CHAPTER 3

Symbolic Logic

INTRODUCTION:
Logic plays a very important role in mathematics – it is the foundation on which the
discipline is built. Remember all the proofs you had to write to establish some theorems in
algebra and geometry? You start with the given assumptions, use definitions and perhaps some
known results, and argue logically to establish the conclusion. We consider mathematics as a
language with its own symbols and “grammar”. These symbols may represent various
mathematical objects like numbers, sets, or functions. The grammar will be the rules when
combining these symbols. We apply logic to deduce properties of these objects and rules based
on some axioms. One cannot overemphasize the importance of logic in mathematics, but logic,
or logical reasoning, is just as important in our everyday life. In this era of fake news, post-
truths, false advertising, we must be able to discern what is true or false. We should be able to
determine if a certain argument is valid or not.

OBJECTIVES:

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

1. identify the different statements;

2. classify statements as simple or compound statements;
3. write statements symbolically;
4. negate simple and compound statements;
5. use the truth table to determine the truth value of a statement;
6. determine whether an argument is valid or invalid using truth tables; and
7. identify logical patterns.

LESSON 1 Logical Statements and Quantifiers

The great German philosopher, writer and mathematician Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz
(1646–1716) was among the first to realize the need to formalize logical argument forms. It
was his dream to create a universal formal language of science that would translate all
philosophical arguments to symbols and variables (symbolic logic) in place of natural language,
such as English, in order to remove vagueness.

A statement or a proposition is a declarative sentence that can be objectively

determined to be true or false, but not both.
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Consider this example:

 Radioactive ants can make you a

SENTENCES superhero. (false)
 Radioactive ants can make STATEMENT
you a superhero. (can be determined as  Buroyloganay festival is the
true or false but not both) festival in Sibalom, Antique. (true)
 Buroyloganay festival is the
festival in Sibalom, Antique.  13 + 12 = 25 (true)
 13 + 12 = 25.

 Make me a pot.
 What makes a better
student?  Make me a pot. (command sentence,
cannot be determined as true or false)
 Wow!
Not a STATEMENT
(cannot be determined as  What makes a better student?
True or false) (question/interrogative sentence, cannot be
determined as true or false)

 Wow! (exclamatory sentence, cannot be

determined as true or false

Example: Recognizing Statements.

Decide which of the following are statements and which are not by writing the word “yes”
before the number if it is a statement and “no” if it is not a statement.

(a) Bamboo is the strongest tree.

(b) Do you believe that bamboo can be considered as a grass?

(c) Hey, that’s awesome!

(d) 28 ÷ 7 + 6 - 2 = 49

(e) This house is made up of bamboos.

(f) For me, seeing you happy makes me inspired.

Solution:
a. Bamboo is the strongest tree. a. it is a statement, can be judged as true or
false in an objective manner.

b. Do you believe that bamboo can be considered b. not a statement, because it is a question.
as a grass?

c. Hey, that’s awesome! c. not a statement, because it is an

exclamation.

d. 28 ÷ 7 + 6 - 2 = 49 d. it is a statement, can be judged as true or

false in an objective manner.

e. This house is made up of bamboos.. e. it is a statement, can be judged as true or

false in an objective manner.

(f) For me, seeing you happy makes me inspired. f. not a statement, it gives an opinion.

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Simple Statements and Compound Statements

A simple statement contains only one idea.

Examples:
 Your uniform is red.
 This university is surrounded by beautiful trees.
 Muscovado sugar is very nutritious.

A compound statement is formed by joining two or more simple statements with a

connective.
Examples:
 April studied for 5 hours, and she got the highest score.
 Mary will run in a mini triathlon or she will play in the campus tournament.
 If you are vaccinated with anti-covid vaccine, then you are 80% safe from the
infection of virus.

Example: Classifying Statements as Simple or Compound

Classify each statement as simple or compound.

(a) Our school mascot is an ant.

