2023

Matter and Materials

Reddam House – Grade 9

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Physical Sciences Department
1/1/2023
Matter
Key words: element, compound, chemical formula, pure substance, periodic table

Matter is anything that occupies space and possesses mass. Everything around us consists of matter.

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 Examples:

Air; tap water;

cooldrink;metal alloys
e.g. brass;steel; bronze
Metals

Non
metals

An element is a pure substance that cannot be broken down into any simpler substances by chemical
means.

The periodic table is a table of over 110 elements, each represented by symbols. In 1869, a Russian
chemist, Dimitri Mendeleev, drew up the first version of the Periodic Table.

2|Page Dimitri Mendeleev

 Alkaline

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Other important elements to know:

iron Fe lead Pb
gold Au copper Cu
silver Ag bromine Br
zinc Zn

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A compound is a pure substance that is formed by the chemical combination of two or more elements in
a fixed ratio by mass.

Water, for example, is a compound. It consists of molecules made up of two hydrogen atoms and one
oxygen atom that are covalently bonded together. ( H2O)

Each compound has a chemical formula that shows the ratio of elements that are present in that
compound.

Atomic Theory – what does our atom look like today?

In 1805, John Dalton put forward one of the first significant atomic theories based on his experiments
and evidence. He made these assumptions:

 All matter consists of solid indivisible particles called atoms

 Atoms can neither be created or destroyed
 All atoms of the same element are identical
 Atoms combine in whole number ratios with one another
 An atom is the smallest unit of an element
 Compounds are formed when two or more atoms combine

In 1879, Sir JJ Thomson established what become known as the “plum pudding” model of the atom.

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This was a vital model, as he assumed that there were electrons.

Sir Ernest Rutherford, in 1910, conducted an experiment that came to some wonderful conclusions for
the atomic theory model of matter:

 Most of the volume of the atom is an empty space

 A small nucleus exists in the centre of the atom
 The nucleus is composed of positively charged particles called protons
 Most of the mass of the atom is concentrated in the nucleus
 The electrons are constantly moving

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Neils Bohr in 1922 was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics for his contribution to the development of
the atom. He constructed an atomic model which explained the basic structure of the atom as we know
it today.

Sir James Chadwick discovered the existence of uncharged particles in the nuclei of the atom. These
uncharged particles became known as neutrons. The neutrons accounted for the extra mass of an
atom, previously unaccounted for by the mass of the protons alone.

The present day periodic table

Atomic
Mass(A)

Symbol

Name of
Atomic element
number
(Z)

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On the periodic table each horizontal row is called a period. (principle energy levels)

The vertical columns are called the groups.(number of valence electrons) The elements in each group
have similar chemical properties.

Group I Alkali Metals

Group II Alkaline Earth Metals

The elements found between Group II and Group III are called transition elements.

Group VII Halogens

Group VIII Inert gases

Group VIII, for example, are all colourless, odourless gases that are stable elements because they do not
react easily with other elements.

TASK: CONSTRUCT A PERIODIC TABLE OF THE FIRST TWENTY ELEMENTS USING AN A4 SHEET OF PAPER
IN LANDSCAPE FORMAT; MAKE EACH BLOCK ,4 BLUE LINES ACROSS BY TWO CENTIMETRES DOWN.

The Atom
The atom consists of protons which are positively charged, electrons which are negatively charged and
neutrons that have no charge.

The nucleus of the atom contains both the protons and the neutrons and constitutes most of the mass
of the electron. It is positively charged due to the number of protons present. Both the neutrons and
the protons combined together are called the nucleons.

The electrons move about in energy levels which contain orbitals around the nucleus. Their mass is so
small, that it is considered to be negligible.

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 Particle Symbol Charge Mass
Proton P+ +1 1u
Neutron n0 0 1u
Electron e- -1 1/ 1840 u

u = 1 atomic mass unit = 1,7 x 10-27 kg

e = the charge on an electron = 1,6 x 10-19 C

Subatomic particles include the atomic constituents electrons, protons, and neutrons. Protons and
neutrons are composite particles, consisting of quarks. A proton contains two up quarks and one down
quark, while a neutron consists of one up quark and two down quarks; the quarks are held together in the
nucleus by gluons. There are six different types of quark in all ('up', 'down', 'bottom', 'top', 'strange', and
'charm'), as well as other particles including photons and neutrinos which are produced copiously in the
sun. Most of the particles that have been discovered are encountered in cosmic rays interacting with
matter and are produced by scattering processes in particle accelerators. There are dozens of subatomic
particles.

