SDG14 CONSERVE

174

AND SUSTAINABLY
LIFE BELOW WATER

USE THE OCEANS,

SEAS AND MARINE
GOAL #14

RESOURCES FOR
SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT
Stefanie Schmidt
Barbara Neumann
Yvonne Waweru
Carole Durussel
Sebastian Unger
Martin Visbeck
GOAL #14 LIFE BELOW WATER 175
GOAL #14 LIFE BELOW WATER 176
177
INTRODUCTION

sdg 14 focuses on human interactions with cutting role in the 2030 Agenda, and sdg 14
the ocean, seas and marine resources. interacts with all 16 other sdgs. The nature
It is underpinned by targets addressing and intensity of these interactions is highly
conservation and sustainable use of the context-specific and differs across the sdgs
ocean, seas and marine resources including and their associated targets.
coastal zones, and targets referring to The text that follows provides an
capacity building and ocean governance. overview of interactions at the goal level
Oceans cover more than 70% of the planet’s between sdg14 – the ‘entry level goal’ for
surface and play a crucial role in planetary this assessment – and the other 16 sdgs.
resilience and the provision of vital Taking into account all the underlying
ecosystem services. The status of the ocean targets of this entry goal, a set of key
and several of its resources and functions interactions is identified between the
have been deteriorating over the past sdg14 targets and those of other sdgs,
century. Oceans, seas and coastal zones are principally interactions within the range
subject to pollution, overexploitation and of the highest magnitude or strongest
climate change impacts such as warming, impacts based on available scientific
coastal erosion, sea-level rise, ocean literature and expert knowledge. The
acidification and deoxygenation. Several typology and seven-point scale for
coastal regimes are under noticeable characterising the range of positive and
stress, compromising the services they negative interactions described in the
provide. sdg 14 and its seven targets and opening chapter to this report is used to
three means of implementation are aimed assess the selected target-level interactions
at an urgent need to transform human and the context in which they typically
behaviour toward sustainable practices occur. Illustrative examples from different
when exploiting marine resources, and world regions show how these linkages
to taking action to preserve productive manifest themselves in practice. Policy
and resilient oceans and seas. The seven options are identified for how to maximise
targets largely reflect commitments under positive interactions and minimise
other international frameworks such as negative interactions between now and
the commitment to maintain or restore 2030, and beyond. The chapter concludes
fish stocks to levels that can produce with a list of key knowledge gaps related
maximum sustainable yields (made in to the interactions studied.
2002 under the Johannesburg Plan) or the
commitment to conserve at least 10% of
marine and coastal areas (provided under
the cbd Aichi Target 11). However, the 2030
Agenda for Sustainable Development puts
use and conservation of the ocean and its
resources, including coastal areas, into the
wider sustainable development context for
the first time. The ocean space in general
and sdg 14 in particular have a cross-
178
KEY INTERACTIONS AT
GOAL LEVEL

14 + 1 often subject to wasteful fishing practices.

sdg14 is a critical enabler of poverty Reducing fishing effort on wild stocks
alleviation, and environmentally to sustainable levels will improve fish
sustainable economic growth and social stocks and provide a reliable food source
well-being (‘blue growth’), particularly in the long-term. Technology transfer and
in Small Island Developing States (sids) research capacity building in aquaculture
and Least Developed Countries (ldcs). and selective fishing can help enhance
Sustained incomes and economic benefits productive capacity and income generation
from fisheries, aquaculture and tourism for small-scale food producers. Creating
sectors depend heavily on the health mpas can provide fishery benefits and
of oceans and coasts. Strengthening remove pressure from key fishing areas
the resilience of oceans and coasts, for such as spawning grounds and nurseries,
example through conservation and and can enable fish stocks in adjacent
protection of coastal wetlands, will help areas to rebound. A potential negative
reduce shock exposure and enhance the side-effect of mpas however could be
resilience of poor coastal populations to that access to fishery resources and areas
extreme climate-related events. However, for aquaculture is limited. Increasing
blue growth policy interventions aimed at agriculture productivity and production for
achieving rapid economic growth to lift enhanced food security might also impair
people out of poverty might impair ocean ocean health through increased pollution
health and promote overexploitation of and nutrient run-off.
marine resources. Also, creating marine
protected areas (mpas) can constrain 14 + 3
access to resources and ecosystem services Many people live in coastal areas and
necessary for poverty alleviation. Similarly, depend on the food resources that the
prohibiting certain subsidies could limit oceans and seas provide. Contamination
options for developing fisheries sectors. of coastal zones or seafood with pollutants
can cause health problems. Reducing and
14 + 2 preventing marine pollution will thus
Seafood, whether farmed or caught in the help reduce pollution related deaths and
wild, is globally important as a source illnesses. In addition, healthy seas and
of protein, omega-3 fatty acids, vitamins, coasts can contribute to the overall health
calcium, zinc, and iron for one billion and well-being of coastal communities
people. Sustainable fisheries and aqua- and tourists. The ocean is a biodiversity
culture backed by healthy oceans and hotspot, home to a wide range of animals,
coasts are a necessary prerequisite to plants (algae) and bacteria that are
achieve food security and improved nutri- potentially relevant for the research and
tion, and to establish sustainable food development of vaccines and medicines.
production systems in islands and coastal However, exploring marine biodiversity
regions, particularly in sids and ldcs. for genetic and biochemical resources
However, most stocks are already fished (‘bioprospecting’) as part of marine
at or beyond sustainable limits and are pharmacology may have negative effects
179 on ocean sustainability in cases where this ment opportunities for women. Gender
causes disturbance or pollution, or triggers mainstreaming of policies and measures
overexploitation. on access to marine resources, seafood
LIFE BELOW WATER

markets or maritime sectors can contrib-

14 + 4 ute to ensure equal rights to natural and
Knowledge and capacity building, and economic resources. Likewise, promoting
training and awareness programmes on knowledge, capacity building and technol-
ocean and sea services will positively affect ogy transfer can contribute to the empow-
conservation and sustainable use of the erment of women where attention is paid
GOAL #14

oceans, seas and marine resources. This to related gender issues.

will support the achievement of targets
under sdg14, especially those addressing 14 + 6
marine pollution, ocean acidification, and Oceans and seas are major sources of water
resource use including fisheries, as well as in the hydrological cycle and therefore
ocean governance. Thus, introducing ocean require sustainable management through
literacy into the curricula of education integrated water management that
programmes early and through all levels addresses the multiplicity and diversity of
of education is important to ensure global water actors. Ocean sustainability directly
understanding of ocean issues. Likewise, links to sustainable water management.
trained and skilled people are required Preventing marine pollution contributes
to support and contribute to sustainable to improving water quality and vice versa.
ocean development in all sectors, Conservation of marine and coastal areas
including the education sector, and across can support integrated water resource
policymaking, society, economy (e.g. in the management and contribute to protecting
context of blue growth) and environmental and restoring water-related ecosystems.
affairs. Investment in capacity building Sustainable aquaculture can contribute
and transfer of knowledge and technology to water-use efficiency and local water
in the marine field, and action taken on and sanitation management. In return,
quality education and training under sdg4 increasing water-use efficiency may have
(essentially all targets) will be especially positive feedbacks on marine and coastal
important for developing countries ecosystems and support their conservation
and sids. In return, healthy oceans, and sustainable use. For example,
sustainable resource use and conservation replacing open by closed recirculation
can contribute to building a culture of systems to reduce water demand would
sustainable development, globally. also limit waste water flow to the
environment. A potential negative side-
14 + 5 effect of strengthening coastal tourism or
Equal opportunities are an issue in many aquaculture as part of blue growth might
marine and maritime economy sectors. be the resulting impact on water quality
Activities ‘at sea’ and leadership positions and availability.
in fisheries or shipping are traditionally
male-dominated, limiting access to oppor- 14 + 7
tunities and resources for women. Despite, Increasing the share of renewable
a significant contribution made by women energy in the global energy mix and
in some sectors (for example, roughly 50% improving energy efficiency, reliability and
of employees in the seafood industry are affordability will enhance sustainability
women) their role is often overlooked and and help reduce ocean acidification
underpaid. Sustainable development of through reduced carbon dioxide emissions.
marine and maritime sectors can create Different types of ocean energy already
new opportunities for income and employ- contribute to the global renewable energy
180 supply and have the potential to expand 14 + 9
further in the future, particularly in island Sustainable use of marine and coastal
states and coastal regions. Strengthening ecosystem services for the development
LIFE BELOW WATER

marine research and transfer of marine of marine and maritime activities

technology in this field could support this (i.e. blue-growth) and equal access to
expansion and help increase the share of marine resources and trade options can
renewable energy in the global energy support industrialisation efforts and
mix. On the other hand, more energy promote innovation, especially in island
infrastructure in coastal and marine areas states and coastal regions. Likewise,
GOAL #14

may have negative impacts; for example fostering sustainable infrastructure,

by increasing spatial competition with industrialisation, and research and
other uses (coastal and marine protected technologies may support the achievement
areas, fisheries, aquaculture, tourism). But of conservation and sustainable use of
synergies with other uses are also possible, the oceans. Trade-offs may occur where
for example by integrating aquaculture a balance must be found between ocean
and wind farming. conservation and restoration measures.
For example, reducing pollution or the
14 + 8 establishment of mpas can constrain
Conservation and sustainable use of industrialisation and infrastructure
oceans, seas and marine resources development in coastal regions.
can directly contribute to promoting
sustainable economic growth and 14 + 10
opportunities for decent work, Healthy oceans and coasts provide a
particularly in island states and coastal sustainable resource base for income
regions. Sustainable growth of marine growth in low-income populations. For
and maritime sectors such as fisheries, example, blue growth will help achieve
aquaculture and tourism supports greater in-country equality over the long-
employment and economic growth. term when supported by fiscal, wage,
Capacity building and transfer of and social protection policies. Moreover,
marine technology will help create the providing small-scale artisanal fishers
strengthened professional skills and with access to marine resources and
competences necessary for achieving the markets helps achieve socio- and economic
sdg 14 targets, and will also support youth inclusion. Restoring and maintaining
employment, education and training, ocean health also fosters the achievement
job creation and innovation, and enable of other sdgs aimed at improving
sustained long-term economic growth. livelihoods and well-being, and eliminating
Striving for healthy oceans, coasts and extreme poverty which all help to
marine resources and the improvement of reduce inequalities. However, improving
global resource efficiency in consumption ocean health and conserving coastal and
and production and decoupling economic marine resources also has the potential
growth from environmental degradation, to limit options for economic and income
are mutually supportive. However, trade- growth. Promoting the representation of
offs are possible where conservation and developing countries in decision-making
restoration measures limit economic within global economic and financial
growth, which can in turn impact ocean institutions can help strengthen the
health. engagement of ldcs and sids in the World
Trade Organization fisheries subsidies
negotiations, which may support the
elimination of certain fisheries subsidies.
Directing official development assistance,
181 and foreign direct investment towards the 14 + 12
sustainable use of marine resources can Sustainable consumption and production,
also provide greater economic benefits such as sustainable management of natural
LIFE BELOW WATER

