––CI ENGINE)
STIRLING CYCLE
STIRLING CYCLE
VAPOR-COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION CYCLE
VAPOR-COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION CYCLE
VAPOR-COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION CYCLE
 VAPOR-COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION CYCLE

WORKING FLUIDS (REFRIGERANTS)

DEVIATION OF THE ACTUAL VAPOR--COMPRESSOR
REFRIGERATION CYCLE FROM IDEAL CYCLE
DEVIATION OF THE ACTUAL VAPOR--COMPRESSOR
REFRIGERATION CYCLE FROM IDEAL CYCLE
AMMONIA ABSORPTION REFRIGERATION CYCLE
THE AIR-STANDARD REFRIGERATION CYCLE
THE AIR-STANDARD REFRIGERATION CYCLE
THE AIR-STANDARD REFRIGERATION CYCLE
(FOR AIRCRAFT COOLING)
COMBINED BRAYTON/RANKINE CYCLE
POWER SYSTEM
COMBINED-CYCLE POWER AND REFRIGERATION
SYSTEM
 What is Psychometric
The behavior of mixtures of air and water vapor
under varying conditions of heat

Enthalpy = Total heat in the air = Sensible plus Latent

heat
Sensible Heat – Changes in temperature that
do not alter the moisture content of air

Latent Heat – Related to level of moisture in

the air
 The Psychrometric Chart – an Overview

Before we proceed further in our study, let’s learn or

refresh regarding the Psychrometric chart. The following
is a summary of the major elements on the chart.

•Constant Dry bulb Temperature: Vertical Lines

•Constant Dew Point and Humidity Ratio: Horizontal

Lines

•Constant Wet bulb temperature: Upward left sloping

lines

•Relative humidity: Curving lines (100% line is the

saturation curve or correlates with Dew Point.
 The Psychrometric Chart – an Overview

•Constant specific volume of dry air: Nearly-vertical

sloping lines

•Enthalpy or total heat: Staggered scale left of

saturation curve and left sloping Lines

•Humidity Ratio: Right hand scale, grains of

moisture/pound of dry air

•Saturation Curve: 100% RH Curve (or the point at

which an air mixture can hold no additional moisture at
a given temperature); temperature on the curve is the
Dew Point
Latent versus Sensible Changes

In the next graph, let’s look at changes in

Latent versus Sensible changes. Latent
changes move in the “Y” axis (associated
with moisture content changes), and
Sensible changes move in the “X” axis
(associated with temperature but not
moisture content changes.)
AIR-CONDITIONING PROCESSES
Maintaining a living space or an industrial facility at the
desired temperature and humidity requires some processes
called air- conditioning processes.

These processes include simple heating (raising the

temperature),simple cooling (lowering the temperature),
humidifying (adding moisture), and dehumidifying (removing
moisture).

Sometimes two or more of these processes are needed to

bring the air to a desired temperature and humidity level. Air
is commonly heated & humidified in winter and cooled &
dehumidified in the summer time
VARIOUS PROCESSES.
Gas Mixture - Dalton’s Model
Partial Pressures
Each gas existed alone at the mixture temperature and
volume.
 Dalton’s Law

Def:

Mole Fraction = mols of one substance = X

total moles
(XA + XB +XC =1)
Partial Pressure = pressure exerted by only
one gas in a mixture.
PA = nARuT/V or PA = XAPTOT
 DRY AND ATMOSPHERIC AIR

Atmospheric air: Air in the atmosphere containing some

water vapor (or moisture).

Dry air: Air that contains no water vapor. Water vapor in

the air plays a major role in human comfort. Therefore, it
is an important consideration in air-conditioning
applications.

Water vapor in air behaves as if it existed alone and

obeys the ideal-gas relation Pv = RT. Then the
atmospheric air can be treated as an ideal-gas mixture:
Pa = Partial pressure of dry air
Pv = Partial pressure of vapor (vapor pressure)
SPECIFIC AND RELATIVE HUMIDITY
OF AIR
DEW-POINT TEMPERATURE

Dew-point temperature Tdp:

The temperature at which condensation

begins when the air is cooled at
constant pressure (i.e., the saturation
temperature of water corresponding to
the vapor pressure.)
ADIABATIC SATURATION TEMPERATURE
AND WET-BULB TEMPERATURE
The specific humidity (and relative humidity)
of air can be determined from these
equations by measuring the pressure and
temperature of air at the inlet and the exit
of an adiabatic saturator.
The adiabatic saturation
process is not practical. To
determine the absolute
and relative humidity of
air, a more practical
approach is to use a
thermometer whose bulb
is covered with a cotton
wick saturated with water
and to blow air over the
wick. The temperature
measured is the wet-bulb
temperature Twb and it is
commonly used in A-C
applications.
 THE PSYCHROMETRIC CHART

Psychrometric charts: Present moist air properties in a convenient form. They

are used extensively in A-C applications. The psychrometric chart serves as a
valuable aid in visualizing the A-C processes such as heating, cooling, and
humidification.
BREAKDOWN OF THE LINES
 AIR-CONDITIONING PROCESSES

Maintaining a living space or an industrial

facility at the desired temperature and
humidity requires some processes called
air-conditioning processes.
These processes include simple heating
(raising the temperature), simple cooling
(lowering the temperature), humidifying
(adding moisture), and dehumidifying
(removing moisture).
Sometimes two or more of these
processes are needed to bring the air to a
desired temperature and humidity
level.
Air is commonly heated and humidified
in winter and cooled and dehumidified
in summer.
 SIMPLE HEATING AND COOLING

Many residential heating systems consist of a stove, a heat pump, or an electric resistance
heater. The air in these systems is heated by circulating it through a duct that contains the
tubing for the hot gases or the electric resistance wires. Cooling can be accomplished by
passing the air over some coils through which a refrigerant or chilled water flows.
Heating and cooling appear as a horizontal line since no moisture is added to or removed from
the air.
 HEATING WITH HUMIDIFICATION

Problems with the low relative humidity resulting from simple heating can
be eliminated by humidifying the heated air. This is accomplished by passing
the air first through a heating section and then through a humidifying
section.
 COOLING WITH DEHUMIDIFICATION

The specific humidity of air remains constant during a simple cooling process, but its relative
humidity increases. If the relative humidity reaches undesirably high levels, it may be necessary
to remove some moisture from the air, that is, to dehumidify it. This requires cooling the air
below its dew-point temperature.
In desert (hot and dry) climates, we can avoid the high cost of conventional
cooling by using evaporative coolers, also known as swamp coolers. As water
evaporates, the latent heat of vaporization is absorbed from the water body
and the surrounding air. As a result, both the water and the air are cooled
during the process.

evaporative cooling.
 EVAPORATIVE COOLING

This process is essentially identical to adiabatic saturation process.