Ref: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subatomic_particles

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Questions for revision:
1. Name the elements with the following symbols:
(a) C-
(b) Ca -
(c) B-
(d) Li -
(e) Al -
(f) Be -

2. Write the symbols for the following elements:

(a) Copper -
(b) Zinc -
(c) Iron -
(d) Gold -
(e) Nitrogen -
(f) Hydrogen -

3. Draw a lithium atom according to a combination of Rutherford and Bohr’s atomic theories. Label
all the parts of the atom.

4. Match the correct answer in column B with the corresponding word in column A

Column A Column B
1. atomic number A. negligible mass
2. protons B. number of protons in an atom
3.atomic mass C. Cu
4.electrons D. both protons and neutrons
5. symbol for an atom E. positively charged

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Activity:

The following task is to help you to understand the patterns and relationships that exist between the
atoms of the first twenty elements of the Periodic Table.

Using a page in landscape draw the electronic structures of the 1st 20 elements in order, according to
their positions on the periodic table. Draw circles in pencil representing the energy levels.

E1 is the first energy level and can contain a maximum of

2 electrons

E2 is the second energy level and can contain a

maximum of 8 electrons

E3 is the third energy level and can contain a maximum

of 8 electrons

E4 is the fourth energy level and we will only draw a

maximum of 2 electrons here.

The period number represents the number of energy levels and the group number the number of
valence electrons.

An orbital is a space where the probability of finding an electron or an electron pair is the greatest. Only
a maximum of two electrons will exist in an orbital. An atom is mostly space, about 98%, with the
nucleus being a very small, dense, positively charge structure situated in the centre of this “space”.

The valence electrons are situated furthest from the nucleus and possess the most energy.

Atoms are trying to reach a lower energy state and they do this by bonding with other atoms. They are
said to be stable when they have the correct number of valence electrons in their outermost energy
level. These valence electrons are the ones that an atom either loses, gains or shares with another atom
when two or more atoms bond chemically with each other to form stable electronic structures.

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Task:

Take a close look at the electronic structures you have drawn. Look at the atoms of the Group I
elements.

How many electrons would each atom have to lose to acquire a stable electronic structure?

What Group of elements already have stable electronic structures?

Now look at the atoms in Groups II, III and IV. Can you see that they would lose 2, 3 or 4 valence
electrons to acquire stable electronic structures.

NOTE: Group IV elements would generally tend to share electrons when bonding with other elements.

Look at the elements in Groups V, VI and VII. It appears that they would rather gain 3, 2 and 1 electrons
respectively, to acquire stable electronic structures.

The number of electrons that a neutral atom (in its ground state) either loses, gains or shares to acquire
a stable electronic structure is called its valency.

Group I II III IV V VI VII VIII

valency 1 11 111 1V V V1 V11 0
Valence 8 (He has
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
e- 2)
ion 1+ 2+ 3+ 3- 2- 1- 0
Lose valence electrons share Gain or share

Summary: Valency

* The valency of an element is the number of electrons which each atom loses, gains, or

shares when it reacts with and bonds with another atom.

* For elements in Groups I - IV: the valency is given by the Group number.

* For elements in Groups V - VII: the valency is given by (8 - the Group number).

* The elements in Group VIII are chemically stable and do not readily react. Their

valency is 0.

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An atom in its ground state is electrically neutral. This means that there is a balance of charge, an equal
number of protons and electrons.

7
Li 3

An atom is defined as the smallest part of an element or compound that can take part in a chemical
reaction.

When two or more non-metal atoms combine with each other they share electrons and form larger
particles called molecules.

A molecule is the smallest particle of an element or compound that can exist on its own and retain the
properties of the element or compound.

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When a non-metal atom combines chemically with a metal atom the metal atom tends to lose its
valence electrons and becomes a positively charged atom called a cation and the non-metal atom will
gain those valence electrons to become a negatively charged atom called an anion. The resulting three
dimensional structure of positive and negative ions (charged atoms) is called a crystalline lattice.

Example of cation:

Example of anion:

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Lewis dot diagrams

Lewis structures (also known as Lewis dot diagrams) are diagrams that show the positions of the
valence electrons of a particular atom. These structures can also be used to indicate bonding between
the different atoms.