especially for sids that rely on these resources or the reduction of wastes, are
resources for their economic growth. critical for ending overfishing, sustainably
managing marine and coastal ecosystems
14 + 11 and reducing marine pollution. Halving
Coasts are an attractive zone for human per capita global food waste at the retail
settlement and urban development, often and consumer level, for example, will have
GOAL #14

driven by the opportunities for economic positive impacts on ecosystem protection,

activities and natural resources provided sustainable fisheries, and marine pollution
by coasts and coastal zones. About 65% through reduced nutrient inputs from
of all megacities worldwide are located agriculture. Achieving sound management
in coastal areas, and as a result coastal of chemicals throughout their lifecycle
areas generally show higher population will also help minimise marine pollution;
densities, growth and urbanisation trends from land-based and offshore industries.
than inland areas, which implies a direct Recycling and prevention of waste from
relation between ocean sustainability land-based sources is a prerequisite
and sustainable cities and communities. for reducing marine litter. Improving
This expansive and intensified utilisation ocean literacy and understanding of the
and change in coastal areas, which is also drivers of ocean decline could support
related to new uses such as aquaculture, transformations towards sustainable
coastal protection infrastructure or port consumption and production. More
construction, has many negative impacts directly, conserving and sustainably using
on coastal ecosystems. Synergies are likely the oceans, seas and marine resources
between the reduction in marine pollution has the potential to support sustainable
and the development of safe housing consumption and production patterns in
and environmentally friendly cities that ocean-based industries (fisheries, tourism,
aim at reducing energy consumption, maritime transportation, among others).
improving sewer management and
minimising the degradation of oceans and 14 + 13
seas at large. Similar bi-directional benefits Ocean and coastal ecosystems are essential
occur between sustainable management climate regulators, but are also directly
practices and conservation efforts in affected by climate change. Restoring
the coastal and marine environment and protecting the health of oceans,
and the development of safe, resilient coasts and marine resources contributes
and sustainable settlements. Conflicts to strengthening the resilience and
may occur where ocean and coastal adaptive capacity of both the natural
conservation and restoration limit options and human systems to climate change.
for urbanisation, housing, infrastructure Coastal ecosystems such as mangroves,
or transport upgrading. Promoting the saltmarshes and seagrass meadows
construction of new buildings using local contribute both to climate adaptation
materials may have negative impacts (e.g. protection from coastal hazards)
on coastal ecosystems from which the and climate mitigation (through carbon
building materials are removed, and on sequestration). Further co-benefits arise
their conservation and restoration. from reducing risks and vulnerabilities
and strengthening the resilience of coastal
communities to climate-related hazards
(such as by promoting poverty eradication,
food security, sustainable livelihoods,
182 capacity building or biodiversity). Where 14 + 16
sustainable ocean management is included Ocean governance, building on effective,
as a topic in education, training and accountable and transparent institutions
LIFE BELOW WATER

technology transfer in relation to climate and responsive, inclusive, participatory

change, it will contribute to raising and representative decision-making, will
capacity on climate change adaptation be essential to achieve sdg14. Likewise,
and mitigation and ensure more effective it will contribute to delivering peace,
climate change planning and management. justice and strong institutions. Specific
In turn, achieving action on climate synergies exist between tackling illegal,
GOAL #14

change will help limit ocean acidification, unregulated and unreported (iuu) fisheries
already well underway owing to increased and the reduction of corruption and
levels of carbon dioxide in seawater, and bribery. Implementing international
will positively affect ocean management law as reflected by the un Convention
and conservation efforts. The potential on the Law of the Sea (unclos) and
for trade-offs is limited but possible. related agreements, such as the un Fish
Offshore installations for renewable Stocks Agreement, would enhance the
energy production may have negative conservation and sustainable use of
impacts on the marine environment, oceans and their resources. Aiming for
particularly on marine mammals. On the accountable and transparent institutions,
other hand, failing to mitigate climate as well as inclusive, participatory and
change and reduce global warming will representative decision-making is fully
increase climate related impacts on coastal consistent with aiming to improve
ecosystems, such as through warming capacities of marine management
and ocean acidification, but also through organisations to end unsustainable fishing
sea-level rise and related effects. This practices or to protect marine ecosystems.
may further constrain the protection and In the reverse direction, improving ocean
restoration of coastal ecosystems and governance for sustainability will be
reduce resilience and adaptive capacity important to achieve sdg16 with regard to
towards climate change. the oceans.

14 + 15 14 + 17
Ocean and coastal systems are hotspots for sdg17 is an important building block for
biodiversity, both in areas within and be- the 2030 Agenda, aiming at strengthening
yond national jurisdiction. Halting loss of the means of implementation for all
biodiversity improves the resilience of eco- sdgs. Global partnerships for sustainable
systems and supports healthy and produc- development are especially important in
tive oceans. Issues such as wildlife traffick- the context of oceans, seas and marine
ing, benefit sharing of genetic resources or resources, owing to the global connectivity
invasive species also concern marine and of marine ecosystems and the cross-cutting
coastal habitats and species, while ocean and often far-reaching effects of marine
conservation and sustainable use of marine resource use. Achievement of sdg14 will
resources contributes to the reduction of benefit particularly from the mobilisation
habitat degradation, biodiversity loss and of financial aid, strengthened technology
species protection. Conservation, resto- exchange, capacity building, better
ration and protection of terrestrial and policy coherence and multi-stakeholder
freshwater ecosystems will also benefit the partnerships.
health of oceans and seas: benefits derived
through reduced impacts from land-based
sources, such as non-point source pollu-
tion, erosion and sedimentation.
183
KEY INTERACTIONS AT
TARGET-LEVEL

sdg 14 is an integral part of the 2030 Six goals were selected for detailed
Agenda, linking to all 16 other sdgs. This analysis, each accompanied by an
section analyses some of these interactions illustrative example:
with a selected set of sdgs in detail at the
target-level. sdgs were selected based on SDG 1
the strength of their interlinkages with Western Indian Ocean
sdg 14 and the magnitude and scale of SDG 2
impact in relation to the overall objective Kenya and Tanzania
of the 2030 Agenda, while ensuring a SDG 8
balanced consideration of the economic, Baltic Sea
social and environmental dimensions. SDG 11
Target-level interactions are judged to Australia
fall within one of seven categories and SDG 12
are scored accordingly: indivisible (+3), G7 Action Plan to combat Marine Litter
reinforcing (+2), enabling (+1), consistent SDG 13
(0), constraining (-1), counteracting (-2), Paris Agreement
and cancelling (-3). Following a generic
analysis of the selected interactions,
specific examples are provided to
illustrate how interactions unfold in
different geographical and policy contexts.
As oceans are highly interconnected
ecosystems not confined by national
boundaries, national, regional and global
examples are provided.
SDG 14 + SDG 1

TARGETS KEY INTERACTIONS SCORE POLICY OPTIONS

14.2     1.1, 1.2 Healthy and productive oceans benefit
small-scale fishers, improve tourism
revenue and increase potential for blue
+2 Raise awareness of local communities on the
importance of healthy oceans, and sustainable use of
coastal and marine resources for their livelihoods and
carbon markets sustained income

14.2     1.5 Healthy oceans and coasts help reduce

vulnerability to climate hazards +2 Strengthen the role of marine and coastal ecosystems
in climate change adaptation in national and regional
adaptation strategies and policies

14.3     1.1, 1.2 Minimising and addressing the impacts

of ocean acidification will improve fish
stocks, livelihoods and incomes
+2
14.4     1.1, 1.2 Sustainable fisheries stabilise income
and create opportunities for value-
addition
+2 Invest proceeds from fishing in produced capital (e.g.
fishing and transport vessels, ports, roads) and human
and institutional capacities

Develop recording and reporting methods whereby

artisanal and recreational fishers are engaged in data
collection and assessment of catch trends

14.4     1.1, 1.2 Higher value-added economic activities

may displace livelihoods and increase
poverty
-1
14.4     1.4 Sustainable fisheries stabilise income
and create opportunities for value-
addition
+2
14.5     1.1, 1.2 MPAs restrict access and can create
competition for scarce resources and
so constrain poverty reduction efforts
-1
14.7     1.1, 1.2 Sustainable tourism, fisheries, coastal
agriculture, mining, and mariculture can
create jobs and reduce income poverty
+3 Establish the social, economic and environmental
baselines for blue growth and develop roadmaps for
key sectors with trackable milestones backed with
environmental protection goals
14.7     1.1, 1.2 Increased economic activity creates
more pressure on coastal and marine
resources and more environmental
-1 Designate marine spaces for different social,
economic and environmental uses and objectives and
harm identify the trade-offs between competing uses

Create sovereign wealth funds to ensure flow

of benefits after non-renewable resources are
exhausted, avoid crowding out other economic
sectors, and develop measures to avoid the impacts
of inflation on the poor and vulnerable

14.7     1.3 Creating jobs in sustainable tourism,

fisheries, coastal agriculture, mining,
and mariculture can enable social
+2 Develop social protection policies and invest
proceeds from blue growth in social protection
programmes for the poor and most vulnerable. For
protection programmes example, old-age pensions, health insurance, and
unemployment insurance
185 KEY POINTS fish stocks and are therefore inextricably
linked to improved livelihoods and
Poor coastal communities in low
eradicating poverty (1.1, 1.2). The net
LIFE BELOW WATER

income countries are likely to suffer benefits of target 14.2 include improved
the most from changes in the coastal revenue from tourism, enhanced
and marine environments that biodiversity and fish stocks, and increased
potential for income from blue carbon
directly and indirectly support their markets. At the same time, coastal
livelihoods. Protection, restoration habitats protect homes, communities,
GOAL #14