 ADIABATIC MIXING OF AIRSTREAMS

Many A-C applications require the mixing of two

airstreams. This is particularly true for large
buildings, most production and process plants, and
hospitals, which require that the conditioned air be
mixed with a certain fraction of fresh outside air
before it is routed into the living space.
 WET COOLING TOWERS

Power plants, large air-conditioning

systems, and some industries generate
large quantities of waste heat that is
often rejected to cooling water from
nearby lakes or rivers. In some cases,
however, the cooling water supply is
limited or thermal pollution is a serious
concern. In such cases, the waste heat
must be rejected to the atmosphere,
with cooling water recirculating and
serving as a transport medium for heat
transfer between the source and the
sink (the atmosphere). One way of
achieving this is through the use of wet
cooling towers. A wet cooling tower is
essentially a semi-enclosed evaporative
cooler.
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
FUNDAMENTAL EQUATIONS FOR
COMPRESSIBLE FLOW
FUNDAMENTAL EQUATIONS FOR
COMPRESSIBLE FLOW
FUNDAMENTAL EQUATIONS FOR
COMPRESSIBLE FLOW
CONTINUITY EQUATION
CONTINUITY EQUATION
CONTINUITY EQUATION
CONTINUITY EQUATION
MACH NUMBER
MACH NUMBER
 COMPRESSIBLE FLOW REGIMES

In order to illustrate the flow regimes in a compressible medium, let us

consider the flow over an aerodynamic body.
The flow is uniform far away from the body with free stream velocity (V∞)
while the speed of sound in the uniform stream is (a∞)
Then, the free stream Mach number becomes M∞ = (V∞) /(a∞) . The
streamlines can be drawn as the flow passes over the body and the local
Mach number can also vary along the streamlines. Let us consider the
following distinct flow regimes commonly dealt with in compressible
medium.
 SUBSONIC FLOW

It is a case in which an airfoil is placed in a free stream flow and the local
Mach number is less than unity everywhere in the flow field
The flow is characterized by smooth streamlines with continuous varying
properties. Initially, the streamlines are straight in the free stream, but
begin to deflect as they approach the body. The flow expands as it passed
over the airfoil and the local Mach number on the top surface of the body is
more than the free stream value. Moreover, the local Mach number M in
the surface of the airfoil remains always less than 1.
when the free stream Mach number M∞ is sufficiently less than 1. This
regime is defined as subsonic flow which falls in the range of free stream
Mach number less than 0.8 i.e. M∞ ≤ 0.8
 TRANSONIC FLOW

If the free stream Mach number increases but remains in the subsonic
range close to 1, then the flow expansion over the air foil leads to
supersonic region locally on its surface. Thus, the entire regions on the
surface are considered as mixed flow in which the local Mach number is
either less or more than 1 and thus called as sonic pockets
The phenomena of sonic pocket is initiated as soon as the local Mach
number reaches 1 and subsequently terminates in the downstream with a
shock wave across which there is discontinuous and sudden change in flow
properties. If the free stream Mach number is slightly above unity
the shock pattern will move towards the trailing edge and a second shock
wave appears in the leading edge which is called as bow shock. In front of
this bow shock, the streamlines are straight and parallel with a uniform
supersonic free stream Mach number. After passing through the bow
shock, the flow becomes subsonic close to the free stream value.
Eventually, it further expands over the airfoil
 TRANSONIC FLOW

surface to supersonic values and finally terminates with trailing edge shock
in the downstream. The mixed flow patterns sketched in Figs.
(b & c), is defined as the transonic regime.
 SUPERSONIC FLOW

In a flow field, if the Mach number is more than 1 everywhere in the

domain, then it defined as supersonic flow. In order to minimize the drag, all
aerodynamic bodies in a supersonic flow, are generally considered to be
sharp edged tip. Here, the flow field is characterized by straight, oblique
shock as shown in Fig. (d)
The stream lines ahead of the shock the streamlines are straight, parallel
and horizontal. Behind the oblique shock, the streamlines remain straight
and parallel but take the direction of wedge surface. The flow is supersonic
both upstream and downstream of the oblique shock. However, in some
exceptional strong oblique shocks, the flow in the downstream may be
subsonic.
 HYPERSONIC FLOW

When the free stream Mach number is increased to higher supersonic

speeds, the oblique shock moves closer to the body surface (Fig. (e) ). At the
same time, the pressure, temperature and density across the shock increase
explosively. So, the flow field between the shock and body becomes hot
enough to ionize the gas. These effects of thin shock layer, hot and
chemically reacting gases and many other complicated flow features are the
characteristics of hypersonic flow. In reality, these special characteristics
associated with hypersonic flows appear gradually as the free stream Mach
numbers is increased beyond 5.
As a rule of thumb, the compressible flow regimes are classified as below;
 RAREFIED AND FREE MOLECULAR FLOW

In general, a gas is composed of large number of discrete atoms and

molecules and all move in a random fashion with frequent collisions.
However, all the fundamental equations are based on overall macroscopic
behavior where the continuum assumption is valid. If the mean distance
between atoms/molecules between the collisions is large enough to be
comparable in same order of magnitude as that of characteristics dimension
of the flow, then it is said to be low density/rarefied flow. Under extreme
situations, the mean free path is much larger than the characteristic
dimension of the flow. Such flows are defined as free molecular flows. These
are the special cases occurring in flight at very high altitudes (beyond 100
km) and some laboratory devices such as electron beams.
 MACH WAVES

Consider an aerodynamic body moving with certain velocity (V) in a still air.
When the pressure at the surface of the body is greater than that of the
surrounding air, it results an infinitesimal compression wave that moves at
speed of sound (a). These disturbances in the medium spread out from the
body and become progressively weaker away from the body. If the air has to
pass smoothly over the surface of the body, the disturbances must ‘warn’
the still air, about the approach of the body.
Now, let us analyze two situations: (a) the body is moving at subsonic
speed(V<a; M<1); (b) the body is moving at supersonic speed. (V>a; M>1);
 MACH WAVES

Case 1.
 MACH WAVES

Case 2.