(b) If you register for Wi-Fi service, then you will get 3 days of free access.

(c) Tomorrow is the last day of registration for online classes.

(d) In this time of pandemic, I will stay at home or go for a vacation.

Solution:
a. Our school mascot is an ant. a. There are no connectives involved, so this is
a simple statement.

b. If you register for Wi-Fi service, then you will b. This if . . . then statement is compound.
get 3 days of free access.

c. Tomorrow is the last day of registration for c. This is a simple statement.

online classes.

d In this time of pandemic, I will stay at home or d. Ultimately, this statement could be restated
go for a vacation. as “I will stay at home, or I will go for a
vacation”, which makes it a compound
statement.

Quantified Statements

Quantified statements involve terms such as all, each, every, no, none, some,
there exists, and at least one.
The first five (all, each, every, no, none) are called universal quantifiers because they
either include or exclude every element of the universal set.

The latter three (some, there exists, at least one) are called existential quantifiers
because they claim the existence of something, but do not include the entire universal set.

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all, each, every, no, some, there exists, at

none least one

UNIVERSAL EXISTENTIAL
QUANTIFIERS QUANTIFIERS

Here are some examples of quantified statements:

Every student in the university are required to make their LMS account.

No student should left behind.

Some people who are skilled in bamboo furniture making are also skilled in pottery
making.

There is at least one professor in this school who is not fully vaccinated.

Negations of Statement

The negation of a statement is a corresponding statement with the opposite truth value.

The typical way to negate a simple statement is by adding the word not. If the statement
already includes the word not, then remove it to form the negation.

Here are some examples of negations:

Statement Negation of the Statement

Pacquiao will win on his fight. Pacquiao will not win on his fight.
I uploaded my work today. I did not upload my work today.
My phone cannot access the internet. My phone can access the internet.
Six plus seven is not equal to 13. Six plus seven is equal to 13.

Negations of Quantified Statements

We can summarize the negation of quantified statements as follows:

Statement contains… Negation of quantified

terms
All do/ Every Some do not
Some do All do not/ None do
Some do not All do/ every
None do Some do
All are Some are not
Some are None are or All are not

(In this setting, we define the word some to mean at least one.)

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This diagram should help you remember the negations for quantified statements. The
statements diagonally opposite each other are negations.

All are None are or All are not

Some are Some are not

Example 3.3 Writing Negations Of Quantified Statements

Write the negation of each of the following quantified statements.

QUANTIFIED STATEMENTS NEGATION OF QUANTIFIED STATEMENTS

Every student in the university Some students in the university are not required to
are required to make their LMS make their LMS account.
account.

Some people are skilled in No people are skilled in bamboo furniture making.
bamboo furniture making

There is at least one

professor in this school who is All professors in this school are fully vaccinated.
not fully vaccinated.

No student should left behind. At least one student should left behind.

Symbolic Notation

Symbolic logic uses letters to represent statements and special symbols to represent
words like and, or, and not.

Use of this symbolic notation in place of the statements themselves allows us to

analytically evaluate the validity of the logic behind an argument without letting bias and
emotion cloud our judgment.

Symbols for the Connectives

Name Connective Symbol

Conjunction and ˄
Disjunction or ˅
Conditional If … then →
Biconditional If and only if ↔

We often use parentheses in logical statements when more than one connective is
involved in order to specify an order. Simple statements in logic are usually denoted with
lowercase letters like p, q, and r.

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Write in conjunction, disjunction, conditional and biconditional and translate to symbol the two
statements below.