and management of critical coastal and businesses from extreme climate-

related events such as coastal flooding
and marine habitats have the most
and storm surges, and can help reduce
direct links to poverty eradication, the vulnerability of poor people (often
improving their livelihoods and with no insurance) (1.5) and the associated
reducing their vulnerability related economic impacts (1.1, 1.2).
Adapting fisheries to sustainable
to extreme climate events levels and eradicating iuu fisheries
(14.4) has a direct link to stabilising and/
Sustainable tourism, fisheries and or increasing productivity, profitability,
coastal agriculture in sids and ldcs and net economic benefits from fisheries
(World Bank, 2009), and to reducing
can create decent jobs that reduce
poverty (1.1, 1.2). For example, addressing
income poverty. To promote a iuu fishing will provide up to us$ 1.5–2
more inclusive pattern of growth billion per year for Sub-Saharan African
countries. However, certain fish stocks may
and development, simultaneous
recover slowly and this may delay poverty
expansion and development of social reduction efforts. Increasing value-addition
protection programmes for the poor also has a direct link to reducing fishing
and most vulnerable is necessary effort (Kelleher, 2015) (14.4) and can create
jobs in the post-harvest sectors (processing
and marketing) for women in Africa who
Higher economic activities aimed at have little or no access to natural and
poverty alleviation can create more economic resources (uneca, 2016) (1.4).
Value-addition also has potential to create
pressure on coastal and marine
business opportunities in expanding access
resources and environmental harms to credit, processing technology, storage
and can lead to long-term costs to facilities, and training (1.4). However,
replacing indigenous technologies by
the local economy
imported technologies, and deploying
newer advanced technologies from higher
KEY INTERACTIONS value-added economic activities may
sdg 14 targets interact with sdg 1 targets in threaten livelihoods and increase poverty.
the context of ending income poverty and The creation of mpas (14.5) in order to
multidimensional poverty (deprivation of conserve degraded and threatened species,
non-monetary factors including ecosystem ecosystems, habitats and biodiversity is
services, education, training, sanitation an important factor in the alleviation of
and health) (Liu et al., 2015; ilo, 2016). long-term poverty (Fisher and Christopher,
Protection, restoration and management 2007) (1.1, 1.2). However, mpas can conflict
of critical coastal and marine habitats with the social and economic objectives
(14.2) maintain biodiversity and rebuild of populations who may lose access to the
186 resources therein and can thus constrain KEY UNCERTAINTIES
poverty reduction goals. Their success (1) The main uncertainty relates to main-
therefore depends on how they are taining fish biomass and fishing effort to
LIFE BELOW WATER

developed and managed and how the costs levels that can produce maximum sustain-
and benefits of lost fishing opportunities able yield and at the same time ensure
are shared, for example. profitability to support livelihoods. (2) The
There are many linkages between overall effects of mpas are difficult to es-
target 14.7 and poverty eradication in sids tablish: while limiting access to resources,
and ldcs, which are highly dependent protected areas support the regeneration
GOAL #14

on coastal and marine resources for of degraded habitats and stocks, which
economic development. Sustainable could in turn benefit coastal livelihoods. (3)
development of tourism, fisheries, coastal The impact of ocean acidification it is high-
agriculture, mining, and mariculture can ly species specific which makes it difficult
create jobs for many coastal populations to extrapolate from one species, habitat or
(1.1, 1.2). While these sectors have the area to another.
potential to increase income, maximising
synergies requires the simultaneous KEY DIMENSIONS
development and expansion of social Time: The time needed to restore natural
protection programmes. Depending on resources and ecosystems depends on
the available resources in each country, their status and dynamics. Building
design options can include social infrastructure and establishing support
insurance, old-age pensions, disability programmes takes time, as does
pensions, unemployment insurance and restoration of degraded habitats or fish
skills training (1.3). However, increased stocks.
economic activity can create more pressure
on coastal and marine resources and more Geography: (1) Geographical context is
environmental harm from pollution, and mainly a concern for rural island and
can lead to decreased economic activity, coastal communities, but also for urban
job losses and long-term costs to the local areas and informal settlements of coastal
economy (Kelleher, 2015). cities in less developed regions. (2) There
While climate change impacts on the may be spill-over effects to adjacent
health of marine ecosystems, habitats hinterland communities through trading
and species are not fully understood, of fish or other coastal and marine
minimising and addressing the impacts products.
of ocean acidification (14.3) will reduce
the negative consequences on commercial Governance: (1) Policies and strategies are
species like shellfish, loss of coral needed to ensure that investments are
reefs, and on the size, productivity and made with a focus on addressing the
stability of fish stocks and associated needs of the poor and to tackle spatial
livelihoods and incomes (1.1, 1.2). On the competition. Policies and strategies
other hand, significant changes in local directed at reducing poverty should
weather patterns and sea-level rise may acknowledge the importance of natural
make poverty reduction more difficult; capital for poverty alleviation and promote
prolonging existing poverty and creating sustainable use of natural coastal and
new poverty traps (Olsson et al., 2014). marine resources. Integrated governance
across scales and sectors is essential. (2)
As the transition to a blue economy may
lead to job losses in some traditional
sectors and the replacement of indigenous
technologies by imported technologies,
187 policy measures aimed at job creation in to about 4.5 million tonnes of fish per
other non-marine sectors may be needed to year (fao, 2009). Failure to address iuu
provide alternative livelihoods. fishing for example, which is common
LIFE BELOW WATER

in artisanal (nearshore) and industrial

Technology: Building sustainable fisheries, (further offshore) fisheries (unep / Nairobi
aquaculture and tourism may need context Convention Secretariat and wiomsa, 2015)
specific innovations in gear, monitoring, is expected to cost the South-West Indian
control and facility technology. Ocean region around us$ 400 million per
year (Harris and Gove, 2005).
GOAL #14

Directionality: Interlinkages are bi- An estimated us$ 25 billion per year

directional. Healthy oceans and sustainable is derived from the coastal and marine
use of marine resources are a prerequisite resources in this region (unep / Nairobi
for ocean ecosystem services to contribute Convention Secretariat, 2009), mainly from
to poverty alleviation. At the same time, tourism, fisheries, coastal agriculture,
poverty alleviation will strengthen mining, mariculture, and ports and coastal
capacities and possibilities to conserve and transport. There is enormous potential
sustainably use ocean and coasts. to grow these sectors and to create jobs,
including within associated non-marine
sectors (14.7), with the value of Western
Indian Ocean assets estimated at us$ 333.8
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE billion (Obura et al., 2017). For example,
tourism – the largest contributor to gdp at
THE WESTERN INDIAN over us$ 11 billion per year, equivalent to
OCEAN REGION 40% of the total from marine and coastal
The Western Indian Ocean region includes resources (unep / Nairobi Convention
Somalia, Kenya, Tanzania, Mozambique, Secretariat and wiomsa, 2015) – can create
South Africa and the island states jobs in hotels, restaurants, housing and
of Mauritius, Comoros, Seychelles, residential activities, agriculture and
Madagascar and Réunion (France). It has fisheries and so provide quick revenue
a combined coastline exceeding 15,000 to alleviate poverty (1.1, 1.2). Investment
km (including island states) and a total in infrastructure such as road networks,
continental shelf area of about 450,000 airport facilities, amenities in the coastal
km² (unep / Nairobi Convention Secretariat, and beach zones, and ports for cruise
2009). Except for the Seychelles, tourism can also provide high revenue
Mauritius and South Africa, over 50% of for the economy and so benefit poor
coastal populations have low Human populations (1.1, 1.2).
Development Index (hdi) values and live Marine extractive industries are
below the poverty line (Gössling, 2006; expanding, with Kenya, Tanzania and
undp, 2006). Ensuring that the regions’ Mozambique beginning to explore for
critical habitats (coastal lowland forests, offshore oil and gas which could provide
mangroves, seagrass beds and coral reefs) economic benefits from income and
are protected, restored and managed (14.1, saving on fuel imports that could be
14.2, 14.5 ) is crucial to reducing poverty directed to poverty reduction programmes.
and increasing income for the 65 million Investing the proceeds from these non-
people that live within 10 km of the coast renewable resources into long-term
(Burke et al., 2011). sustainable economic opportunities for
Sustainable fisheries (14.4) are crucial poor populations, creating sovereign
for sustainable economic development of wealth funds, and building human
the countries that together generate about and institutional capacities will reduce
4.8% of the global fish catch; equivalent long-term poverty (1.2).
188 There are currently 83 mpas in the region.
Enhanced conservation measures in
existing mpas, and the creation of new
LIFE BELOW WATER

mpas (14.5) can encourage fee increases

in marine parks and reserves and for
licences (where they exist) and can increase
revenue from the tourism industry to
coastal communities (1.1, 1.2) (unep / Nairobi
Convention Secretariat and wiomsa, 2015).
GOAL #14

Some countries have already set ambi-

tious targets in this regard: Seychelles aims
to establish mpas covering 30% of its 1.4
million km² of its exclusive economic zone
(eez) by 2020 and Zanzibar aims to
establish 15% of its coastal and marine
ecosystems as mpas.
Investment in climate change adapta-
tion (14.3) has great potential to reduce
poverty in coastal populations (1.1, 1.2) while
also reducing their vulnerability to natural
disasters (1.5). In Kenya and Madagascar,
blue carbon projects have been developed
to generate revenue from carbon credits to
coastal communities from the sustainable
management of mangroves.
189
LIFE BELOW WATER
SDG 14 + SDG 2

TARGETS KEY INTERACTIONS SCORE POLICY OPTIONS

GOAL #14

14.2     2.1 Healthy oceans will

enhance fisheries yields +1 Raise awareness of artisanal
fishers and local communities
to the importance of critical
habitats and ecosystems for
their food security and nutrition

14.4     2.1 Sustainable fisheries

are inextricably linked to
fish availability and food
+3 Strengthen and implement
existing laws and policies
to ensure responsible and
security sustainable fisheries and
where possible develop co-
management approaches with
local communities

14.4     2.2 Fish and fishery products

directly enable the
provision of micronutrients
+2 Strengthen and implement
existing laws and policies
to ensure responsible and
sustainable fisheries and
where possible develop co-
management approaches with
local communities

Encourage the use of voluntary

mechanisms such as ecolabels
to encourage safety of fish and
long-term sustainability

14.5     2.1, 2.2 MPAs enhance fish

recruitment in areas
adjacent to them
+1
14.5     2.1, 2.2 MPAs may limit access to
food resources and areas
for aquaculture
-1
14.5     2.5 Depending on their size,
MPAs can maintain
genetic diversity within
+1
species
190 KEY POINTS (Thilsted et al., 2016) for more than 10%
of the global population, especially in
Sustainable fishing and aquaculture
developing nations in the equatorial region
LIFE BELOW WATER

and healthy ocean ecosystems (2.2) (Golden, 2016). If the degradation of

and habitats are key to providing ocean ecosystems (14.1, 14.2, 14.3) and
food security and meeting nutri- decline in fish catches are not addressed
(14.4, 14.6) 845 million people (11% of the
tional needs in many developing and current global population) may become
developed countries micronutrient deficient (Golden, 2016).
GOAL #14