Consider the case, when the body is moving at supersonic speed

(V>a;M>1). With a similar manner, the sound waves are represented by
circle of radius(at,2at,3at………so on) after different time(t) intervals. By
this time, the body would have moved to a different location much faster
from its initial position. At any point of time, the location of the body is
always outside the family of circles of sound waves. The pressure
disturbances created by the body always lags behind the body that
created the disturbances. In other words, the information reaches the
surrounding
MACH WAVES
 MACH WAVES

Some silent features of a Mach wave are listed below;

- The series of wave fronts form a disturbance envelope given by a

straight line which is tangent to the family of circles. It will be seen that
all the disturbance waves lie within a cone having a vertex/apex at the
body at time considered. The locus of all the leading surfaces of the
waves of this cone is known as Mach cone.

- All disturbances confine inside the Mach cone extending downstream of

the moving body is called as zone of action. The region outside the
Mach cone and extending upstream is known as zone of silence. The
pressure disturbances are largely concentrated in the neighborhood of
the Mach cone that forms the outer limit of the zone of action
MACH WAVES
 SHOCK WAVES

the flow medium gets compressed at a very short distance ahead of the
body in a very thin region that may be comparable to the mean free path of
the molecules in the medium. Since, these compression waves propagate
upstream, so they tend to merge as shock wave. Ahead of the shock wave,
the flow has no idea of presence of the body and immediately behind the
shock; the flow is subsonic
The thermodynamic definition of a shock wave may be written as “the
instantaneous compression of the gas”. The energy for compressing the
medium, through a shock wave is obtained from the kinetic energy of the
flow upstream the shock wave. The reduction in kinetic energy is accounted
as heating of the gas to a static temperature above that corresponding to
the isentropic compression value. Consequently, in flowing through the
shock wave, the gas experiences a decrease in its available energy and
accordingly, an increase in entropy. So, the compression through a shock
wave is considered as an irreversible process.
SHOCK WAVES
 NORMAL SHOCK WAVES

A normal shock wave is one of the situations where the flow properties
change drastically in one direction. The shock wave stands perpendicular
to the flow as shown in Fig. The quantitative analysis of the changes across
a normal shock wave involves the determination of flow properties. All
conditions of are known ahead of the shock and the unknown flow
properties are to be determined after the shock. There is no heat added or
taken away as the flow traverses across the normal shock. Hence, the flow
across the shock wave is adiabatic(q=0).
NORMAL SHOCK WAVES
 ENTROPY ACROSS A NORMAL SHOCK

The compression through a shock wave is considered as irreversible

process leading to an increase in entropy. The change in entropy can be
written as a function of static pressure and static temperature ratios
across the normal shock.

Mathematically, it can be seen that the entropy change across a normal

shock is also a function of the upstream Mach number. The second law
of thermodynamics puts the limit that ‘entropy’ must increase
for a process to occur in a certain direction.
 ENTROPY ACROSS A NORMAL SHOCK

The entropy change across a normal shock can also be calculated from
another simple way by expressing the thermodynamic relation in terms of
total pressure. Referring to Fig it is seen that the discontinuity occurs only
in the thin region across the normal shock. If the fluid elements is brought
to rest isentropically from its real state (for both upstream and downstream
conditions), then they will reach an imaginary state ‘1a and 2a’. The
expression for entropy change between the imaginary states can be written
as,
 OBLIQUE SHOCK WAVE

The normal shock waves are straight in which the flow before and after the
wave is normal to the shock. It is considered as a special case in the general
family of oblique shock waves that occur in supersonic flow. In general,
oblique shock waves are straight but inclined at an angle to the upstream
flow and produce a change in flow direction an oblique shock generally
occurs, when a supersonic flow is ‘turned into itself” Here, a supersonic flow
is allowed to pass over a surface, which is inclined at an angle(θ) to the
horizontal. The flow streamlines are deflected upwards and aligned along
the surface. Since, the upstream flow is supersonic; the streamlines are
adjusted in the downstream an oblique shock wave angle (β) with the
horizontal such that they are parallel to the surface in the downstream. All
the streamlines experience same deflection angle across the oblique shock.
OBLIQUE SHOCK WAVE
 OBLIQUE EXPANSION WAVES

Another class of two dimensional waves occurring in supersonic flow shows

the opposite effects of oblique shock. Such types of waves are known as
expansion waves. When the supersonic flow is “turned away from itself”,
Here, the flow is allowed to pass over a surface which is inclined at an angle
(θ) to the horizontal and all the flow streamlines are deflected downwards.
The change in flow direction takes place across an expansion fan centered at
point ‘A’. The flow streamlines are smoothly curved till the downstream flow
becomes parallel to the wall surface behind the point ‘A’. Here, the flow
properties change smoothly through the expansion fan except at point ‘A’. An
infinitely strong oblique expansion wave may be called as a Mach wave. An
expansion wave emanating from a sharp convex corner is known as a
centered expansion which is commonly known as Prandtl-Meyer expansion
wave. Few features of PM expansion waves are as follows;
 OBLIQUE EXPANSION WAVES

- Streamlines through the expansion wave are smooth curved

lines.