We could use “p” to represent the statement “I am vaccinated” and “q” to represent the
statement “I will be safe from the spread covid-19.”

a. CONJUNCTION

p = “I am vaccinated” q = “I will be safe from the spread covid-19.”

conjunction statement is

“I am vaccinated and I will be safe from the spread of covid-19”.

p q
in symbol,

p⋀q
b. DISJUNCTION

p = “I am vaccinated” q = “I will be safe from the spread of covid-19.”

disjunction statement is

“I am vaccinated or I will be safe from the spread of covid 19”.

p q
in symbol,

p⋁q

c. CONDITIONAL

p = “I am vaccinated” q = “I will be safe from the spread of covid-19.”

conditional statement is

“If I am vaccinated then I will be safe from the spread of covid-19”.

p q
in symbol,

p→q
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d. BICONDITIONAL

p = “I am vaccinated” q = “I will be safe from the spread of covid-19.”

biconditional statement is

“I am vaccinated if and only if I will be safe from the spread of covid-19”.

p
q
in symbol,

p↔q

SYMBOL FOR A NEGATION

Earlier, we discussed about the negation of simple statement. Here, we introduce the
symbol ∼ (tilde/curl) to represent a negation.

For example, p represents the statement “I am vaccinated”.

p = “I am vaccinated” Its negation is ∼p = “I am not vaccinated”.

Explanation: p represents “I am vaccinated,” then ∼p represents “I am not vaccinated.”

Example 3.4 Writing Statements Symbolically

Let p represent the statement “It is cloudy” and q represent the statement “I will go to the
beach.” Write each statement in symbols.

p = “It is cloudy.” q = “I will go to the beach.”

(a) I will not go to the beach.

Solution: First identify the connector and, or, if… then, if and only if, keyword in each statement,
then rewrite using the appropriate symbol.
Side note:
I will not go to the beach.
Connector symbol
This is the negation of statement q; in symbol, ~q
and ∧
or ˅
(b) It is cloudy, and I will go to the beach. If … then →
If and only if ↔
Solution:
It is cloudy, and I will go to the beach. negation ∼

This is the conjunction of p and q; in symbol, p ∧ q.

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(c) If it is cloudy, then I will not go to the beach.

Solution:
If it is cloudy, then I will not go to the beach.

This is the conditional of p and the negation of q; in symbol, p → ∼q.

(d) I will go to the beach if and only if it is not cloudy.

Solution:
I will go to the beach if and only if it is not cloudy.

This is the biconditional of q and not p: in symbol, q ↔ ∼p.

Example 3.5 Translating Statements from Symbols to Words

Write each statement in words. Let p = “My performance in GEC 4 is excellent” and q = “My
performance in art class is poor.”

p = “My performance in GEC 4 is q = “My performance in GEE 1 is

excellent.” poor.”

(a) ~p

Solution:
~p: My performance in GEC 4 is not excellent.

(b) p∨q
Solution:
p ∨ q: My performance in GEC 4 is excellent or my performance in GEE 1 is poor.
(c) ~p → q

Solution:
~p → q: If my performance in GEC 4 is not excellent, then my performance in
GEE 1 is poor.

(d) q↔p
Solution:
p: My performance in GEE 1 is poor if and only if my performance in GEC 4 q ↔is
excellent.

(e) q∧p
Solution:
q ∧ p: My performance in GEE 1 is poor and my performance in GEC 4 is excellent.

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LESSON 2 TRUTH TABLES, TAUTOLOGY,CONTRADICTION

and CONTINGENCY
A truth table is a diagram in table form that is used to show when a compound
statement is true or false based on the truth values of the simple statements that make up the
compound statement.

Negation

According to our definition of a statement, a statement is either true or false, but never both.

Consider the simple statement p = “I understand the lesson.”

If it is in fact that you understand the lesson, p is true (T), then its negation “I don’t
understand the lesson” is false (F).

if p is true
p = “I understand the lesson.” ~p = “I don’t understand the lesson.”
then ~p is
false
True False

If it is in fact that you don’t understand the lesson, ~p is true (T), then its negation “I
understand the lesson” is false (F).

if ~p is
~p = “I don’t understand the lesson.” true then p p = “I understand the lesson.”
is false
T F
Truth Values for a Negation

The truth table for the negation of p looks like this.