Fish is also essential for growth, brain

function and maintaining the nervous
Increased agricultural productivity
system (Thilsted et al., 2016). This can
to provide food might constrain play a critical enabling role for brain
efforts to reduce marine pollution development and growth in children (2.2)
from agricultural run-off and and the nutrition of the nearly one-fifth
of pregnant women worldwide that have
nutrients iron-deficiency anaemia and the one-third
that are vitamin-A deficient (2.2) (Golden,
2016). Protein and trace elements derived
KEY INTERACTIONS from aquatic sources are added to animal
sdg14 is inextricably linked with enhancing feeds to enhance agricultural productivity
food security (2.1) and nutritional needs (2.3, 2.4) and can increase income for
(2.2) in developed and developing countries small-scale food producers. However,
(Thilsted et al., 2016), and mainly interacts without adequate pollution prevention
with sdg2 through sustainable fishing and measures, marine pollution (14.1) from
aquaculture (14.4, 14.6), safeguarding agricultural run-off of nutrients (nitrogen,
the health of ocean ecosystems and habitats phosphorus) can adversely affect fish
(14.1, 14.2, 14.3), and the creation of availability (2.1, 2.2). While creating mpas
mpas (14.5). In 2010, fish provided more (14.5) can enhance fish recruitment and
than 2.9 billion people with almost 20% of productivity for better food security and
their average per capita intake of animal nutrition, and can increase fish production
protein and 4.3 billion people with about in adjacent areas (2.1, 2.2), they may
15% (fao, 2014). A significant proportion limit access to food resources for coastal
of the food security of nutritionally communities and may limit areas available
vulnerable people (2.1) comes from fish for aquaculture (1.1, 1.2). Depending on
and exceeds that of most of terrestrial their size (large or isolated), mpas can
animal foods (Béné et al., 2016). However, preserve genetic diversity within species
stocks of the most important species (Munguía-Vega et al., 2015) (2.5).
are fully fished and/or overfished and
rebuilding them to biologically sustainable KEY UNCERTAINTIES
levels (14.4) could increase fisheries yields (1) While the link between fisheries and
(2.1) by 16.5 million tonnes (fao, 2014) aquaculture and food security is well
to meet the global demand for fish and established, long-term food security and
fishery products. nutrition depends on the status of stocks,
Responsible and sustainable fisheries and the health of the associated ecosystem.
(14.4) also reinforce target 2.2 by providing (2) A key uncertainty relates to achieving
long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids total food security where access and
and essential micronutrients – vitamins distribution of harvested fish is limited due
D and B and a range of minerals (calcium, to post-harvest losses.
phosphorus, iodine, zinc, iron, selenium)
191 KEY DIMENSIONS ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE
Time: (1) The period required for wild
stocks to recover depends on the
BEACH MANAGEMENT
UNITS IN KENYA AND
LIFE BELOW WATER

stock status after collapse. (2) Building

infrastructure and establishing support TANZANIA
programmes takes time.
Coastal communities in Kenya and
Tanzania rely heavily on fisheries for
Geography: (1) It is mainly rural island and
food security (2.1) and nutrition (2.2). In
coastal communities that are affected, and
Tanzania, 70% of the population relies on
GOAL #14

urban areas and informal settlements of

fish (freshwater and marine) for protein
coastal cities in less developed regions.
(unep/Nairobi Convention Secretariat
(2) There may be spill-over effects to
and wiomsa, 2015). For the last ten years,
adjacent hinterland communities through
beach management units (bmus) have
trading of fish or other coastal and marine
been established in Kenya and Tanzania
products.
as a co-management approach between
government and local communities
Governance: Adopting a nexus approach to
to share responsibilities for resource
fisheries management, marine ecosystem
management and the conservation of fish
conservation and agriculture can help
stocks (14.4) for enhanced food security
overcome trade-offs and maximise
(2.1) and sustainable livelihoods. bmus are
synergies.
currently governed by the Kenya Fisheries
Management and Development Act 2016
Technology: Ensuring sustainable fisheries
and the Tanzania Fisheries Act 2003 and
and aquaculture may need context specific
Fisheries Regulations 2009, and draw their
innovations for monitoring and control of
membership from a wide range of sources
activities, among others.
(fishers, boat owners, boat crew, traders,
processors, boat builders and repairers, net
Directionality: Bi-directional. Sustainable
repairers) with jurisdiction over distinct
seafood is essential to ensure food security,
geographical areas to manage fish landing
especially in coastal areas and islands. At
stations on behalf of fisheries departments
the same time, establishing food security
and are empowered to levy fees (unep/
risks increasing pressure on fish stocks and
Nairobi Convention Secretariat and
marine ecosystems beyond sustainability.
wiomsa, 2015). bmus are now considered
a central element of artisanal fisheries co-
management in Tanzania (over 170 bmus)
and Kenya (73 bmus) (Kanyange et al., 2014).
The shift from a top-down centralised
fisheries governance approach has also
proved useful for addressing the lack of
government staff to manage fisheries
and continued budget cuts (Kanyange
et al., 2014), as well as to reduce conflict
between and among stakeholders. The
bmu approach can play a critical enabling
role to address threats from deteriorating
aquatic habitats (14.2) and declining fish
stocks (14.4) and to enhance food security.
192
LIFE BELOW WATER
SDG 14 + SDG 8

TARGETS KEY INTERACTIONS SCORE POLICY OPTIONS

GOAL #14

14.1, 14.3, 14.4     8.4 Tackling marine pollution, ocean

acidification and unsustainable
fisheries all reinforce the
+2 Establish product lifecycle
monitoring schemes to identify
opportunities to improve
efficient and sustainable resource efficiency and provide
consumption and production of incentives and support for
resources respective innovation

Identify sources and pathways

for marine pollution and improve
production policies and waste
management accordingly

14.2, 14.5     8.1, 8.3 Taking measures to protect

and restore marine and coastal
ecosystems (e.g. establishing
-2 Develop and adopt regional/sea-
basin based marine spatial plans
to coordinate conservation,
MPAs) might entail restrictions economic uses and impacts
for economic activities and in line with sustainable
therefore limit opportunities development criteria
for economic growth and job
creation and vice versa

14.4, 14.7     8.1, 8.5 Sustainable fisheries, aqua-

culture and tourism will
contribute to economic growth
+2 Ensure policies for marine
resource uses like fisheries
include sustainable exploitation
and to achieving full employ- limits and that these are
ment and vice versa implemented, followed-up and
reviewed

Promote job diversification

and development in green/blue
growth sectors in coastal areas

14.7     8.9. Increasing economic benefits

through sustainable coastal and
marine tourism forms part of
-1/ Ensure policies to manage
and develop tourism include
provisions on pollution and
promoting sustainable tourism
as such +1 waste management and respect
conservation needs of sensitive
habitats and species

Build capacities and raise

awareness among actors and
stakeholders on sustainable
practices

Create incentives for sustainable

tourism development
193 KEY POINTS However, measures such as taxes and levies
on plastic bags and fertilisers, may conflict
Protection and restoration of
with other important poverty-reduction
LIFE BELOW WATER

marine ecosystems and fisheries sectors, such as coastal agriculture.

resources and options for short-term Although economic growth and
economic growth, productivity and job creation focused on short-term
developments or entailing negative
job creation policies and measures environmental impacts might be restricted
might constrain each other by conservation policies and measures
GOAL #14

aimed at maintaining marine ecosystem

health and resources, Russi et al. (2016)
Healthy oceans and fisheries
demonstrated that protecting marine and
resources provide the necessary coastal ecosystems is vital for a sustainable
basis for sustainable job and growth blue-green economy in Europe, providing
policies for maritime sectors and livelihood and income opportunities and
helping climate change adaptation in
coastal areas coastal communities.
Ensuring sustainable exploitation of
Coastal tourism is a key contributor marine resources and restoring ocean
to promoting sustainable tourism health will lead to an overall benefit for
sustainable economic development and
as a driver for local employment,
employment. For example, it is estimated
cultures and products that ending overfishing and achieving
sustainable fisheries (14.4) would generate
KEY INTERACTIONS eur 3188 billion annually, which could
sdg 14 and sdg 8 mostly interact through support the equivalent of 32,000 full-time
their targets for conservation and fishing jobs and 69,000 (full- and part-time)
sustainable resource use with the processing jobs every year in the eu
nature of the interaction highly context- alone (nef, 2012). Increasing economic
specific. In general terms, oceans are benefits through sustainable use of marine
important for the global economy and resources to reinforce economic growth
employment; among others, they provide and employment development (8.1, 8.5)
natural resources and space for business can be especially important in sids and
development and are essential for climate ldcs (14.7). For example, capture fisheries
regulation. About 30% of mineral oil is and aquaculture often play a major role in
extracted from the ocean, and shipping national economies of sids, particularly
routes are the most important transport in the Pacific where they can contribute
lanes for global trade (Maribus, 2015). as much as 10% of gdp. Fisheries and
Ocean-based activities are estimated to aquaculture production in this region were
generate global revenue in the range us$ valued at us$ 3.2 billion in 2014 (Gillett,
3–5 trillion per year (fao, 2014). While 2016). Deep-sea mining for minerals is an
designating parts of marine and coastal emerging economic activity that could
areas for protection might constrain provide new income sources to sids and
options for growth and jobs in some ldcs, and generate jobs and growth in
cases, they may help generate jobs and the domestic private sector (unep, 2012).
growth opportunities in others. Tackling However, guidelines and policies for
marine pollution through improving waste their sustainable extraction must first be
management and increasing recycling adopted. Increasing economic benefits
can enable a shift to circular economies, through sustainable marine and coastal
create ‘green’ jobs, and improve tourism. tourism (14.7) forms part of promoting
194 sustainable tourism (8.9) in coastal areas cases will depend on a comprehensive
and islands. Tourism has increased over strategic approach to sustainability of
the past 40 years with coastal tourism economic development, natural resource
LIFE BELOW WATER

now one of the main components in productivity and maintenance of

some areas, especially small island states ecosystem services.
(United Nations, 2016). Tourism represents
5% of world gdp and contributes up to Geography: Concerns mainly island and
7% to employment (unep, 2012). Almost coastal communities. There may be spill-
half of all international tourists travel to over effects into the coastal hinterland.
GOAL #14

coastal areas, in some sids accounting

for up to 25% of gdp (Ramsar and unwto, Governance: Cross-sectoral coordination
2012). The oceanic island characteristics in regulatory and enabling policies
of sids provide large potential for marine and programmes is needed. Integrated
tourism development, as demonstrated in governance across scales and sectors is
Fiji where tourist resort development has essential, especially to ensure synergies are
been combined with traditional coastal utilised. For example, the success of mpas
fishing villages (fao, 2014). In Europe, can depend on how the costs and benefits
coastal and marine tourism is the largest of lost fishing opportunities and mpa
maritime activity, employing almost effects are shared.
3.2 million people and generating eur
183 billion in gross value added in 2011 Technology: Technology and its transfer
(ecorys, 2013). However, coastal tourism are central to various aspects of ocean
can also have negative effects on ocean sustainability. For example to improve
health and sustainable resource use that selectivity of fishing gear or minimise
need to be addressed to ensure sustainable marine pollution from land and sea-
development and to avoid conflict with based sources in order to contribute
other sdg targets (14.1, 14.2, 14.4). These to sustainable economic growth and
include: seasonal increase in consumption, employment.
pollution and waste; development of
infrastructure such as hotels or airports Directionality: Bi-directional. Sustainability
often in or near sensitive habitats like of policies and measures to promote
coral reefs; malpractice in recreational economic growth and employment will
activities such as diving, snorkelling or be directly relevant for conservation and
wildlife watching (wwf, no date); and sustainable use of oceans, seas, and marine
modifications of beaches and coastal resources while their health status will
waters to increase their attractiveness affect growth and job opportunities.
(United Nations, 2016).