- The expansion of the flow takes place though an infinite

number of Mach waves emitting from the center ‘A’. It is
bounded by forward and rearward Mach lines. These Mach lines
are defined by Mach angles i.e.
 OBLIQUE EXPANSION WAVES

- The expansion takes place through a continuous succession of Mach

waves such that there is no change in entropy for each Mach wave. Thus,
the expansion process is treated as isentropic.
- The Mach number increases while the static properties such as pressure,
temperature and density decrease during the expansion process.
 INTRODUCTION TO HYPERSONIC FLOW

The hypersonic flows are different from the conventional regimes of

supersonic flows. As a rule of thumb, when the Mach number is greater
than 5, the flow is classified as hypersonic. However, the flow does not
change its feature all of a sudden during this transition process. So, the
more appropriate definition of hypersonic flow would be regime of the flow
where certain physical flow phenomena become more important with
increase in the Mach number. One of the physical meanings may be given
to the Mach number as the measure of the ordered motion of the gas to
the random thermal motion of the molecules. In other words, it is the ratio
of ordered energy to the random energy as given in Eq.
 INTRODUCTION TO HYPERSONIC FLOW

The study/research on hypersonic flows revels many exciting and unknown

flow features of aerospace vehicles in the twenty-first century. The
presence of special features in a hypersonic flow is highly dependent on
type of trajectory, configuration of the vehicle design, mission requirement
that are decided by the nature of hypersonic atmosphere encountered by
the flight vehicle. Therefore, the hypersonic flight vehicles are classified in
four different types, based on the design constraints imposed from mission
specifications.
 Reentry vehicles (uses the rocket propulsion system)
 Cruise and acceleration vehicle (air-breathing propulsion such as
ramjet/scramjet)
 Reentry vehicles (uses both air-breathing and rocket propulsion)
 Aero-assisted orbit transfer vehicle (presence of ions and plasma in the
vicinity of spacecraft)
 HYPERSONIC SHOCK RELATIONS

Consider the flow through a straight oblique shock as shown in Fig. The
notations have their usual meaning and upstream and downstream
conditions are denoted by subscripts ‘1’ and ‘2’, respectively. Let us revisit
the exact oblique shock relations and simplify them in the limit of high
Mach numbers.
 HYPERSONIC SHOCK RELATIONS

The exact oblique shock relations for pressure, temperature and density
ratio across the wave are given by,

It may be noted that for air (γ=1.4) flow in the hypersonic speed limit, the
density ratio approaches to a fixed value of 6. The velocity components
behind the shock wave, parallel and perpendicular to the upstream flow,
may be computed from the following relations;
HYPERSONIC SHOCK RELATIONS
 HYPERSONIC SHOCK RELATIONS

The dynamic pressure can also be expressed in the form of Mach number as
given below;
HYPERSONIC SHOCK RELATIONS
HYPERSONIC SHOCK RELATIONS
 HYPERSONIC EXPANSION WAVE RELATIONS

Consider the flow through an expansion corner . The expansion fan consists of infinite
number of Mach waves originating at the corner and spreading downstream. The
notations have their usual meaning and upstream and downstream conditions are
denoted by subscripts ‘1’ and ‘2’, respectively. Let us revisit the exact relations for a
Prandtl-Meyer expansion. The relation for deflection angleθ. M1 and M2 is expressed
through Prandtl-Meyer function. [ν(M)]
 HYPERSONIC SIMILARITY PARAMETER

In the study of hypersonic flow over slender bodies, the product of M1 θ is a

controlling parameter which is known as the similarity parameter denoted
by K. All the hypersonic shock and expansion relations can be expressed in
terms of this parameter. Introducing this parameter, Eq. is rewritten in the
limit of high values of Mach number;

Rearranging Eq., one may obtain a quadratic equation in terms of (β/θ) ,

which may be easily solved.
HYPERSONIC SIMILARITY PARAMETER
 HYPERSONIC SIMILARITY PARAMETER

The similarity relations for Prandtl-Meyer expansion wave may also be written in terms
of the similarity parameter. The flow through an expansion fan is isentropic. Hence, the
isentropic relations for pressure can be used for the conditions on both sides of
expansion fan. When approximated to hypersonic flows, the static pressure relation
across the expansion fan can be written as below;
 HYPERSONIC SIMILARITY PARAMETER

Further, the pressure coefficient across the expansion fan, may be

expressed as a function of similarity parameter.

Multiply and divide the right-hand side by θ2 and simplify to obtain the
following relation.

It may be seen that pressure coefficient for hypersonic shock and

expansion wave, are related through the similarity parameter in the
limit of hypersonic Mach numbers.
 NEWTONIAN THEORY FOR HYPERSONIC FLOWS

The hypersonic flows are highly nonlinear due to many physical phenomena
leading to complexity in the mathematical formulation and its solution. One
can get rid of the complex nature of aerodynamic theories with the simple
approximation of inviscid flow to obtain the linear relationship. It is interesting
to note that the invicid compressible flow theory for high Mach number flows,
resemble the fundamental Newtonian law of classical mechanics.

When a fluid as a stream of particles in rectilinear motion, strikes a plate, it

loses all its momentum normal to the surface and moves tangentially to the
surface without the loss of tangential momentum.
 NEWTONIAN THEORY FOR HYPERSONIC FLOWS

This is known as the Newtonian impact theory as shown in Fig Let a fluid stream of
density ρ∞ strikes a surface of area A , with a velocity V∞ . This surface is inclined at
an angle θ with the free stream. By Newton’s law, the time rate of change of
momentum of this mass flux is equal to the force (F) exerted on the surface.
 NEWTONIAN THEORY FOR HYPERSONIC FLOWS

Since the motion is rectilinear and the individual particles do not interact with each
other, the force per unit area, associated with the random motion may be interpreted
as the difference in surface pressure( P) and the free stream pressure (P∞ ). So, the
Eq. may be simplified in terms of pressure coefficient(CP ) .