There are two possible conditions for the statement p (true or false) and the table tells us that
in each case, the negation ~p has the opposite truth value.

p ~p

T F If statement p is true, its negation is false.

F T If statement p is false, its negation is true.

Truth Values with Two Simple Statements

If we have a compound statement with two component statements p and q, there are four
possible combinations of truth values for these two statements:

p q
1. p and q are both true T T
2. p is true and q is false T F
3. p is false and q is true F T
4. p and q are both false F F

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a. Conjunction (and)

The conjunction p ∧ q is true only when both p and q are true.

The truth table below summarizes the possibilities for the conjunction, “I bought a new
computer and a new iPad.”

p = “I bought a new computer.”

q = “I bought a new iPad.”
p q p∧q
Bought computer and iPad T T T
Bought computer, not iPad T F F
Bought iPad, not computer F T F
Bought neither F F F

b. Disjunction (Or)

The disjunction p ∨ q is true when either p or q or both are true. It is false only when both p
and q are false.

The truth table below summarizes the possibilities for the disjunction, “I bought a new
computer or a new iPad.”

p = “I bought a new computer.”

q = “I bought a new iPad.”
p q p∨q
Bought computer and iPad T T T
Bought computer, not iPad T F T
Bought iPad, not computer F T T
Bought neither F F F

c. Conditional (If…then)

A conditional statement, which is sometimes called an implication, consists of two simple

statements using the connective if . . . then. The first component is called the
hypothesis/antecedent. The second component is called the conclusion/consequent.

The conditional statement p → q is false only when the hypothesis/antecedent p is true and the
conclusion/consequent q is false.

The truth table below summarizes the possibilities for the conditional, “If the Lakers will win
tomorrow, then they make the playoffs”.
p = “The Lakers will win q = “They make the playoffs.”

Hypothesis/ Conclusion/
antecedent consequent

p q p→q
Lakers win, make playoffs T T T
Lakers win, don’t make playoffs T F F
Lakers lose, make playoffs F T T
Lakers lose, don’t make playoffs F F T

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d. Biconditional (If and only if)

A biconditional statement is really two statements; it’s the conjunction of two conditional
statements. In symbols, we can write either p ↔ q or (p → q) ∧ (q → p).

The biconditional statement p ↔ q is true when p and q have the same truth value and is false
when they have opposite truth values.

p q p↔q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T

COMPLETE LIST OF TRUTH VALUES FOR CONJUCTION, DISJUNCTION,

CONDITIONAL AND BICONDITIONAL

Conjunction Disjunction Conditional Biconditional

(and) (or) (If… then) (if and only if)
p q p∧q p∨q p→q p↔q
T T T T T T
T F F T F F
F T F T T F
F F F F T T

Example Constructing a Truth Table Construct a truth table for the statement ~p ∨ q.
Solution:
Step 1 Set up a table as shown. The order in which you list the T’s and F’s doesn’t matter as
long as you cover all the possible combinations. For consistency, we’ll always use the
order TTFF for p and TFTF for q when these are the only two letters in the logical
statement.

p q
T T
T F
F T
F F

Step 2 Find the truth values for ~p by negating the values for p, and put them into a new
column, column 3, marked ~p.

Truth values for ~p are opposite those for p. Column 3

p q ~p
T T F
T F F
F T T
F F T

Step 3 Find the truth values for the disjunction ~p ∨ q.

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Use the T and F values for ~p and q in columns 3 and 2 respectively, remembering that
a disjunction is false only when both components are false.
The truth values for the statement ~p ∨ q are found in column 4.

Column 2 Column 3 Column 4

p q ~p ~p ∨ q Remember the definition,

T T F T
T F F F The disjunction is false only when both
F T T T components are false.
F F T T

Example Constructing a Truth Table Construct a truth table for the statement
~ (p → ~q).