KEY UNCERTAINTIES
Interactions are context-specific and
depend on national and local conditions,
cultures and policies.

KEY DIMENSIONS
Time: Short-term growth and employment
opportunities risk being unsustainable
and thus undermining the achievement
of sdg14 and sdg8. Generating sustainable
growth and employment opportunities
will be a long-term investment and in most
195 ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE in annual value in tourism, agriculture
and fisheries alone (bcg, 2013). Building
THE BALTIC SEA on these findings, the eu has launched a
LIFE BELOW WATER

The Baltic Sea is a semi-enclosed inland Baltic Sea agenda identifying options and
sea with around 85 million people instruments for the support of sustainable
within its catchment area (Ahtiainen et blue growth in the region (European
al., 2013). Its resources provide multiple Commission, 2014).
ecosystem services that can contribute
to economic growth, and to increasing
GOAL #14

and diversifying employment in many

sectors including seafood, sand and gravel
extraction, shipping, recreation and
tourism (Ahtiainen and Öhman, 2014). The
three largest maritime economic activities
– fisheries for human consumption,
shipping and ship-building – provided
360,000 jobs and eur 16.6 billion gross
value added in 2010 (eunetmar, 2013). The
maritime sector is central to the economy
and employment in the coastal regions
of all Baltic States. Several segments of
the maritime sector have potential to
help develop economic productivity (8.2)
and full employment (8.5), and to reduce
youth unemployment (8.6). In the period
2008–2010, energy generation by offshore
wind farming in the region increased by
20%, cruise tourism by 11% and marine
aquaculture by 13%. Short-sea shipping,
coastal tourism, yachting and marinas, and
environmental monitoring are considered
to have high growth potential in the Baltic
Sea (Brodzicki and Zaucha, 2013). Tourism
and fisheries are the two most important
sectors for employment, providing 244,000
of 360,000 jobs in the eu maritime sectors
(Brodzicki and Zaucha, 2013). However,
the potential of the blue economy,
especially sectors such as tourism or
marine aquaculture, depends on healthy
oceans and marine resources. The Baltic
Sea is severely affected by eutrophication,
pollution and unsustainable fishing
practices, which threaten ecosystems
and ecosystem services and associated
economic activities such as fisheries and
tourism (helcom, 2010). Failing to restore
the Baltic Sea to good ecological health
will impair its ability by 2030 to add an
additional 550,000 jobs and eur 32 billion
196
LIFE BELOW WATER
SDG 14 + SDG 11

TARGETS KEY INTERACTIONS SCORE POLICY OPTIONS

GOAL #14

14.1  
11.6
  11.1, 11.3, Tackling marine pollution
reinforces the provisioning of
safe housing and quality of basic
+2 Ensure integrated planning and
management in coastal areas;
include integrated coastal
services, sustainable urbanisation management, marine spatial
and integrated settlement planning and harmonise with
planning and management, and urban planning and regional
reducing the environmental development policies; ensure
impact of cities such as in the coherent policymaking across
context of waste management, administrative boundaries
and vice versa including upstream catchment
areas (applies to all target
interactions)

Develop and monitor

implementation of effluent
discharge and waste management
standards and of litter control
and litter prevention measures
in coastal areas as well as in
upstream catchment areas

Ensure participation of societal

actors and stakeholders from
different groups in planning and
decision-making together with
coastal and marine managers,
where relevant (applies to all
target interactions)

Increase public awareness of the

role and importance of coastal
and marine ecosystems (applies
to all target interactions) and
sensitise stakeholders on pollution
prevention

Provide training and capacity

building for practitioners
on integrated planning and
management (applies to all target
interactions

14.2     11.1, 11.3,

11.4, 11.5, 11.6
Sustainable coastal zone
management and protection of
coastal ecosystems reinforces
+2 Ensure that coastal ecosystems
are sustainably managed,
protected or restored, within as
the achievement of various well as around coastal settlements
SDG11 targets, including the
safeguarding of coastal natural
heritage (e.g. coastal wetlands),
and vice versa
197
14.2  
11.3
  11.1, 11.2, Fostering sustainable coastal
zone management and increased
protection efforts for coastal
-1/ Ensure ecological connectivity
between offshore ecosystems,
coastal ecosystems and coastal

-2
LIFE BELOW WATER

ecosystems may result in urban ecosystems and ensure

constraints for or even counteract their protection
the achievement of several SDG11
targets, depending on the strength Promote nature-based solutions
of integration of approaches and to integrate coastal protection,
policies. Interactions may also urban development and coastal
work in the opposite direction conservation
GOAL #14

14.2, 14.5     11.c The construction of new

buildings using local materials
possibly receives constraints,
-1/ Ensure that construction
recommendations and policies
do not counteract policies set up
counteracting or even cancelling
from sustainable ecosystem
management and conservation
-2/ to sustainably manage, protect,
restore and conserve coastal
ecosystems
depending on the strategies and
measures taken under these, and
vice versa
-3
14.3     11.4 Tackling ocean acidification
reinforces the protection and
safeguarding of coastal natural
+2 Enforce climate mitigation and
adaptation measures

heritage such as coral reefs Ensure conservation of critical

coastal ecosystems and integrated
coastal management to build
resilience

14.5  
11.3
  11.1, 11.2, Constraints or counteracting
of SDG11 targets concerning
settlements and transport
-1/ Ensure that sufficient
representative coastal ecosystems
are conserved and protected from
systems in the coastal zone could
arise from increased conservation
efforts in the coastal zone,
-2 human influence

Improve education and increase

depending on the conservation awareness of the role and
status applied or of measures importance of coastal and marine
intended ecosystems and the multiple
benefits from sustainable use and
conservation
198 KEY POINTS KEY INTERACTIONS
Geographically, most interactions
The key linkages are through
between sdg14 and sdg11 occur in coastal
LIFE BELOW WATER

pollution, coastal and marine areas (Agardy et al., 2005; Duxbury and
management including settlement Dickinson, 2007; Stojanovic and Farmer,
planning and infrastructure 2013; Barragán and de Andrés, 2015) but
due to the land-sea nexus and long reach
development (onshore and offshore), of land-based activities, interactions may
and restoration and conservation of span from upstream catchment areas out
GOAL #14

coastal ecosystems into marine waters, especially for pollution

(Agardy et al., 2005; Crossland et al., 2005).
A strong land-sea nexus around human
Conservation is explicitly addressed settlements and urban areas creates
in both sdgs potential for benefits to local communities
and coastal and marine ecosystems as well
as trade-offs. For instance, protecting and
The strong land-sea nexus conserving the coastal environment (14.2,
of interactions is especially 14.5) around urban areas will necessarily
impose urbanisation constraints (Xu et
relevant for settlement planning,
al., 2008), potentially limiting options for
development and infrastructure, ensuring housing and services for all (11.1),
due to a potentially long reach access to transport (11.2) and inclusive
urbanisation (11.3). But tackling marine
between upstream catchments
pollution under target 14.1 reinforces and
and downstream coastal areas and contributes synergistically to ensuring
marine waters safe housing, basic services and upgrading
slums (11.1), enhancing sustainable
urbanisation (11.3) and reducing the
Most linkages have potential for
environmental impact of cities (11.6)
bi-directional effects and include (Nunes et al., 2016). The policy and
synergies and trade-offs. Avoiding management measures required to reduce
negative effects requires integrated coastal and marine pollution (especially
that originating from urban centres)
approaches cognisant of the include upgrading sewage and wastewater
transboundary nature of interactions management systems and improved urban
in coastal zones planning. Furthermore, action on ocean
acidification (14.3) will also benefit the
safeguarding of natural heritage of coastal
Coordinated actions and integrated areas (11.4); coastal ecosystems such as
approaches have potential to coral reefs provide a wide range of benefits
from livelihoods to biodiversity but can be
support both sdgs
severely affected by ocean acidification.
Trade-offs are possible, depending on
whether policies and management are
approached in an integrative manner and
across sectors as well as administrative
or jurisdictional boundaries. Sustainable
management of coastal areas (14.2) can
enable better human settlement planning
and management (11.3), including the
199 provisioning of safe housing or upgrading hinterland, a trend that is regionally
of slums located in the coastal zone (1.1), modified in terms of extent and drivers but
can safeguard natural heritage (11.4) which is generally expected to continue
LIFE BELOW WATER

by ensuring the inclusion of coastal, (Barragán and de Andrés, 2015; Neumann

catchment, and wetland protected areas, et al., 2015; Merkens et al., 2016). About
can contribute to disaster management 65% of all megacities are located in coastal
(11.5) such as the reduction of flooding or areas, and population projections suggest
erosion, and can reduce the environmental the number of megacities will increase
impacts of cities (11.6). Here also, from 20 in 2010 to 25 by 2025 (Brown et
GOAL #14

trade-offs are possible depending on al., 2013). Population growth, urbanisation

how the policies and measures adopted trends and increasing demand and
integrate these targets. Promoting the competition for resources, transport and
construction of new buildings utilising energy are increasing pressure on coastal
local materials (11.c) may have negative zones and their ecosystems, and in turn
impacts on coastal ecosystems and hinder on the capacity to provide resources in
the restoration and protection of marine a sustainable way (Sekovski et al., 2012;
and coastal areas (14.2, 14.5). Although Barragán and de Andrés, 2015).
some countries like the Maldives (Jaleel,
2013) have established strict regulations, KEY UNCERTAINTIES
mining of corals for construction material (1) The main uncertainties concern the
is an issue in many coastal countries and lock-in effects that infrastructure brings to
island states, such as the Solomon Islands cities, and policy and governance decisions
(Albert et al., 2015) and Kiribati (Babinard on urban development. (2) Further
et al., 2014). This is also the case for timber uncertainties concern the socio-economic
extraction from mangroves and sand impacts due to degradation of coastal
mining from coastal systems (Masalu, 2002; habitats and ecosystems, and to the overall
Agardy et al., 2005; Babinard et al., 2014). complexity of interactions within the
In the other direction, target 11.c may coastal social-ecological system.
encounter constraints due to protection
and conservation measures taken under KEY DIMENSIONS
targets 14.2 and 14.5. Time: Decisions are generally of a long-
Overall, implementing sdg14 will term nature because they tend to lock-in
provide opportunities for sustainable technologies and infrastructure with long
coastal development and urbanisation, lifecycles.
and for the protection of cultural and
natural heritage in coastal areas; and Geography: Interactions between sdg14 and
sustainable and integrative settlement sdg11 mainly concern urban settlements
planning and development as promoted in coastal zones, with some effects
under sdg 11 will support the achievement especially pronounced in low-lying coastal
of sdg14 targets aiming at protection and areas, but may also apply to smaller
conservation of coastal and marine areas. coastal settlement structures and regions
Planning and management across scales neighbouring coastal settlements, as well
and sectors, cognisant of the land-sea as to urban areas further upstream within
nexus is therefore essential to reach the catchment (land-sea nexus).
targets from both sdgs and minimise
possible trade-offs. In this context, it is Governance: Strong local governments
important to note that coastal zones show and urban institutions as well as
on average higher population densities coherent policymaking and governance
and experience stronger population across administrative and jurisdictional
growth and urbanisation rates than their boundaries are essential for formulating
200 integrated solutions and effective (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2004,
implementation (i.e. coordination). 2012, 2016). In contrast to regional inland
areas which experience strong population
LIFE BELOW WATER