Both the upstream and downstream side of the shock wave, the streamlines are
straight and parallel. But, the stream lines are deflected by an angle θ in the
downstream. Since, the difference in the shock wave angle (β) and the flow deflection
is very small at hypersonic speeds, it may be visualized as the upstream incoming flow
impinging on the wedge surface and then running parallel to the wedge surface in the
downstream. This phenomenon is analogous to Newtonian theory and Eq. may be
used for hypersonic flow as well to predict the surface pressures. It is known as the
Newtonian Sine-Squared Law for hypersonic flow.
INVISCID HYPERSONIC FLOW OVER A FLAT PLATE

Consider a two-dimensional flat plate of certain length(l) , inclined at angle(θ) with

respect to free stream hypersonic flow in Fig. Now, the Newtonian theory can be
applied at the lower and upper surface of the plate to obtain the pressure
coefficient ( Cp ) .
 INVISCID HYPERSONIC FLOW OVER A FLAT PLATE

The difference in pressures in the upper and lower surface of the plate,
gives rise to a normal force (N) . The normal force coefficient (Cn ) can also
be readily defined through the following formula.

Here, is the free stream dynamic pressure S (=l), is the frontal

area per unit width and x is the distance along the length of the plate from
the leading edge. the simplified relations is;
 INVISCID HYPERSONIC FLOW OVER A FLAT PLATE

If L and D are defined as the lift and drag as shown in Fig. then the other
aerodynamic parameters such as lift coefficient (Cl ) and drag coefficient
(Cd ) can be expressed in the following fashion.

Referring to geometry of Fig., the other important parameter lift-to-drag is

obtained through the following relation;
 RESULTS OF NEWTONIAN THEORY

The results of Newtonian theory for the inviscid flow over a flat plate are
plotted in Fig. and the following important observations can be made;

 The value of lift-to-drag ratio increases monotonically when the inclination

angle decreases. It is mainly due to the fact that the Newtonian theory does
not account for skin friction drag in the calculation. When skin friction is
added, the drag becomes a finite value at 0o inclination angle and the ratio
approaches zero.
 The lift curve reaches its peak value approximately at an angle of 550. It is
quite realistic, because most of the practical hypersonic vehicles get their
maximum lift in this vicinity of angle of attack.
 The lift curve at lower angle (0-150) shows the non-linear behavior. It is
clearly the important characteristics feature of the hypersonic flows.
RESULTS OF NEWTONIAN THEORY
 IN THIS LECTURE...

 Subsonic and supersonic nozzles

 Working of these nozzles

 Performance parameters for nozzles

 VARIATION OF FLUID VELOCITY WITH
FLOW AREA

Sonic velocity will occur at the exit of the converging extension, instead of
the exit of the original nozzle, and the mass flow rate through the nozzle will
decrease because of the reduced exit area.
VARIATION OF FLUID VELOCITY WITH
FLOW AREA
GOVERNING EQUATIONS
 ISENTROPIC FLOW THROUGH CONVERGING
NOZZLES

 Converging nozzle in a subsonic flow will have decreasing area along the
flow direction.

 We shall consider the effect of back pressure on the exit velocity, mass
flow rate and pressure distribution along the nozzle.

 We assume flow enters the nozzle from a reservoir so that inlet velocity is
zero.

 Stagnation temperature and pressure remains unchanged in the nozzle.

ISENTROPIC FLOW THROUGH CONVERGING
NOZZLES
ISENTROPIC FLOW THROUGH
CONVERGING NOZZLES
 ISENTROPIC FLOW THROUGH CONVERGING
NOZZLES

 From the above figure,

 For all back pressures lower that the critical pressure, exit pressure =
critical pressure, Mach number is unity and the mass flow rate is
maximum (choked flow).

 A back pressure lower than the critical pressure cannot be sensed in

the nozzle upstream flow and does not affect the flow rate.
NOZZLE EFFICIENCY
CONVERGING NOZZLES
CONVERGING NOZZLES
 CONVERGING NOZZLES

 If a convergent nozzle is operating under choked condition, the exit Mach

number is unity.

 The exit flow parameters are then defined by the critical parameters.

 To determine whether a nozzle is choked or not, we calculate the actual

pressure ratio and then compare this with the critical pressure ratio.

 If the actual pressure ratio > critical pressure ratio, the nozzle is said to be
choked.
ISENTROPIC FLOW THROUGH CONVERGING-
DIVERGING NOZZLES

 Maximum Mach number achievable in a converging nozzle is unity.

 For supersonic Mach numbers, a diverging section after the throat is

required.

 However, a diverging section alone would not guarantee a supersonic

flow.

 The Mach number at the exit of the converging-diverging nozzle depends

upon the back pressure.
ISENTROPIC FLOW THROUGH CONVERGING-
DIVERGING NOZZLES
 CONVERGING-DIVERGING NOZZLES

 The flow through nozzles is normally assumed to be adiabatic as the heat

transfer per unit mass is much smaller than the difference in enthalpy
between the inlet and outlet.

 The flow from the inlet to the throat can be assumed to be isentropic, but
the flow from the throat to exit may not be due the possible presence of
shocks.
CONVERGING-DIVERGING NOZZLES
CONVERGING-DIVERGING NOZZLES
CONVERGING-DIVERGING NOZZLES
CONVERGING-DIVERGING NOZZLES
CONVERGING-DIVERGING NOZZLES
CONVERGING-DIVERGING NOZZLES
CONVERGING-DIVERGING NOZZLES
 COMPRESSORS

A compressor is the most important and often the costliest component

(typically 30 to 40 percent of total cost) of any vapour compression
refrigeration system (VCRS). The function of a compressor in a VCRS is to
continuously draw the refrigerant vapour from the evaporator, so that a
low pressure and low temperature can be maintained in the evaporator at
which the refrigerant can boil extracting heat from the refrigerated space.
The compressor then has to raise the pressure of the refrigerant to a level
at which it can condense by rejecting heat to the cooling medium in the
condenser.
 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPRESSORS

Compressors used in refrigeration systems can be classified in several ways:

a) Based on the working principle:

i. Positive displacement type
ii. Roto-dynamic type
In positive displacement type compressors, compression is achieved by trapping a
refrigerant vapour into an enclosed space and then reducing its volume. Since a fixed
amount of refrigerant is trapped each time, its pressure rises as its volume is reduced.
When the pressure rises to a level that is slightly higher than the condensing pressure,
then it is expelled from the enclosed space and a fresh charge of low-pressure
refrigerant is drawn in and the cycle continues. Since the flow of refrigerant to the
compressor is not steady, the positive displacement type compressor is a pulsating flow
device. However, since the operating speeds are normally very high the flow appears to
be almost steady on macroscopic time scale. Since the flow is pulsating on a
microscopic time scale, positive displacement type compressors are prone to high wear,
vibration and noise level. Depending upon the construction, positive displacement type
compressors used in refrigeration and air conditioning can be classified into:
 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPRESSORS

I. Reciprocating type

II. Rotary type with sliding vanes (rolling piston type or multiple vane type)

III. Rotary screw type (single screw or twin-screw type)

IV. Orbital compressors, and

V. Acoustic compressors

In roto-dynamic compressors, the pressure rise of refrigerant is achieved by imparting

kinetic energy to a steadily flowing stream of refrigerant by a rotating mechanical
element and then converting into pressure as the refrigerant flows through a
diverging passage. Unlike positive displacement type, the roto-dynamic type
compressors are steady flow devices, hence are subjected to less wear and vibration.
 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPRESSORS

Depending upon the construction, roto-dynamic type compressors can be

classified into:

I. Radial flow type, or

II. Axial flow type

Centrifugal compressors (also known as turbo-compressors) are radial flow

type, roto-dynamic compressors. These compressors are widely used in
large capacity refrigeration and air conditioning systems. Axial flow
compressors are normally used in gas liquefaction applications.
 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPRESSORS

b) Based on arrangement of compressor motor or external drive:

I. Open type

II. Hermetic (or sealed) type

iii. Semi-hermetic (or semi-sealed) type

In open type compressors the rotating shaft of the compressor extends through a seal in the
crankcase for an external drive. The external drive may be an electrical motor or an engine (e.g.
diesel engine). The compressor may be belt driven or gear driven. Open type compressors are
normally used in medium to large capacity refrigeration system for all refrigerants and for
ammonia (due to its incompatibility with hermetic motor materials). Open type compressors are
characterized by high efficiency, flexibility, better compressor cooling and serviceability. However,
since the shaft has to extend through the seal, refrigerant leakage from the system cannot be
eliminated completely. Hence refrigeration systems using open type compressors require a
refrigerant reservoir to take care of the refrigerant leakage for some time, and then regular
maintenance for charging the system with refrigerant, changing of seals, gaskets etc.
 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPRESSORS

In hermetic compressors, the motor and the compressor are enclosed in the same housing
to prevent refrigerant leakage. The housing has welded connections for refrigerant inlet
and outlet and for power input socket. As a result of this, there is virtually no possibility of
refrigerant leakage from the compressor. All motors reject a part of the power supplied to
it due to eddy currents and friction, that is, inefficiencies. Similarly the compressor also
gets heated-up due to friction and also due to temperature rise of the vapor during
compression. In Open type, both the compressor and the motor normally reject heat to
the surrounding air for efficient operation. In hermetic compressors heat cannot be
rejected to the surrounding air since both are enclosed in a shell. Hence, the cold suction
gas is made to flow over the motor and the compressor before entering the compressor.
This keeps the motor cool. The motor winding is in direct contact with the refrigerant
hence only those refrigerants, which have high dielectric strength, can be used in hermetic
compressors. The cooling rate depends upon the flow rate of the refrigerant, its
temperature and the thermal properties of the refrigerant. If flow rate is not sufficient
and/or if the temperature is not low enough the insulation on the winding of the motor
can burn out and short-circuiting may occur. Hence, hermetically sealed compressors give
satisfactory and safe performance over a very narrow range of design temperature and
should not be used for off-design conditions.
 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPRESSORS

The COP of the hermetic compressor based systems is lower than that of the open
compressor based systems since a part of the refrigeration effect is lost in cooling
the motor and the compressor. However, hermetic compressors are almost
universally used in small systems such as domestic refrigerators, water coolers, air
conditioners etc, where efficiency is not as important as customer convenience (due
to absence of continuous maintenance). In addition to this, the use of hermetic
compressors is ideal in systems, which use capillary tubes as expansion devices and
are critically charged systems. Hermetic compressors are normally not serviceable.
They are not very flexible as it is difficult to vary their speed to control the cooling
capacity.
In some (usually larger) hermetic units, the cylinder head is usually removable so
that the valves and the piston can be serviced. This type of unit is called a semi-
hermetic (or semi-sealed) compressor.
 RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS

Reciprocating compressor is the workhorse of the refrigeration and air conditioning

industry. It is the most widely used compressor with cooling capacities ranging from
a few Watts to hundreds of kilowatts. Modern day reciprocating compressors are
high speed (≈ 3000 to 3600 rpm), single acting, single or multi-cylinder (upto 16
cylinders) type.

Figure shows the schematic of a reciprocating compressor. Reciprocating

compressors consist of a piston moving back and forth in a cylinder, with suction and
discharge valves to achieve suction and compression of the refrigerant vapor. Its
construction and working are somewhat similar to a two-stroke engine, as suction
and compression of the refrigerant vapor are completed in one revolution of the
crank. The suction side of the compressor is connected to the exit of the evaporator,
while the discharge side of the compressor is connected to
 RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS

the condenser inlet. The suction (inlet) and the discharge (outlet) valves open and
close due to pressure differences between the cylinder and inlet or outlet manifolds
respectively. The pressure in the inlet manifold is equal to or slightly less than the
evaporator pressure. Similarly the pressure in the outlet manifold is equal to or slightly
greater than the condenser pressure. The purpose of the manifolds is to provide
stable inlet and outlet pressures for the smooth operation of the valves and also
provide a space for mounting the valves.