Na •

The Lewis structure was named after Gilbert N. Lewis, who introduced it in his 1916 article The Atom
and the Molecule.

The total number of electrons represented in a Lewis structure is equal to the number of valence
electrons in each individual atom of an element.

There is a set pattern to work with the dots or (crosses) :

1. Once the total number of valence electrons has been determined, electrons must be placed
around the symbol of the element.

2. They should be placed initially in a number sequence: one pair of dots (crosses) for each pair of
valence electrons.
5 8

1
4
7 E 2

3 6

Task: Draw the Lewis dot diagrams for the first 20 elements on the periodic table.

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 Chemistry – Test your knowledge

Section A – Multiple Choice

Various possibilities are suggested as answers but only one is the correct answer.

1. The symbol for an oxygen atom is

A. O B. N C. C D. S

2. The symbol for the element copper is

A. C B. Cu C. Co D. Ca

3. The symbol for chlorine gas is

A. Cl B. HCl C. Cl2 D. HTH

4. How any different elements are in the substance copper (II) sulphate?

A. 3 B. 4 C. 5 D. 6

5. How many atoms are there in two water molecules ( 2 H2O)

A. 3 B. 6. C. 4 D. 5

Section B:

1. Write down the names and NOT the symbols of the elements that best fit the following
descriptions:
1.1 A metal in group 1 with valence electrons in the third energy level.
1.2 A metal in group two that burns with a bright white flame colour in the air.
1.3 Two metals that make up the alloy brass.
1.4 A yellow non- metal in group six.
1.5 A non-metal in period four with seven valence electrons.
1.6 A substance that makes up 78% of the air.
1.7 An inert gas in period two.
1.8 A non-metal that makes up the substances coal and a diamond.
1.9 A liquid metal.
1.10 A non- metal in group six that burns with a blue flame.

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 2. 28
X
14
Consider the following symbol representing an atom of an element on the periodic table.
X is not the actual symbol, but the numerical information given is correct.
2.1 What is the actual symbol of this element?
2.2 Give its atomic number.
2.3 Give its mass number.
2.4 How many protons has this atom got?
2.5 How many nucleons has it got?
2.6 Will it tend to lose or gain or share electrons when it combines with other elements?
How many neutrons does it have?
2.7 Draw a Lewis dot diagram for this atom.

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Charge

* The charge that an atom acquires when it loses or gains electrons may be determined

by the valency of the element.

GROUP VALENCY CHARGE

Group I (Alkali metals) 1 1+ METALS

tend to form
Group II (Alkaline earth metals) 2 2+ positively
charged ions
Transition elements 2 (variable) generally 2+ (Fe; Zn; Cu)

Group III 3 3+

Group IV 4 generally no ion formed

Group V 3 (8-5=3) 3- NON-METALS

tend to form
Group VI 2 (8-6=2) 2-
negatively
charged ions
Group VII (Halogens) 1 (8-7=1) 1-

Group VIII (Noble gases) 0 no ion formed

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Try this TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE worksheet and fill in the values on the table:

name symbol Group Number Period Number of valency Symbol of ion

number of number energy levels and the charge
valence
electrons
hydrogen
helium
lithium
beryllium
boron
carbon
nitrogen
oxygen
fluorine
neon
sodium
magnesium
aluminium
silicon
phosphorous
sulphur
chlorine
argon
potassium
calcium

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 Balancing of equations

Law of conservation of atoms:

In any chemical reaction atoms can neither be created nor destroyed. The total number of atoms in the
reaction remains constant. ie. The number of atoms is conserved in any chemical reaction.

Step one:

Write down the reactants on the left hand side of the equation. Separate the REACTANTS and the
PRODUCTS with an arrow.

Step two:

There are some atoms that are called diatomic molecules. These are never found on their own. They are:

H2, (hydrogen)N2 (nitrogen), O2, (oxygen) Cl2, (chlorine) F2, (fluorine)

Br2 (bromine) and I2 , (iodine)

Step three:

Write the formulae for the product on the right hand side of the equation. Check the valency of each
element and cross multiply by the numbers. If the valencies are the same then do not cross multiply.

1
Na O 2 = Na2O 2
Mg O 2 = Mg O
Note: for Mg and O the valencies are the same;
Step four:

Balance the equation, remembering the law of conservation of atoms.