Technology: Technology is central to some decline, population growth is high in

ocean/coast impacts from cities and human capital cities, most of which occur along
settlements. It is essential for pollution the coast, and in non-metropolitan coastal
management and relevant for disaster areas (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2016).
reduction. Destructive technologies such This coastal migration trend, often referred
as breakwater construction can negatively to as the ‘sea change’ phenomenon and
GOAL #14

influence coastal and marine ecosystems, manifesting in increasing urbanisation

accelerate coastal erosion or cause coastal of the Australian coastline with coast-
squeeze, and so require cautious and specific developments such as ‘canal
integrative planning. estates’ and waterfront housing (Harvey
and Stocker, 2015), has been attributed to
Directionality: Most of the identified lifestyle decisions by residents as well as
synergies and trade-offs have potential for to financial interests of developers and
bi-directional effects. to State government policies (Gurran and
Blakely, 2007; Danaher, 2008). Leading
to further coastal sprawl, these changes
place many pressures on coastal systems
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE (habitat degradation, pollution, changes
EXPLORING LINKAGES in hydrology) as well as on social and
BETWEEN URBANISATION community structures (Green, 2010;
Harvey and Caton, 2010; Stocker, 2012).
AND THE OCEANS AND They also create demand for infrastructure
COASTS IN AUSTRALIA developments (11.2) and challenges for
Being a continent nation, Australia has an coastal planning and management (11.3,
exceptionally long coastline (35,900 km 14.2) and climate change adaptation
without islands), an extensive maritime (11.5), especially since most of these
offshore area connected to large ocean developments occur in low-lying coastal
basins and seas, and over 8200 islands areas (Harvey and Stocker, 2015).
(Short and Woodroffe, 2009; Australian As in many other countries, the
Government - Geoscience Australia, combination of pressures from urban
2016). Owing to their length and extent, development, flood mitigation measures,
Australia’s coasts and marine waters and the use of land and water in and
contain a wide range of ecosystems. around catchment areas and coastlines has
Challenges in ensuring sustainable changed enormously and even destroyed
coastal management (14.2), pollution some Australian coastal ecosystems (14.2)
management (14.1), and a reduction in (Australian Government, 2011; McDonald
urban footprint (11.6), together with the and Foerster, 2016). Low-lying coastal areas
need for sustainable urban development are frequently exposed to flood hazards and
(11.3), safe and sustainable transport coastal erosion (11.5), with climate change
systems (11.2) and disaster risk reduction through sea-level rise increasing exposure
(11.5), result from a combination of both and vulnerability to coastal hazards for met-
human and environmental pressures ropolitan populations as well as for remote
(Stocker et al., 2012). Although the coastal areas (Harvey and Woodroffe, 2008;
Australian coastline has many remote Australian Government, 2011). Australian
sections, about 85% of the population lives coastal waters also contain important
within 50 km of the coast; mostly along shipping routes (Harvey and Caton, 2010).
the east, south-east and south-west coast Commercial and recreational fishing, and
201 aquaculture are other coastal activities that
create environmental concern (Harvey and
Caton, 2010; Australian Government, 2011),
LIFE BELOW WATER

with recreational fishing rated as more

significant than commercial fishing in some
regions (McPhee et al., 2002; Cooke and
Cowx, 2006).
Protecting coastal environments
and critical aquatic habitats (14.2) has
GOAL #14

been designated one of Australia’s six

national priorities under its ‘Caring for
our Country’ programme (Australian
Government, 2013). Important steps
were taken on the protection and
rehabilitation of coastal and aquatic
ecosystems through increased community
participation, the improvement of water
quality, and the protection of Ramsar
wetlands and highly valued ecosystems
such as the Great Barrier Reef. This
included efforts to address key threats
to wetlands, to clean up estuaries and
coastal hotspot areas, and to protect
habitats for biodiversity and ecosystem
services. Australia has also designated 36
marine and coastal wetlands under the
1971 Ramsar Convention, six marine and
coastal World Heritage sites under unesco,
and several small and large-scale coastal
and marine protected areas (14.5). Despite
these achievements and recent efforts
towards more systematic conservation
planning, Barr and Possingham (2013)
found marine conservation in Australia
is lacking representation of the full
range of ecosystems and their diversity.
Conservation of coastal ecosystems
is further challenged by conflicting
interests and jurisdictional issues arising
from multiple land-sea interactions
and transboundary effects, calling
for integrated land-sea conservation
planning and management to tackle these
challenges (Álvarez-Romero et al., 2011;
Kenchington, 2016).
202
LIFE BELOW WATER
SDG 14 + SDG 12

TARGETS KEY INTERACTIONS SCORE POLICY OPTIONS

GOAL #14

14.1     12.1, 12.2,

12.3, 12.4, 12.5
Sustainable production and
consumption, sustainable
management of natural resources,
+3 Develop integrated policies and
action plans on marine litter

recycling, and sound management Promote circular economies and

of chemicals and wastes will help improve recycling along the entire
prevent marine pollution value chain, including streamlining
the prevention of marine litter into
policies related to consumption and
production

14.4     12.2, 12.3 Sustainable fisheries contribute

to sustainable management
of natural resources. Specific
+3 Develop fisheries policies
based on maximum sustainable
yield, promote the adoption
management measures, such as of sustainability and discard
discard bans or selective fishing elimination targets for all fish
methods reduce food losses along stocks and support context-specific
the production chain technical innovation for resource
efficiency

14.4     12.6 Adoption of labelling schemes and

voluntary codes of conduct by
companies by the fishing industry
+1 Promote and establish sound
seafood eco-labelling

will help support sustainable

fisheries

14.7  
12.a
  12.2, 12.3, Increase in benefits for SIDS
from sustainable use of marine
resources can enable sustainable
+3 Strengthen capacities for impact
assessment and sustainable
management of fisheries and
management and efficient use of aquaculture
natural resources, a reduction in
food wastes, and strengthened Establish incentives for sustainable
scientific and technological and resource-efficient use of
capacity marine resources and coastal
areas
203 KEY POINTS and species from harmful effluents
and discharges, involves better waste
Many close synergies between
management and sustainable chemical
LIFE BELOW WATER

sdg 14 and sdg 12 with some policies, and will enable the achievement
targets inextricably linked in both of environmentally sound management
directions of chemicals and wastes (12.4) and a move
towards a circular economy (12.5).
A reduction in food waste at the
Sustainable management and retail and consumer level will support
GOAL #14

protection of marine and coastal more sustainable, less output-orientated

forms of agriculture (e.g. organic or small
ecosystems, and sustainable fishing
holder farming) and so reduce land-based
practices can lead to more efficient pollution, such as from nutrients.
use of natural resources and less Sustainable and efficient use of natural
resources and recycling will decrease fossil
food waste and loss
fuel use (e.g. from smelting or maritime
transportation), and so help reduce ocean
Sustainable consumption and acidification. Tackling marine pollution
production patterns (in agriculture, requires a transformation of production
chains which will encourage companies to
industry, private households) can
develop and improve their sustainability
help prevent and reduce marine policies (12.6). Increasing the role of
pollution, minimise the effects of ecolabels as a tool to drive sustainable
fisheries (14.4) is an additional enabling
ocean acidification, and protect
factor.
marine and coastal ecosystems
KEY UNCERTAINTIES
KEY INTERACTIONS (1) The effects of land-based pollution
sdg14 has close synergistic positive links and the sources of pollutants have
with sdg12 (ranging from ‘enabling’ been well studied in many parts of the
over ‘reinforcing’ towards ‘indivisible’ world. Nevertheless, monitoring data
interactions at the target-level). Achieving for specific types, amounts and sources
sustainable fisheries, restoring stocks and are lacking for many regions. (2) There
ending iuu fisheries (14.4) will contribute are also uncertainties concerning links
to sustainable management and efficient with ecosystem dynamics as well as with
use of natural resources and is therefore management and governance across
indivisible for reaching target 12.2 and sectors to address land-ocean interactions.
reducing food waste (12.3). Likewise,
increasing economic benefits to sids KEY DIMENSIONS
from sustainable natural resources (14.7) Time: The necessary transformational
reinforces the achievement of targets changes will require substantial efforts and
12.2 and 12.3. The marine environment time. Achieving sustainable management
is at the receiving and accumulating end and protection of marine and coastal
of consumption and production chains. ecosystems by 2020 seems unrealistic in
Land-based pollution, such as nutrients light of the time frame for target 12.3
from agriculture and input of wastes, is (sustainable management of natural
among the key impacts on the marine resources by 2030). Achieving sustainable
environment. Tackling marine pollution fisheries by 2020 will contribute to
(14.1) (especially from land-based sources) achieving sustainable natural resource
to protect marine ecosystems, habitats use by 2030. Also, pollutants such as
204 plastic debris, remain long-term in the ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE
environment if not removed, leading to
considerable time lags for environmental
G7 ACTION PLAN TO
COMBAT MARINE LITTER
LIFE BELOW WATER

responses to measures with regard to

sustainable consumption and production Marine litter is one of the main
patterns. contributors to marine pollution. Plastics
are of growing concern owing to their
Geography: Over 70% of the planet’s persistence in the marine environment
surface is covered by oceans, and 20 of and to their impacts on wildlife and
GOAL #14