Solution:
Step 1 Set up a table as in Example 1.
p q
T T
T F
F T
F F

Step 2 Find the truth values for ~q by negating the values for q, and put them into a new
column 3 marked ~q. Truth values for ~q are opposite those for q.
Column 3

p q ~q
this statement
T T F
T F T ~ (p → ~q)
F T F
F F T

Step 3 Find the truth values for the implication p → ~q using the values in columns 1 and 3
respectively, remember that an implication is false only when the antecedent is true
and the consequent is false (in our example antecedent is p, consequent if ~q)

Column 1 Column 3 this statement

p q ~q p → ~q
~ (p → ~q)
T T F F
T F T T
F T F T Remember the definition,
F F T T
the CONDITIONAL is false only when the antecedent is
true and the consequent is false.
Hypothesis/a Conclusion/c
ntecedent onsequent

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Step 4 Find the truth values for the negation ~ (p → ~q) by negating the values for p → ~q
in column 4.

The truth values for ~ (p → ~q) are in column 5. Notice that, the statement is true
only when p and q are both true.

Column 4 Column 5
over all statement

p q ~q (p → ~q) ~ (p → ~q) ~ (p → ~q)

T T F F T
T F T T F
F T F T F
F F T T F

Example Constructing a Truth Table Construct a truth table for the statement

p ∨ (q → r).
Solution:
Step 1 Set up a table as shown.

The order in which you list the T’s and F’s doesn’t matter as long as you cover all the
possible combinations. For consistency, we’ll always use the pattern shown for 3 letters.

p q r
1 T T T Side note:
2 T T F
Since we have 2 values (T & F) and 3 letters,
3 T F T p, q, r,
4 T F F the number of combination is
5 F T T
23 = 2 ∙ 2 ∙ 2 = 8 combinations
6 F T F
7 F F T
8 F F F

Step 2 Find the truth value for the statement in parentheses, q → r.

The CONDITIONAL is false only when the antecedent is true and the consequent is
false. The rest is true. .
this statement
p q r q→r
p ∨ (q → r)
T T T T
T T F F
T F T T Remember the definition,
T F F T
the CONDITIONAL is false only
F T T T
when the antecedent is true and
F T F F the consequent is false.
F F T T
F F F T

Hypothesis/
Conclusion/
antecedent
consequent

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Step 3 Find the truth values for the disjunction p ∨ (q → r), using the values for p from column
1 and those for q → r from column 4.

The disjunction (∨) is false only when both components are false.

The truth values for the statement p ∨ (q → r) are found in column 5. Notice in column
5 that the statement is true unless p and r are false while q is true.

Column 1
Column 4 Column 5

p q r (q → r) p ∨ ( q → r)
T T T T T
T T F F T
T F T T T Remember the definition,
T F F T T
F T T T T The disjunction (∨) is false only
F T F F F when both components are false.
F F T T T
F F F T T

Tautology, Contradiction and Contingency

A compound proposition that is always true, regardless of the truth values of the
propositions that occur in it, is called a tautology. A contradiction is a compound proposition
that is always false while a contingency is neither a tautology nor a contradiction.

Example Determine if the given proposition is a tautology, contradiction or contingency. Show

using truth table.

1. � ∨ � ∧∼ � ↔ � ∨ �

Solution: Using truth table, you can come up with

� � ∼ � � ∧∼ � � ∨ � ∧∼ � � ∨ � � ∨ � ∧∼ � ↔ � ∨ �
T T F F T T T
T F F F T T T
F T T T T T T
F F T F F F T
Since the result in the final column of the truth table showed to be true, the proposition
is said to be a tautology.
2. � → � ↔ ∼ ∼ � →∼ �

Solution: Using truth table, you can come up with

� � ∼� ∼� �→� ∼ � →∼ � ∼ ∼ � →∼ � �→� ↔ ∼ ∼�→

∼�
T T F F T T F F
T F F T F F T F
F T T F T T F F
F F T T T T F F

In this problem, the last column of the truth table appeared to be false. Therefore,
the proposition is a contradiction.