Hint: If the oxygen atoms are balanced the equation is balanced.

Example: Magnesium ribbon burns in oxygen and forms magnesium oxide

Step 1: Mg + O (remember that some substances exist on their own as diatomic molecules)

Step 2: Mg + O2

Step 3: Mg + O2  Mg O (check valencies of both)

Step 4: 2 Mg + O2  2 MgO

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Now try these:

1. lithium + oxygen  lithium oxide

1 2
Li + O2  Li2O

4 Li + O2  2 Li2 O + E (flame colour- red)

2. hydrogen + oxygen  water vapour

3. sodium + chlorine  sodium chloride

4. calcium + sulphur  calcium sulphide

5. potassium + bromine  potassium bromide

6. hydrogen + sulphur  hydrogen sulphide

7. hydrochloric acid + magnesium  magnesium chloride + hydrogen gas

8. nitric acid + calcium oxide  calcium nitrate + water

9. sulphuric acid + copper(II)carbonate  copper(II)sulphate + carbon dioxide + water

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Experimental investigations: Reactions of metals with oxygen

Experiment 1: To investigate the reaction when iron is burnt in oxygen.

1. Write the word equation for this reaction:

_____________________________________________________________________________

2. Now write this reaction as the balanced chemical equation: ( iron has a valency of 2)

______________________________________________________________________________

3. Observe what is happening in this reaction:

Metal Appearance before Description of Appearance of Name + formula of

Name + burning reaction and product after the product
symbol flame colour burning

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Experiment 2: To investigate the reaction when magnesium ribbon is burnt in oxygen.

1. Write the word equation for this reaction:

_____________________________________________________________________________

2. Now write this reaction as the balanced chemical equation:

______________________________________________________________________________

3. Observe what is happening in this reaction:

Metal Appearance before Description of Appearance of Name + formula of

Name + burning reaction and product after the product
symbol flame colour burning

What colour does universal indicator paper turn when dipped into a solution of magnesium oxide in
water? Explain this observed change.

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Experimental investigations: Reactions of metals with oxygen

Experiment 3: To investigate the reaction when zinc is burnt in oxygen.

4. Write the word equation for this reaction:

_____________________________________________________________________________

5. Now write this reaction as the balanced chemical equation:

______________________________________________________________________________

6. Observe what is happening in this reaction:

Metal Appearance before Description of Appearance of Name + formula of

Name + burning reaction and product after the product
symbol flame colour burning

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Experimental investigations: Reactions of metals with oxygen

Experiment 4: To investigate the reaction when copper is burnt in oxygen.

7. Write the word equation for this reaction:

_____________________________________________________________________________

8. Now write this reaction as the balanced chemical equation:

______________________________________________________________________________

9. Observe what is happening in this reaction:

Metal Appearance before Description of Appearance of Name + formula of

Name + burning reaction and product after the product
symbol flame colour burning

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 Formation of rust

Metal such as iron reacts slowly with oxygen at room temperature but quite quickly when heated.

When iron reacts slowly with oxygen in the air and moisture (water) it forms a complex compound,

part of which is iron oxide. We call this reddish-brown substance rust. The rust is a form of corrosion.

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 Experimental investigations: Reactions of non-metals with oxygen

Experiment 1: To investigate the reaction when sulphur burns in oxygen.

1. Write the word equation for this reaction:

_____________________________________________________________________________

2. Now write this reaction as the balanced chemical equation:

______________________________________________________________________________

3. Observe what is happening in this reaction:

Non-Metal Appearance before Description of Appearance of Name + formula of

Name + burning reaction and product after the product
symbol flame colour burning

What colour does a piece of wet universal indicator turn when the gas dissolves in the water on the paper?

S (s) + O2 (g)

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Experiment 2: To investigate the reaction when carbon burns in oxygen.

1. Write the word equation for this reaction:

_____________________________________________________________________________

2. Now write this reaction as the balanced chemical equation:

______________________________________________________________________________

3. Observe what is happening in this reaction:

Non-Metal Appearance before Description of Appearance of Name + formula of

Name + burning reaction and product after the product
formula flame colour burning

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 CHEMICAL BONDING

The valency of an element is the number of valence electrons lost, gained or shared to acquire a
stable electronic structure.

When metals combine with non-metals, the metals lose their valence electrons and the non-
metals gain those valence electrons. This results in the formation of positively charged metal
atoms called cations and negatively charged non-metal atoms called anions.