31 megacities with more than 8 million potentially, humans consuming marine

people are within the low-elevation coastal proteins. In 2010, 275 million tonnes of
zones (Brown et al., 2013). Consumption plastic waste were estimated to have been
and production patterns in coastal generated by 192 coastal countries, with
communities and megacities will greatly 4.8–12.7 million tonnes of this entering the
affect ocean sustainability. At the same ocean (Jambeck et al., 2015). Key factors
time, development in sids will be crucial for the largest amounts of marine litter
given their large proportion of ocean from countries were population size and
space. the quality of waste management. Under a
business-as-usual scenario, the cumulative
Governance: Ocean governance is based amount of plastic waste entering the
on the legal and institutional framework ocean from land-based sources could
established under unclos. Many pressures increase by an order of magnitude by 2025
and drivers of ocean decline are located (Jambeck et al., 2015). The input is not
on land, outside the mandates of marine expected to peak before 2100, and without
management organisations. Greater drastic transformative action in line with
integration between legal governance sdg12 the amount of waste generated
regimes for land, air/climate and the will continue to grow with increased
ocean will create synergies for sdg 14 population and increased per capita
and sdg 12. Voluntary or market-based consumption associated with economic
policy approaches can foster better goal growth (Hoornweg et al., 2013, 2015).
achievement. Growing public awareness has
led to widespread action at different
Technology: Technology is central to scales and by different actors, including
sustainable aquaculture, resource ‘fishing for litter’ initiatives by civil
efficiency and a circular economy. society organisations, scientific research
programmes, national strategies and
Directionality: Bi-directional, but measures by governments or action plans
asymmetric for some targets. Sustainable by international organisations such as the
fisheries will directly support sustainable Regional Seas Conventions. The impacts of
management and efficient use of natural marine litter on ocean sustainability were
resources. For many pressures, the recognised by the 2030 Agenda. Namely,
marine environment is the end point for pollution from land-based activities,
pollutants from unsustainable production including marine debris and nutrient
and consumption patterns on land. pollution (14.1) and floating plastic debris
(14.1.1). Recent studies have also shown
the toxicity of microplastics, for example
leading to reduced fertility of marine
organisms (Cressey, 2016).
In 2015, the Heads of State and
Government of the seven strongest
205 economic countries addressed the of preventing litter (12.1, 12.8); promoting
effects of marine pollution from litter outreach and education activities leading
and adopted the G7 Action Plan to to individual behaviour change that can
LIFE BELOW WATER

Combat Marine Litter. The Action Plan reduce the amount of litter entering the
includes several actions that enable the environment, internal waters and the
achievement of target 14.1 through seas (12.1, 12.8); supporting the initiation
addressing sustainable consumption and of a harmonised global marine litter
production patterns. It reflects the need monitoring effort and the standardisation
to take action outside the traditional of methods, data and evaluation (12.b);
GOAL #14

regulatory scope of regional seas supporting efforts by the United Nations

conventions or other ocean governance Environment Programme and other
bodies and supports an integrated, cross- organisations to help understand the
sectoral approach to reducing marine sources, pathways and impacts of marine
pollution. Although primarily aimed at litter (12.1, 12.8); and supporting and
reducing marine litter there are strong calling for additional research initiatives to
interdependencies with sdg12 and address marine litter (12.a).
reinforcing feedbacks can be expected if
implemented coherently, particular for
targets 12.1, 12.4, 12.5, 12.6, 12.8 and 12.a.
Actions that support target 14.1 and at the
same time directly contribute to sdg 12
include: improving countries’ systems
for waste management, reducing waste
generation, and encouraging reuse and
recycling (12.1, 12.4. 12.5); incorporating
waste management activities into
international development assistance
and investments and supporting the
implementation of pilot projects where
appropriate (12.1, 12.a); investigating
sustainable and cost-effective solutions
to reduce and prevent sewage and
stormwater-related waste, including
microplastics entering the marine
environment (12.1, 12.4); promoting
relevant regulations and incentives to
reduce the use of disposable single-use
and other items, which impact the marine
environment (12.1, 12.4, 12.5); encouraging
industry to develop sustainable packaging
and remove ingredients from products to
gain environmental benefits, such as by
voluntary phase-out of microbeads (12.1,
12.5, 12.6); promoting best practice along
the whole plastics manufacturing and
value chain from production to transport,
such as aiming for zero pellet loss (12.1,
12.6); assessing and analysing removal data
to support and target outreach efforts,
potential policy options, and other means
SDG 14 + SDG 13

TARGETS KEY INTERACTIONS SCORE POLICY OPTIONS

14.1, 14.2, 14.3, 14.4,

14.5, 14.6     13.1
Action taken to strengthen the health
of coastal and marine ecosystems
including fish stocks will reinforce
+2 Enforce climate mitigation measures

Take action to protect, restore and

the strengthening of environmental strengthen the mitigation and adaptation
and societal resilience and adaptive potential and resilience of coastal and
capacities to climate change, and vice marine ecosystems to climate change
versa
Ensure the adequate sharing of information,
data and technologies

Improve education and build awareness

of the benefits arising from sustainable
management and conservation of marine
and coastal ecosystems for climate change
mitigation and adaptation

14.2, 14.3, 14.5  

  13.2, 13.a, 13.b
Action taken for promoting healthy
oceans and coastal systems will
also enable or even reinforce the
+1/ Promote coastal ecosystems as blue
carbon systems for climate change
mitigation where appropriate
development and integration of climate
change measures into policies, planning
and management, such as by promoting
+2 Provide and sustain capacity building and
support to LDCs and SIDS in developing
coastal ecosystems serving as blue and implementing sustainable projects
carbon systems, and vice versa for mitigation, adaptation and resilience
building

Ensure the adequate sharing of information,

data and technologies

14.2, 14.3, 14.4, 14.5,

14.6  
13.3
  13.1, 13.2,
Policies and measure taken to adapt
to climate change may counteract or
even cancel SDG14 targets aiming at
-2/ Ensure coherent and integrated coastal
zone management and coastal protection
management
the protection and conservation of
coastal ecosystems, such as if technical
protection measures fail to provide
-3 Develop nature-based solutions that
promote both coastal and marine
enough space for saltmarshes to keep up conservation and sustainable urban
with sea-level rise (coastal squeeze) development in an integrated way

14.a     13.3, 13.b Increasing marine scientific knowledge,

research capacities and technologies
will enable or even reinforce awareness
+1/ Build human and institutional capacity
and ensure participation of relevant
stakeholders and societal actors in
raising and capacity building for climate
change mitigation measures, planning
and management, and vice versa
+2 policymaking and management

Build transdisciplinary partnerships for

climate change action and programmes

Develop, maintain and support early

warning systems on coastal and marine
hazards
207 KEY POINTS et al., 2014). They also deliver important
maintenance services for fisheries, such
Oceans and coasts are closely linked
as by providing nursery grounds for fish
LIFE BELOW WATER

with mitigation and adaptation (Brander et al., 2012). These processes and
action on climate change and services contribute to building resilience
related hazards, resulting in strong to climate change both for the human and
environmental components of this tightly
synergistic and bi-directional links coupled system.
between sdg 14 and sdg 13 over But marine and coastal ecosystems and
GOAL #14

various targets coastal regions are also directly affected by

climate change (Rhein et al., 2013; Pörtner
et al., 2014; Wong et al., 2014; Stocker, 2015).
Strong synergies exist between Ocean warming and ocean acidification or
sdg 14 and sdg 13 in terms of capacity changes in ocean circulation patterns will
have potentially large impacts on marine
building, knowledge exchange
and coastal ecosystems. These range from
and technological innovation. degradation of coral reefs to changes in
Investment in these areas under species composition and distribution,
with potentially critical effects for fish
either goal will support the
stocks and fisheries (Pörtner et al., 2014;
achievement of targets under both, Visbeck et al., 2014; Wong et al., 2014).
as well as the achievement of targets Coastal ecosystems and human coastal
relevant to building resilience and communities are increasingly exposed to
the effects of sea-level rise and extreme
adaptive capacity
events, especially through coastal flooding
and erosion or saltwater intrusion into
Failing to tackle sdg 13 will have coastal aquifers. Coastal ecosystems may
major consequences for oceans and be unable to cope with the rate at which
sea-level is rising and changes in light
coasts; however, sustainable use and
availability, salinity or circulation patterns
conservation of oceans and coasts are occurring, risking degradation or even
and their resources can contribute ecosystem loss and possibly reducing the
protection and mitigation potential of
to climate change mitigation and
coastal ecosystems (Wong et al., 2014).
adaptation Cumulative impacts from direct
and indirect (via climate change)
human pressures on marine and coastal
KEY INTERACTIONS ecosystems are potentially large and
Oceans and coastal ecosystems are require concerted action in both directions
essential elements of the Earth system, of sdg 14 and sdg 13. Strengthening the
and have an important role in climate resilience of ocean and coastal ecosystems
regulation (Heckbert et al., 2011; Visbeck by reducing pollution (14.1), restoring their
et al., 2014). Coastal ecosystems such as health (14.2), tackling ocean acidification
mangroves have great potential for climate (14.3), managing fish stocks sustainably
mitigation through carbon sequestration (14.4, 14.6) and protecting coastal and
(Luisetti et al., 2013; Warner et al., 2016) marine areas and biodiversity (14.5)
and for adaptation by providing protection helps strengthen the overall resilience
from coastal hazards and climate change and adaptive capacity of coastal systems
impacts such as sea-level rise and increased to climate change (13.1). It will also co-
storminess (Agardy et al., 2005; Spalding facilitate the integration of climate change
208 measures into policies and planning Geography: Interactions primarily concern
(13.2), the promotion of mechanisms for island and coastal zones, but are also of
raising capacity to climate change-related global importance owing to the relevance
LIFE BELOW WATER

planning and management (13.b), and of marine and coastal systems for global
the implementation of commitments climate regulation.
on climate mitigation taken under the
United Nations Framework Convention on Governance: Ocean sustainability
Climate Change (unfccc) (13.a). Increasing needs integrated governance such as
research capacity, scientific knowledge and coordination of regulatory measures and
GOAL #14

marine technology (14.a) can contribute incentives among different sectors and
to developing capacity on climate change across different scales. Besides climate
adaptation and mitigation (13.3) and to change adaptation and mitigation and the
effective climate change planning and overall strengthening of the health and
management (13.b), especially in coastal resilience of coastal and marine systems
ldcs and sids. In turn, targets under in the context of climate change, this
sdg13 that aim at building resilience to also includes energy and technology or
climate-related hazards (13.1), integrating consumption and production patterns.
climate change measures into policies
(13.2), improving education, awareness and Technology: Outcomes depend on technology
institutional capacity (13.3) and addressing transfer for capacity building, but also
the needs of developing countries under on the development of technologies
the unfccc (13.a), for example with regard and measures in consideration of the
to adaptation measures, may support complexity of the system.
sustainable ocean management and conser-
vation (14.2, 14.5). Targets under sdg13 Directionality: While positive synergistic and
may also help reduce ocean acidification bi-directional interactions occur between
(14.3), and have positive impacts on sdg14 and sdg13, there is also potential
fisheries (14.4, 14.6) and economic benefits for negative interactions. The strength of
for sids and ldcs (14.7). Trade-off are impacts, synergies and trade-offs often de-
possible depending on how measures are pends on the degree of policy and manage-
aligned between sdg 14 and sdg 13. ment integration between both goals.

KEY UNCERTAINTIES
There are uncertainties linked to natural
dynamics, the complexity of interlinkages
within the natural system and between
the natural and the human systems, and to
management and good governance.