The valves used are of reed or plate type, which are either floating or clamped.
Usually, backstops are provided to limit the valve displacement and springs may be
provided for smooth return after opening or closing. The piston speed is decided by
valve type. Too high a speed will give excessive vapor velocities that will decrease the
volumetric efficiency and the throttling loss will decrease the compression efficiency.
RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS
 PERFORMANCE OF RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS

For a given evaporator and condenser pressures, the important

performance parameters of a refrigerant compressor are:

a. The mass flow rate (m) of the compressor for a given displacement
rate

b. Power consumption of the compressor (Wc)

c. Temperature of the refrigerant at compressor exit, Td, and

d. Performance under part load conditions

 PERFORMANCE OF RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS

The mass flow rate decides the refrigeration capacity of the system and for a
given compressor inlet condition, it depends on the volumetric efficiency of
the compressor. The volumetric efficiency, ηV is defined as the ratio of
volumetric flow rate of refrigerant to the maximum possible volumetric flow
rate, which is equal to the compressor displacement rate, i.e.,

Where m and V SW are the mass flow rate of refrigerant (kg/s) and
compressor displacement rate (.m3/s) respectively, and v I is the specific
volume (m3/kg) of the refrigerant at compressor inlet.
 PERFORMANCE OF RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS

 For a given evaporator and condenser temperatures, one can also use
the volumetric refrigeration capacity (kW/m3) to indicate the volumetric
efficiency of the compressor. The actual volumetric efficiency (or
volumetric capacity) of the compressor depends on the operating
conditions and the design of the compressor.
 The power consumption (kW) or alternately the power input per unit
refrigeration capacity (kW/kW) depends on the compressor efficiency
(ηC), efficiency of the mechanical drive (ηmech) and the motor efficiency
(ηmotor). For a refrigerant compressor, the power input (Wc) is given by:
 PERFORMANCE OF RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS

The performance of the compressor under part load conditions depends on

the type and design of the compressor.

An ideal reciprocating compressor is one in which:

 The clearance volume is zero, i.e., at the end of discharge process, the
volume of refrigerant inside the cylinder is zero.

 No pressure drops during suction and compression

 Suction, compression and discharge are reversible and adiabatic

 PERFORMANCE OF RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS

Figure shows the schematic of an ideal compression process on pressure-

volume and pressure-crank angle (θ) diagrams. As shown in the figures, the
cycle of operations consists of:
Process D-A: This is an isobaric suction process, during which the piston
moves from the Inner Dead Centre (IDC) to the Outer Dead Centre (ODC).
The suction valve remains open during this process and refrigerant at a
constant pressure Pe flows into the cylinder.
Process A-B: This is an isentropic compression process. During this process,
the piston moves from ODC towards IDC. Both the suction and discharge
valves remain closed during the process and the pressure of refrigerant
increases from Pe to Pc.
Process B-C: This is an isobaric discharge process. During this process, the
suction valve remains closed and the discharge valve opens. Refrigerant at a
constant P is expelled from the compressor as the piston moves to IDC.
PERFORMANCE OF RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS
 QUESTIONS

1. Which of the following is not positive displacement type compressor?

a. Rotary vane compressor
b. Rotary screw type compressor
c. Centrifugal compressor
d. Acoustic compressor

2. Compared to a hermetic compressor, an open type compressor:

a. Offers higher efficiency
b. Offers lower noise
c. Offers better compressor cooling
d. Offers serviceability and flexibility

3. Hermetic compressors are used mainly in smaller systems as they:

a. Yield higher COP
b. Do not require frequent servicing
c. Offer the flexibility of using any refrigerant
d. Can be used under different load conditions efficiently
 QUESTIONS

4. In reciprocating compressors, clearance is provided:

a. To improve the volumetric efficiency of the compressor
b. To accommodate valves
c. To account for thermal expansion due to temperature variation
d. To reduce power consumption of the compressor

5. The clearance volumetric efficiency of a reciprocating compressor depends

on:
a. Properties of the refrigerant
b. Operating temperatures
c. Clearance volume
d. All of the above
 QUESTIONS

6. A spacer is used in reciprocating compressors to introduce clearance volume. A

refrigerant manufacturer wishes to standardize the components of a reciprocating
compressor for refrigeration systems of capacities of 2 kW and 2.5 kW by varying
only the spacer. Both the systems use the same refrigerant, which has an isentropic
index of compression of 1.116 and operate over a pressure ratio of 5. The operating
temperatures are also same for both the systems. If the required clearance factor for
the 2.5 kW system is 0.03, what should be the clearance factor for the 2.0 kW
system?

7. Water is used in a Standard Single Stage (SSS) vapour compression refrigeration

system. The system operates at an evaporator temperature of 4.5oC (pressure =
0.8424 kPa) and a condenser temperature of 38oC (pressure = 6.624 kPa). Assume
that the water vapour behaves as an ideal gas with cp/cv = 1.322 and calculate the
discharge temperature if compression is isentropic. Also calculate COP and volumic
refrigeration effect if the refrigeration effect is 2355 kJ/kg. Molecular weight of
water = 18 kg/kmol, Universal gas constant = 8.314 kJ/kmol.K
 STEAM TURBINE

This session is intended to discuss the following:

 Classification of steam turbines

 Compounding of steam turbines

 Forces, work done and efficiency of steam turbine

 Numerical examples
 STEAM

Steam is a vapour used as a working substance in the operation of steam turbine.

Is steam a perfect gas?
Steam possess properties like those of gases: namely pressure, volume, temperature,
internal energy, enthalpy and entropy. But the pressure volume and temperature of
steam as a vapour are not connected by any simple relationship such as is expressed
by the characteristic equation for a perfect gas.

Sensible heat – The heat absorbed by water in attaining its boiling point.

Latent heat – The heat absorbed to convert boiling water into steam.

Wet steam – Steam containing some quantity of moisture.

Dry steam – Steam that has no moisture content.