Chemical bonding which involves the transfer of electrons and the formation of ions is
called IONIC BONDING.

sodium metal + chlorine gas sodium chloride

2 Na(s) + Cl2(g) 2 Na Cl (s)

lithium + fluorine gas lithium fluoride

potassium + chlorine gas potassium chloride

magnesium + oxygen gas magnesium oxide

2 Mg(s) + O2(g) 2 MgO(s)

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calcium + oxygen gas calcium oxide

magnesium + fluorine gas magnesium fluoride

sodium + oxygen gas sodium oxide

aluminium + fluorine gas aluminium fluoride

aluminium + sulphur aluminium sulphide

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 Simple tests :

Test for carbon dioxide:

Bubble carbon dioxide gas through

clear limewater; the solution goes
milky indicating the presence of
CO2 (g)

Limewater is a calcium hydroxide

solution; Ca(OH)2 (aq)

The “milkiness” is the formation of

an insoluble white soild called a
precipitate. (ppt)

CO2 (g) + Ca(OH)2 (aq) CaCO3 (ppt) + H2O (l)

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 Test for hydrogen:

2 H2 (g) + O2 (g) 2 H2O (g) + energy

Test for oxygen:

A glowing splint will reignite in the presence of oxygen, O2 (g).

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 Reactions of metal in water

Experiment 1: Lithium in water.

1. What is observed when lithium reacts with water? What gas is released and what colour does

universal indicator paper turn when dipped into the solution?

_____________________________________________________________________________

2. Now write this reaction as the balanced chemical equation:

______________________________________________________________________________

3. Observe what is happening in this reaction:

Metal Appearance before Description of Appearance of Name + formula of

Name + being placed in reaction product afterwards products
symbol water

4 Li + O2  2 Li2O + E 2 Li + 2 H2O  2 LiOH + H2

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 Experiment 2: Sodium in water.

What did you observe during the

reaction____________________________________________________________________________

1. Now write this reaction as the balanced chemical equation:

______________________________________________________________________________

2. Observe what is happening in this reaction:

Metal Appearance before Description of Appearance of Name of product

being placed in reaction product afterwards
water

4 Na + O2  2 Na2O + E 2 Na + 2 H2O  2 NaOH + H2

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 Experiment 3: Potassium in water.

1. Write the word equation for this reaction:

_____________________________________________________________________________

2. Now write this reaction as the balanced chemical equation:

______________________________________________________________________________

3. Observe what is happening in this reaction:

Metal Appearance before Description of Appearance of Name of product

being placed in reaction product afterwards
water

4K + O2  2 K2O + E 2 K + 2 H2O  2 KOH + H2

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 COVALENT BONDING occurs when non –metal atoms share electron pairs due to their
orbitals overlapping.

Write down the names and give a formula of each of the molecules represented by
the bonding structures, next to the given diagrams.

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 ACID REACTIONS

An acid is a substance containing the element hydrogen, which can be replaced by a metal
(metal cation) to form new compound called a SALT

Bases are compounds that will neutralize an acid to form a SALT and WATER.

Learn the following

Hydrochloric acid HCl form salts called CHLORIDES Cl 1-

Nitric acid HNO3 form salts called NITRATES NO31-

Sulphuric acid H2SO4 form salts called SULPHATES SO42-

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 The pH scale and some common household acids and bases

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 A table of some useful bases

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 A table of some common acids

When an acid reacts with a metal it will form a SALT and HYDROGEN GAS.

hydrochloric acid + zinc zinc chloride + hydrogen gas

sulphuric acid + iron iron (ll ) sulphate + hydrogen gas

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When an acid reacts with a carbonate it will form a SALT, WATER and CARBON DIOXIDE GAS.

nitric acid + copper (ll) carbonate copper (ll) nitrate + water + carbon dioxide

sulphuric acid + sodium carbonate sodium sulphate + water + carbon dioxide

An acid reacting with a metal oxide (basic oxide) will form a SALT and WATER.

nitric acid + calcium carbonate calcium nitrate + water

hydrochloric acid + copper (ll) oxide copper (ll) chloride + water

An acid plus an alkali will form a SALT and WATER

sulphuric acid + sodium hydroxide sodium sulphate + water

hydrochloric acid + lithium hydroxide lithium chloride + water

nitric acid + calcium hydroxide calcium nitrate + water

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