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3. � ∧∼ � → ∼ � ∨ �

Solution: Using truth table, you can come up with

� � ∼� ∼� � ∧∼ � ∼�∨� � ∧∼ � → ∼ � ∨ �

T T F F F T T
T F F T T F F
F T T F F T T
F F T T F T T
The result of truth table showed that a combination of true and false appeared on
the last column. Thus, it is neither a tautology nor a contradiction which is also called
contingency.

Conditional and Related Statements

Equivalent Forms of the Conditional

Every conditional statement can be stated in many equivalent forms. It is not necessary
to state the hypothesis/antecedent before the conclusion/consequent. For instance, the
conditional “If I live in Sibalom, then I must be an Antiqueño” can also be stated as “I must be
an Antiqueño, if I live in Sibalom.”

The following table lists some of the various forms that may be used to write a
conditional statement.

Every conditional statement � → � can be written in

the following equivalent forms (Aufman, et. al, 2014).
If �, then �. Every �, is a �.

If �, �. �, if �.

� only if �. � provided that �.

� implies � � is a necessary condition for �.

� whenever � � is a sufficient condition for �.

Example 3.12 Write a statement in an equivalent form.

a. The number is an even number provided that it is divisible by 2.

Solution:
The statement “The number is an even number provided that it is divisible by 2,” is in “�
provided that �” form. The hypothesis/antecedent is “it is divisible by 2” and the
conclusion/consequent is “the number is an even number.” Thus, its “If �, then �” form is
If it is divisible by 2, then the number is an even number.

b. Today is Friday, only if yesterday was Thursday.

Solution:
The statement, “Today is Friday, only if yesterday was Thursday,” is in “� only if �” form.
The hypothesis/antecedent is “today is Friday.” The conclusion/consequent is “yesterday
was Thursday.” Its “If �, then �” form is
If today is Friday, then yesterday was Thursday.
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c. Every Square is a rectangle.

Solution:
The statement, “Every Square is a rectangle.” is in “Every � is a �” form. The
hypothesis/antecedent can be stated as “A geometric figure is a Square.” The
conclusion/consequent can be stated as “It is a rectangle.” Its “If �, then �” form is
If a geometric figure is a square, then it is a rectangle.

Converse, Inverse, and Contrapositive

Every conditional statement has three related statements. They are called the converse,
the inverse and the contrapositive.
Statements Related to the Conditional Statement

The converse of � → � is � → �.

The inverse of � → � is ∼ � →∼ �.

The contrapositive of � → � is ∼ � →∼ �.

The above definitions show the following:

 The converse of � → � is formed by interchanging the hypothesis/antecedent � with the
conclusion/consequent �.
 The inverse of � → � is formed by negating the hypothesis/antecedent � and negating
the conclusion/consequent �.
 The contrapositive of � → � is formed by negating both the hypothesis/antecedent �
and the conclusion/consequent � and interchanging these negated statements.

Example 3.133Write the converse, inverse, and contrapositive of

If you stayed at home, then you are safe.
Solution:
Converse: If you are safe, then you stayed at home.
Inverse: If you didn’t stay at home, then you aren’t safe.
Contrapositive: If you aren’t safe, then you didn’t stay at home.

Truth Tables for Conditional and Related Statements

� � Conditional Converse Inverse Contrapositive
�→� �→� ∼ � →∼ � ∼ � →∼ �
T T T T T T
T F F T T F
F T T F F T
F F T T T T

� → � ≡∼ � →∼ �

� → � ≡∼ � →∼ �

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Example:

Consider the statement:

All even numbers are divisible by two.

Formulate the statement as a conditional and give its converse, inverse, and contrapositive.

Answer:

Conditional: If it is an even number, then it is divisible by two.

Converse: If a number is divisible by two, then it is an even number.
Inverse: If it is not an even number then it is not divisible by two.
Contrapositive: If it is not divisible by two, then it is not an even number.