Superheated steam – Dry steam, when heated at constant pressure, attains superheat
The properties of steam are dependent on its pressure
STEAM PROPERTIES
STEAM POWER PLANT PROCESS
 STEAM TURBINE

 Steam turbine convert a part of the energy of the steam evidenced by

high temperature and pressure into mechanical power-in turn electrical
power
 The steam from the boiler is expanded in a nozzle, resulting in the
emission of a high velocity jet. This jet of steam impinges on the moving
vanes or blades, mounted on a shaft. Here it undergoes a change of
direction of motion which gives rise to a change in momentum and
therefore a force.
 The motive power in a steam turbine is obtained by the rate of change in
momentum of a high velocity jet of steam impinging on a curved blade
which is free to rotate.
 The conversion of energy in the blades takes place by impulse, reaction
or impulse reaction principle.
 Steam turbines are available in a few kW(as prime mover) to 1500 MW
 STEAM, GAS AND HYDRAULIC TURBINES

 The working substance differs for different types of turbines.

 Steam turbines are axial flow machines (radial steam turbines are rarely
used) whereas gas turbines and hydraulic turbines of both axial and radial
flow type are used based on applications.
 The pressure of working medium used in steam turbines is very high,
whereas the temperature of working medium used is gas turbine is high
comparatively.
 The pressure and temperature of working medium in hydraulic turbines is
lower than steam turbines.
 Steam turbines of 1300 MW single units are available whereas largest gas
turbines unit is 530 MW and 815 MW
 MERITS AND DEMERITS OF STEAM TURBINE

Merits:
 Ability to utilize high pressure and high temperature steam.
 High component efficiency.
 High rotational speed.
 High capacity/weight ratio.
 Smooth, nearly vibration-free operation.
 No internal lubrication.
 Oil free exhaust steam.
 Can be built in small or very large units (up to 1200 MW).
Demerits:
 For slow speed application reduction gears are required.
 The steam turbine cannot be made reversible.
 The efficiency of small simple steam turbines is poor.
 APPLICATION

 Power generation

 Refinery, Petrochemical,

 Pharmaceuticals,

 Food processing,

 Petroleum/Gas processing,

 Pulp & Paper mills,

 Waste-to-energy
RANKINE CYCLE
REHEAT ON T-S DIAGRAM
SCHEMATIC OF RANKINE REHEAT CYCLE
 STEAM TURBINE STAGE

 A turbine stage consists of stationary stator

row (guide vanes or nozzle ring) and rotating
rotor row.

 In the guide vanes high pressure, high

temperature steam is expanded resulting in
high

 The guide vanes direct the flow to the rotor

blades at an appropriate angle.

 In the rotor, the flow direction is changed and

kinetic energy of the working fluid is absorbed
by the rotor shaft producing mechanical
energy
TYPES OF STEAM TURBINE
TYPES OF STEAM TURBINE
 IMPULSE REACTION TURBINE

 Modern turbines are neither purely impulse or reaction but a combination of both.

 Pressure drop is effected partly in nozzles and partly in moving blades which are so
designed that expansion of steam takes place in them.

 High velocity jet from nozzles produce an impulse on the moving blade and jet coming out
from still higher velocity from moving blades produces a reaction.

 Impulse turbine began employing reaction of upto 20% at the root of the moving blades in
order to counteract the poor efficiency incurred from zero or even negative reaction.

 Reaction at the root of reaction turbines has come down to as little as 30% to 40%
resulting in the reduction of the number of stages required and the sustaining of 50%
reaction at mid point.

 It may be more accurate to describe the two design as

 Disc and diaphragm turbine using low reaction blading

 Drum rotor turbine using high reaction blading
FLOW THROUGH STEAM TURBINE STAGE
 COMPOUNDING OF STEAM TURBINES

 This is done to reduce the rotational speed of the impulse turbine to

practical limits.

 Compounding is achieved by using more than one set of nozzles, Blades,

rotors, in a series keyed to a common shaft; so that either the steam
pressure or the jet velocity is absorbed by the turbine in stages.

 Three main types of compounded impulse turbines are:

a. Pressure compounded

b. Velocity compounded

c. Pressure and velocity compounded impulse turbines.

COMPOUNDING OF STEAM TURBINES
COMPOUNDING OF STEAM TURBINES

Velocity drop is achieved through many

moving rows of blades instead of a single
row of moving blades. It consists of a
nozzle or a set of nozzles and rows of
moving blades attached to the rotor or
the wheel and rows of fixed blades
attached to the casing.

Pressure velocity compounding gives the

advantage of producing a shortened rotor
compared to pure velocity compounding.
In this design steam velocity at exit to the
nozzles is kept reasonable and thus the
blade speed (hence rotor rpm) reduced.
COMPARISON BETWEEN IMPULSE & REACTION
TURBINE
NOMENCLATURE
 VELOCITY TRIANGLES

 The three velocity vectors namely, blade speed, absolute velocity and
relative velocity in relation to the rotor are used to form a triangle called
velocity triangle.

 Velocity triangles are used to illustrate the flow in the bladings of

turbomachinery.

 Changes in the flow direction and velocity are easy to understand with
the help of the velocity triangles.

 Note that the velocity triangles are drawn for the inlet and outlet of the
rotor at certain radii.
STEAM TURBINE BLADE TERMINOLOGY
INLET VELOCITY TRIANGLE
OUTLET VELOCITY TRIANGLES
COMBINED VELOCITY TRIANGLES
WORK DONE – IMPULSE STEAM TURBINE

Is defined as
WORK DONE – IMPULSE STEAM TURBINE
WORK DONE – IMPULSE STEAM TURBINE
WORK DONE – IMPULSE STEAM TURBINE
 DEGREE OF REACTION

 Degree of reaction is a parameter that describes the relation between

the energy transfer due to the static pressure change and the energy
transfer due to dynamic pressure change.

 Degree of reaction is defined as the ratio of static pressure drop in the

rotor to the static pressure drop in the stage. It is also defined as the
ratio of static enthalpy drop in the rotor to the static enthalpy drop in
the stage
DEGREE OF REACTION
DEGREE OF REACTION
DEGREE OF REACTION

(20)
BLADE HEIGHT IN AXIAL FLOW MACHINES
MATERIALS OF STEAM TURBINE