of St. Thomas and became monk.

This
General Biology is also where he performed his pea plant
studies. Mendel chose the legumes
2 garden peas or Pisum sativum
hybridization for his experiments.

Genetics Garden Pea (Pisum sativum)

 Easy to grow

A chromosome consists of a DNA

molecule, which serve as the repository
of genetic information in cells.
Our chromosomes occur in pairs called
homologous chromosomes
 Paternal (from the father or male
parent)
 Maternal (from the mother or
 Easy to pollinate
female parent)
 Produces many offspring
A gene is the basic unit of heredity. It  Has observable traits with
controls the expression of a biological contrasting forms.
characteristic.
A characteristic is a heritable feature of
Principle of Dominance - In a
an organism.
heterozygous individual, one allele
 Trait - a variant for a character (dominant) completely masks the
 Alleles are the alternative forms expression of the other allele
of a gene. (recessive).
 -Genotype refers to the set of Law of Segregation - The two alleles of
alleles possessed by an a gene in an individual segregate or
organism. separate from each other during
The genotype is homozygous if the gamete formation.
alleles are identical. When the gene pair is heterozygous,
The genotype is heterozygous if the only one of the two genes is physically
alleles are different. expressed

Phenotypes refer to the actual That which is expressed is dominant

manifestation of genotypes into while the other that is hidden or not
observable traits. expressed is recessive.

Mendel took the path to priesthood

when he entered Augustinian monastery
If the genes are not connected, then Each gene exists in alternative forms
they should segregate independently or called alleles.
undergo independent assortment.
In terms of expression, genes can either
Law of Independent Assortment - The be dominant or recessive. According to
alleles from different genes are sorted the principle of dominance of Mendel,
into the gametes independently of each in a heterozygous individual, the
other. Thus, the inheritance of these dominant allele tends to mask the
two genes become independent. expression of the recessive allele.
Laws of Inheritance and Gametogenesis Mendel’s monohybrid cross reveals the
- Both laws of inheritance operate law of segregation. According to this
during the Anaphase I of meiosis during law, the alleles segregate during
gamete formation. gametogenesis. This explains the
characteristic 3:1 phenotypic ratio of F2
Mendel’s Conclusion - The factors that
in monohybrid crosses.
control heredity are individual units
known as genes. In organisms that Mendel’s dihybrid cross reveals the law
reproduce sexually, genes are inherited of independent assortment. According
from each parent. to this law, allele pairs from different
genes separate independently during
Genetics is the study of inheritance
gamete formation. This explains the
and variation in organisms. It has
characteristics ratio of 9:3:3:1 of F2 of
various subdisciplines. Transmission
dihybrid crosses.
genetics is the one that is particularly
concerned about the mechanisms or Punnett square is the most basic
patterns of inheritance. technique in combining the gametes of
parents to determine the possible
Different genes control the expression
genotypes and phenotypes of the
of the characteristics of organisms.
offspring.
 Pedigree - Diagram that shows the
occurrence and appearance (phenotype) of
a particular genetic trait as it is passed from

Non-Mendelian
one generation to the next in a given
family. Pedigrees represent family
members and relationships using
Genetics standardized symbols.

Non-Mendelian Genetics - A general term

that refers to any pattern of inheritance in Using Pedigree
which traits do not segregate in accordance
with Mendel’s laws. - Identification of the mode of
inheritance of an unknown genetic
Types of Non-Mendelian Genetics trait.
- Determination of the genotype of
Incomplete Dominance
an individual with respect to a trait.
- Happens when one allele is not - Determination of the risk of
completely dominant over the other recurrence of a genetic condition in
allele. a family.
- Often shows a heterozygous -
phenotype intermediate between
Constructing Pedigree
the two homozygous phenotypes.
Co-Dominance
- Direct violation of the principle of
Dominance
- Both alleles contribute to the
phenotype of an organism
Multiple Alleles
- his type of inheritance involves
having more than two phenotypes
for a particular trait. Use a “square” for male individuals, while
- An example is ABO blood type. use a “circle” for female individuals.
Use a “diamond” for individuals whose
specific sex cannot be identified.
Use a “shaded” symbol if an individual is
confirmed to have the
genetic condition.
Sometimes, a “slash” is used to specify
whether an individual is already deceased.
Use an “arrow” for the proband: the
individual who first sought medical
attention.

Use a “half-shaded” symbol to denote that

an individual is a carrier.
Use a “horizontal line” to connect the
members of a couple.
Use a “double horizontal line” to connect
the members of a couple who are
genetically related.
Use a “common branching point” for the
members of twins.
Pedigree analysis was devised to observe
and analyze how a trait runs in families. It
uses a pedigree, a pictorial representation
of the transmission of a characteristic in at
least two generations of families.
Pedigrees in basic research and genetic
counseling use a set of standard symbols
and notations.
Pedigrees are used to determine the mode
of inheritance of a trait.
Individuals with an autosomal dominant
trait usually have at least one affected
parent.
Individuals with an autosomal recessive
trait usually have no affected parents.
Although, still, there are cases when one
parent is also affected by the recessive
condition.
Different genetic conditions in humans are
autosomal. Achondroplasia is inherited as a
dominant trait, while phenylketonuria,
cystic fibrosis, and sickle cell disease are
inherited as recessive traits.
 Alleles - two forms of a gene (dominant &
recessive)
Dominant - stronger of two genes
expressed in the hybrid; represented by a
capital letter (R)
Recessive - gene that shows up less often in
a cross; represented by a lowercase letter
(r)
Genotypes
 Homozygous genotype - gene
combination involving 2 dominant
or 2 recessive genes (e.g. RR or rr);
also called pure
 Heterozygous genotype - gene
combination of one dominant &
one recessive allele (e.g. Rr); also
called hybrid
Homozygous dominant x Homozygous
recessive
Offspring all Heterozygous (hybrids)
Offspring called F1 generation
Genotypic & Phenotypic ratio is ALL
ALIKE

Trihybrid Cross - A trihybrid cross involves

the same steps as a dihybrid cross, but
instead of looking at the inheritance pattern
of two specific traits, it is possible to look
Phenotype vs. Genotype at three different traits and the probability
of their combination showing up in the

genotype.
In the case of the pea plants, we could also
look at the inheritance pattern of the color
of the pod, the height of the plants, and
color of their flowers (white or purple).

 Flower color in the pea plants is

purple dominant (PP) or (Pp) while
white flowers are recessive (pp).

 In the original parent plant

generation, one plant was
heterozygous for height (Tt) and
for pod color(Yy), and is
homozygous dominant for flower
color (PP).
What is the genotype of this parent plant?
- TtYyPP
The second plant in the original parent
plant generation was homozygous recessive
for height (tt), and heterozygous for pod
color (Yy), and now we know that it is
recessive for flower color (pp).
What is the genotype for this parent plant?
- ttYypp

Trihybrid Punnett Square

Independent Assortment

Independent Assortment - In a
similar fashion as sorting the
alleles for a dihybrid cross, we
must form the gametes for each
parent. To do this we create all
possible combinations of each
allele.