KEY DIMENSIONS
Time: (1) The timing of ocean and coastal
restoration and conservation depends
on natural dynamics and the level of
degradation. Building capacity takes time
but has a long-term effect. (2) Climate
change-related planning and management,
and adaptation and mitigation measures,
have different time scales of implemen-
tation and effect and should thus always
complement each other.
209
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE Conserving and enhancing sinks and
reservoirs of greenhouse gases (Art. 5) and
THE PARIS AGREEMENT establishing mechanisms to contribute
LIFE BELOW WATER

The fundamental global agenda for to the mitigation of greenhouse gas emis-
combating climate change is the United sions and to support sustainable
Nations Framework Convention on development (Art. 6). These elements
Climate Change (unfccc, 1992). The most have synergistic links to targets 14.2 and
recent agreement under the unfccc, 14.5 when considering the carbon sink
the Paris Agreement, entered into force potential of coastal ecosystems and the
GOAL #14

on 4 November 2016. This agreement need to protect, conserve or restore

“aims to strengthen the global response this potential. Such mechanisms could also
to the threat of climate change, in the be established under target 13.b.
context of sustainable development and Strengthening adaptation options and
efforts to eradicate poverty” (unfccc, “enhancing adaptive capacity, strength-
2015). Key elements of the Paris Agreement ening resilience and reducing vulnerability
of relevance to oceans and coasts, their to climate change, with a view to
contributions to sdg13 and the achievement contributing to sustainable development”
of sdg14 include the following. (Art. 7). This is a direct link to target
Holding the increase in global tempera- 13.1, but also contains an indirect and
ture to below 2°c and aiming for a synergistic link to sdg14 targets working
maximum of 1.5°c above pre-industrial towards healthy and resilient marine
levels (Art. 2). This long-term temperature and coastal ecosystems (14.1, 14.2, 14.5,
goal will support the achievement of 14.4, 14.6).
targets that aim at healthy and resilient Addressing loss and damage “associ-
marine and coastal ecosystems (14.2, ated with the adverse effects of climate
14.5) and those that promote sustainable change, including extreme weather events
fisheries management (14.4, 14.6) and and slow onset events, and the role of
economic benefits for sids and ldcs (14.7). sustainable development in reducing the
Although science has issued warnings risk of loss and damage” (Art. 8). This
that the agreed temperature limits could directly links to both sdgs by addressing
have critical effects on the Earth system the protective potential and mitigation po-
(Knutti et al., 2016), slowing global tential of coastal ecosystems (13.1, 14.2, 14.5).
warming will support the overall strength- Reaffirming the obligations of devel-
ening of resilience and adaptive capacity oped countries for supporting developing
of the natural system and the human Parties in their efforts on mitigation and
system towards climate change (13.1). adaptation to climate change through
Targeted reduction of emissions and finance and voluntary support, technology
achieving of a balance between greenhouse transfer and capacity building (Arts. 9,
gas emissions and sinks in the latter 10, 11). These goals directly link to all targets
half of the 21st century, including success- under sdg13 but measures taken here will
ful preparation, communication and also benefit the achievement of sdg 14 due
maintenance of Intended Nationally to the central role that oceans and coasts
Determined Contributions (indcs) as play in the climate system.
established under Art. 4. Reducing green- Implementing the Paris Agreement will
house gas emissions and concentrations thus support achieving sdg 13 and sdg 14
in the atmosphere is fundamental for and the 2030 Agenda as such. However,
minimising ocean acidification (14.3), and aligning policies and developing integrated
the required indcs relate directly to approaches will be essential for ensuring
targets 13.2 and 13.3. the best possible outcomes and for minimis-
ing potential trade-offs.
 GOAL #14 LIFE BELOW WATER 210

SCORE

-3
0
+3
14.2 1.1, 1.2 +
14.2 1.5
14.3 1.1, 1.2

+2 +2 +2 +2
14.4 1.1, 1.2
SDG 1

-1
14.4 1.1, 1.2

+2
14.4 1.4

-1
14.5 1.1, 1.2

+3
14.7 1.1, 1.2

-1
14.7 1.1, 1.2

+2
14.7 1.3
+

+1
14.2 2.1
KEY INTERACTIONS

14.4 2.1

+3

+2
14.4 2.2

+1
14.5 2.1, 2.2
SDG 2

-1
14.5 2.1, 2.2

+1
14.5 2.5
SDG 14 WITH OTHER GOALS

+2
14.1, 14.3, 14.4 8.4

-2
14.2, 14.5 8.1, 8.3
+2

14.4, 14.7 8.1, 8.5

/
-1
+1
14.7 8.9
SDG 8
 +
GOAL #14 LIFE BELOW WATER 211

14.1 11.1, 11.3, 11.6

+2 +2
14.2 11.1, 11.3, 11.4, 11.5, 11.6

/
-1
14.2 11.1, 11.2, 11.3

/
-3
-2 -1
14.2, 14.5 11.c

SDG 11

+2
14.3 11.4

/
-2
-1
14.5 11.1, 11.2, 11.3 +

14.1 12.1, 12.2, 12.3, 12.4, 12.5

+3 +3
14.4 12.2, 12.3

+1
14.4 12.6

+3
14.7 12.2, 12.3, 12.a
SDG 12
+

+2
14.1, 14.2, 14.3, 14.4, 14.5, 14.6 13.1

/
+2

+1
14.2, 14.3, 14.5 13.2, 13.a, 13.b

/
-3
-2
14.2, 14.3, 14.4, 14.5, 14.6 13.1, 13.2, 13.3

/
+2

+1
14.a 13.3, 13.b
SDG 13

-3
+3
SCORE
212
LIFE BELOW WATER
KNOWLEDGE GAPS

Knowledge gaps exist in relation to all an integrated information base on oceans,

GOAL #14

sdg 14 targets and their interactions seabed resources, marine life, and risks
with other targets in the 2030 Agenda. to habitats and ecosystems. The table
The reasons for these gaps and their provides a non-exclusive list of knowledge
dimensions vary. In some cases (such as gaps that have been identified in relation
food security and sustainable fisheries, to the target-level interaction analysis
or maritime industries and job creation), provided in this chapter.
interactions have already been analysed
and are regularly monitored in many
marine regions and countries. In contrast, 14 + 1
for example in the relation between The social and economic value of oceans,
marine conservation and poverty ecosystem services, and risk analysis (in
alleviation or between marine ecosystems relation to extractive industries) in low-
and climate change, knowledge is limited, income countries within their coastal
fragmented or exists only in generic terms waters and eezs
often not updated on a regular basis. The
knowledge gaps that exist are not always The impact of an expansion in blue jobs,
caused by lack of data or information value addition, and new technologies on
but also access restrictions, lack of jobs in traditional sectors
standardised data collection protocols, lack
of coordination across political or sectoral Options to maintain fish stocks at
boundaries, or by capacity limitations for biologically sustainable levels by limiting
the analysis and translation of data and fishing effort while ensuring profitability
other types of information into policy Human and institutional capacity gaps in
advice. low-income countries
In general terms, integrated research,
monitoring and data analyses will be 14 + 2
needed in combination with targeted Under- or misreporting of landings of
capacity development to fill existing artisanal catches in low income countries
knowledge gaps. Having regard to limited Stock assessments in artisanal fisheries in
resources especially in sids and ldcs, low-income countries
consideration should also be given to the
development and applicability of data-poor 14 + 8
assessment approaches and models. How marine ecosystem services link to
Sea-basin based open-access platforms economic and social development in
to marine data should be created. concrete terms and how this changes
They could for example be developed over time. Especially in developing
based on existing platforms or as joint countries, this links to limited expertise on
initiatives by member states and existing valuation techniques, their application and
regional organisations. They should be collection of the necessary data
interoperable and free of restrictions on
use, with the specific target of developing
213 How to minimise negative effects of How human health is affected by the
economic and social development on release of microplastics to the marine
marine ecosystems ecosystems
LIFE BELOW WATER

The potential for sustainable blue growth 14 + 13

in individual marine regions, sea basins What are the effects and impacts of the
and countries long-term temperature targets established
under the Paris Agreement, on oceans,
The value of ecosystem services (especially seas, coasts and their ecosystems
GOAL #14

non-marketed ones) and how to integrate

monetised and non-monetisable values for What are the impacts of climate change on
policy analysis and reporting the health of marine ecosystems, habitats
and species in low-income countries, and
14 + 11 how can these be mitigated or reduced
How increased coastal development,
urbanisation and coastal environments How resilient are marine and coastal
interact and influence each other ecosystems to climate change, and what
How urban and regional planning and are suitable and effective conservation and
fiscal policies influence the coastal management measures to provide climate
environment and vice versa, and how mitigation, nature-based adaptation and
to develop integrated cross-boundary the reversion of negative effects such as
governance (i.e. across the land-sea nexus) coral bleaching
and across administrative boundaries and
jurisdictions The influence of climate change on fish
stocks
Gaps in capacity, especially in developing
countries, for ensuring sustainable
human settlement planning and regional
development

14 + 12
The status of stocks and fisheries including
the level of discards and how they should
be managed to provide for maximum
sustainable yield

How aquaculture affects marine systems in

specific contexts, particularly with regard
to inputs of chemicals and nutrients to the
marine environment and to effects on wild
fish stocks and how these can be reduced

How to minimise post-harvest loss in

seafood production and supply chains,
especially through small-scale artisanal
fisheries

How to achieve better waste management,

recycling and reduce marine pollution of
all kinds, including marine debris
214
CONCLUDING
COMMENTS

sdg14 plays a cross-cutting role in the 2030

Agenda, interacting with many other
sdgs. Transformation towards more inte-
grated and aligned policies and measures
in response to these interactions, backed
by tailor-made capacity building and
strengthened institutions, is a prerequisite
for achieving the 2030 Agenda.
Progress has been made towards more
integrated governance of the ocean.
However, silo-based decision-making often
irrespective of ecosystem-dynamics and
meaningful ecological boundaries still pre-
vails in many cases. Decision-ma­k­­­­ing
needs to take due account of the environ-
mental dimension as an indispensable
enabler for sustainable development and
ensure that this dimension is not lost
when negotiating between conflicting goals
and targets, especially in relation to
potential trade-offs and conflicts. To date,
degradation of the marine environment
has outpaced development of the interna-
tional ocean governance landscape.
Achieving sdg14 and its associated targets,
and other sdgs where the ocean plays
a crucial role will thus depend on a robust
implementation framework, including
mechanisms for tracking commitments,
regional cooperation and integrated
thematic assessments (Unger et al., 2017).
Building on these general considera-
tions, the six summary tables in the
target-level interactions section provide
options for how policy could address the
specific target interactions in practice.
Although addressed to specific target
interactions, many of these policy options
are also relevant for other interactions.
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