LESSON 3 VALID ARGUMENTS

An argument is consists of a set of statements called premises and another statement

calles the conclusion. An argument is valid idf the conclusion is true whenever all the premises
are assumed to be true. An argument is invalid if it is not a valid argument.
Let us look at the valid arguments given:

1. All dogs are hairy. Cotton is a dog. Therefore, Cotton is hairy.

2. All dogs are hairy. My pet Donut is not hairy. Therefore, Donut is not a dog.
3. All cats are mammals. All mammals are animals. Therefore, all cats are animals.

Arguments of the above form are always valid and satisfy valid argument forms called
modus ponens, modus tollens, and syllogism, respectively.
To define the form of these arguments, recall that the conditional � ⟶ � is equivalent to the
universal statement “All � are �.” So, we have can restate the above as

We have the following general forms:

Modus ponens/ Law of Detachment

If it is a dog then it is hairy. �⟶�

Cotton is a dog. �

Therefore, Cotton is hairy. Therefore, �

Modus tollens/ Law of Contraposition

If it is a dog then it is hairy. �⟶�

My pet Donut is not hairy. ~�

Therefore, My Pet Donut is not a dog. Therefore, ~�

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Syllogism

If it is a cat, then it is a mammal. �⟶�

If it is a mammal then it is an animal. �⟶�

Therefore, if it is a cat, then it is an Therefore, � ⟶ �

animal.

We can use truth tables to show the validity of these arguments. In particular, we find
the truth value of the conditional whose premise is the conjunction of the premises and the
conclusion is the given conclusion in the argument, that is,

1. (Modus ponens) � ⟶ � ∧ � ⟶ �
2. (Modus tollens) � ⟶ � ∧ ~� ⟶ ~�
3. (Syllogism) � ⟶ � ∧ � ⟶ � ⟶ � ⟶ �

If the statement is true for each of the four cases in the truth table, then the argument
is valid. In this case, we call the statement a tautology and the conditionals given are in fact,
implications. We have the following truth tables:

1. Modus ponens
� � �⟶� �⟶� ∧� [ � ⟶ � ∧ �] ⟶ �
T T T T T
T F F F T
F T T F T
F F T F T

2. Modus tollens
� � ~� �⟶� � ⟶ � ∧ ~� ~� � ⟶ � ∧ ~� ⟶ ~�
T T F T F F T
T F T F F F T
F T F T F T T
F F T T T T T

3. Syllogism (Note we have three statements �, �, �.)

�⟶� ∧ �⟶�
� � � �⟶� �⟶� �⟶� ∧ �⟶� �⟶�
⟶ (� ⟶ �)
T T T T T T T T
T T F T F F F T
T F T F T F T T
T F F F T F F T
F T T T T T T T
F T F T F F T T
F F T T T T T T
F F F T T T T T

Example: Deciding if an Argument is Valid

Determine if the following argument is valid or invalid.

If the ad campaign is a success, the marketing manager won’t lose her job.

The marketing manager lost her job.

Therefore, the ad campaign wasn’t a success.

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Solution:
Step 1: Write the argument in symbols.

Let p = “The ad campaign is a success,” and let q = “The marketing manager loses her job.”

Translated into symbols:

A line is used to separate the premises from the conclusion and the three triangular dots ∴
mean “therefore.”

Step 2: Write the argument as an implication by connecting the premises with a conjunction
and implying the conclusion.

Step 3: Construct a truth table for (p → ~q) ∧ q ⇒ ~p

� � ~� ~� � ⟶ ~� � ⟶ ~� ∧ � (p → ~q) ∧ q ⟶ ~p
T T F F F F T
T F T F F F T
F T F T T T T
F F T T T F T

Step 4: Determine the validity of the argument.

Since all the values under the ⇒ are true, the argument is valid.

Example: Deciding if an Argument is Valid

Decide if the argument is valid.

Solution:
Step 1: Write the argument in symbols. (already done)

Step 2: Write the argument as an implication by connecting the premises with a conjunction
and implying the conclusion.

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Step 3: Construct a truth table. When there are three premises, we will begin by finding the
truth values for each premise and then we’ll work the conjunction from left to right.
� ⟶ � ∧ � ∧ � ∧ � ⇒ (~� ⟶ �)

�⟶� ∧ �∧�
� � � ~� � ⟶r �∧� �⟶� ∧ �∧� �⟶� ∧ �∧� ∧ � ~� ⟶ � ∧ � ⟶ (~� ⟶ �)
)
T T T F T T T T T T
T T F F F F F F T T
T F T T T F F F T T
T F F T F F F F T T
F T T F T T T F T T
F T F F T F F F T T
F F T T T F F F F T
F F F T T F F F F T

Step 4: Determine the validity of the argument. It’s a tautology, so valid.

Fallacies
Consider the two invalid arguments:

1. All dogs are hairy. My pet Cotton is hairy. Therefore, Cotton is a dog.
2. All cats are mammals. My pet Donut is not a cat. Therefore, Donut us not a mammal.

These are examples of two invalid argument forms, the fallacy of the converse and the
fallacy of the inverse, respectively. In symbols, these are of the form:

Fallacy of the Converse Fallacy of the Inverse

�⟶� �⟶�
� ~�

Therefore � Therefore ~�

Let us look at the truth tables for these two arguments. We consider the two conditionals
� ⟶ � ∧ � ⟶ � and � ⟶ � ∧ ~� ⟶ ~� .

1. (Fallacy of the Converse) �⟶� ∧� ⟶�

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2. (Fallacy of the Inverse) � ⟶ � ∧ ~� ⟶ ~�

Observe that unlike the valid argument forms, the arguments given above are not
tautologies since they are not true for each of the four cases. They are called fallacies. The
argument � → � ∧ � → � is false when � is true and � is false, and � → � ∧ ~� → ~� is
false when � is false and � is true.

Other Fallacies

We also have fallacies other than the forms given above. In fact, we probably encounter
these fallacies more frequently:

1. Ad Hominem. The argument is based on the character of the opponent instead of the
argument itself. This may also involve insulting the opponent to make opponent’s
argument seem false.

Example: Maria wears leather shoes, so she cannot be a vegetarian

2. Ad Populum. This fallacy occurs when an argument is assumed to be valid since many
people believe in it.

Example: Surveys indicate that 55% of the population believe that use of
contraceptives is dangerous. Therefore, contraceptives should be banned.

3. Appeal to Authority. The argument is claimed to be valid because a famous or

famous person, who is not an expert in the pertinent field, supports it.

Example: Brand X is the best toothpaste since our president uses it.

4. False Cause. This fallacious argument correlates two events, even if unrelated.

Example: Every time I go to sleep, the sun goes down. Therefore, my going to sleep
causes the sun to set.

5. Hasty Generalization. In this fallacy, a generalization is made based on a few

examples supporting the claim.

Example: I don’t excel in tennis. I also don’t excel in volleyball. Therefore, I don’t excel
in sports.

There are two big lessons to be learned in this section.

 First, the validity of an argument is not about whether the conclusion is true or false—
it’s about whether the conclusion follows logically from the premises.
 Second, sometimes an argument can appear to be legitimate superficially, but if you
study it carefully, you may find out that it’s not.

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Example:

Determine whether the following arguments are valid, using the given forms of valid arguments
and fallacies.

Solution:
(a) This is the modus ponens/law of detachment, therefore a valid argument.

(b) This fits the modus tollens/law of contraposition with the statement ~� substituted
in place of �, so it is valid.

(c) This fits the fallacy of the converse, using statement ~p and ~q rather than p and q,
so it is an invalid argument.

(d) This is the law of syllogism, with statements ~r, s, and t, so the argument is valid.

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