French revolution (1789-99) period in France- a period of social and political change with wide

ranging social and political impact on the entire modern world

Revolution abolished monarchy, made France a republic (where head of state is elected rather
than hereditary) but ended with the dictatorship of Napoleon
Causes:
Political
The bourbon despots.
Louis XIV- ruled from (1643-1715)- absolute despot. Centralization of power. He reduced the
power of feudal lords. He also fought many wars and won in many battles- enhancing the
prestige of war. He took loans to finance the war which pushed France into dept.
Louis XV (1715-1774)- during his time the 7 years’ war was fought with England. This was a
cause of American revolution as well. England needed money for war so they started taxing the
American colonies but they lost the war so they started taxing their own country.
Louis was not a very good administrator.
Louis XVI- he backtracked on decisions. His intentions were good but he could not make bold
decisions. He was not a good states man. His wife was from Austria- Marie Antoinette- he was a
very bad advisor. America was also fighting with Britain during this time- France was helping
America to take revenge of the seven-year war- France gained nothing out of it. instead wasted
their resources.
Palace of Versailles- symbol of royalty and luxury. Kings were unaware of the ground realities.
Economical
Rising population. It was 2 crores in 1700 but 2.7 crore in 1789. Land remained the same and
there was no scientific advancement to sustain population and feed the population- famine.
By 1789- half of the total national budget was went to debt repayment.
Harsh winters. Crop failures, etc.
Social
Division of French society- the Ancien regime.
Nobility included feudal laws. In the third estate a new middle class was also emerging because
industrial revolution had already started.
Taxation regime!

Intellectual
Age of enlightenment
Development of science, technology and rational thinkers.
Emergence of philosophers, such as
John Locke- father of liberalism, social contract theory.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau- concept of general will and collective good of the society.
Sovereignty lies within people.
Emmanuel Kant
Montesquieu- separation of church and state.
Voltaire- freedom of speech and expression.

TIMELINE OF FRENCH REVOLUTION.

1789- Estate general was a representative parliament which had members from all estates. It
had its first meeting in 1789 in 175years. agenda was to manage the financial crises. The finance
minister Neckar called for the 1st and 2nd estates to be taxed. Calling of estate general itself was
one of the first signs of weakness of the king- he could not handle the crises by himself.
Delegates 300+300+600 in Versailles. There was deadlock on voting. Each estate was counted as
1 vote so on matter of taxing both estates has 2/3rd majority. Thied estate will always remain 1/3rd
But
It called for calling of individual voting but king louis disagreed. Over this deadlock the third
estate declared itself as a national assembly and stated that they will have their own
constitution. In response louis locked them out of the great hall.
The third estate went to the tennis court and took an oath- also known as the beginning of the
French revolution. They took oath that they will not disband the national assembly unless a new
constitution is formed. They talked about constitutional monarchy. Some members of the clergy
(lower clergy) joined the third estate.
The news spread all over France- framers stated revolt against their feudal lords- looted granaries
and chateaus, and burnt lands. Time period is known as the Great Fear.
Riots also started in Paris due to food shortages and rising food prices- they were in support of
the national assembly.
Break down of law and order. Louis ordered the military to assemble in Paris and outside the
Versailles.
Storming of the Bastille- it was used as a prison- a symbol of royal oppression. It was looted
and torn down by the oppressor, mainly to get weapons. Each and every stone of the fort was
torn away and sold in market for food. Also known as Bastille day celebration.
National assembly transformed into national constituent assembly- they ordered abolition of
feudalism and levied uniform taxes for all.
Many nobles fled to neighboring European countries. (emigres)
Clergy reduced by 1/3rd – national assembly made them civil officers which made pope angry
France moved from absolute monarchy to constitutional monarchy. No talks about republic at
this time.
National assembly put forward The Declaration of the rights of the man and the citizens.
17 articles.
third point was drawback of this declaration- recognized two types of citizen active and passive.
Only active citizens were allowed to vote.
Women’s march on Versailles

Jacobins was composed of poor class, mainly poor, artisans, and daily workers
Their leader was Maximillian de Robespierre. They were of the view that power has been
consolidated by upper middle class and wealthy traders. They demanded the complete removal
of the king. They were also known as Sans Culottes- below knee pants. They wore pants without
breeches which differentiated them from the upper class.
1791- king louis tried to escape to Austria (king was his brother in law) from France but was
caught. This led to demand for a Republic from Jacobins.
The constituent assembly wanted a constitutional monarchy like Britain. People protested-
national guards were sent to suppress them and protestors were massacred.
In 1791- a legislative assembly was formed which replaced the constituent assembly. King was
restored as the head of the state and a new constitution was formed. This system failed within a
year because demands of different parties were different. King louis was also trying to get help
from other kings to overthrow the revolution.

In 1972- popular sentiments against the king. King was attacked by the radicals in Paris. King
asked help from the legislative assembly but since king tried to help Prussia and Austria,
monarchy was suspended. A few days later legislative assembly was also suspended.
France was declared as a republic and a republican constitution was to be made. Elections were
also announced.
CONSTITUTIONAL MONARCHY TO REPUBLIC
New government was formed- The National Convention (Sept 1792-Oct 1795). This was the
third government of the revolution.
NAPOLEAN BONPARTE
15th August 1769 in France. Voracious reader. At 9 years he went to a religious school, later he
went to most prestigious military academy from where he emerged as a lieutenant.

Rise to power- a great war general.

He left Paris to take command of Army of Italy. He immediately went on an offensive, hoping to
defeat the forces of Piedmont before their Austrian allies could intervene. He was given the title
of little Tripoli
He secured decisive victory at ravioli in 1797 which led to the collapse of Italian army in Italy.
Austria lost 14000 men while French lost 5000 men
Two treaties were signed. Treaty of Leabon and Treat of Campo Formio, which gave France the
control over most of the northern Italy and low countries.
His favorite strategy was envelopment strategy. Envelopment is the military tactic of seizing
objectives in the enemy's rear with the goal of destroying specific enemy forces and denying
them the ability to withdraw.
His army captured 150,000 prisoners, 540 canons, and 170 standards. The French army fought
67 actions and won 18 pitched battles through superior

France flourished but states that depended on France suffered.

NOW ONLY BRITAIN WAS LEFT- he sought to conquer Britain via Egypt. By occupying
Egypt, France could disrupt English trade routes to India. But his military campaign proved
disastrous.
First battle was battle of pyramid- mamluks vs French- France won but incurred some losses.
On the other hand, in the Battle of Nile- Nelson’s fleet destroyed France. This battle become a
decisive factor in Napoleon’s defeat.
He had another battle with Austria. Battle of Marengo. Austria was defeated in 1800.

1804-official beginning of the empire. Crowing of the king.

NAPOLEANOIC WAR
Great Britain broke the treaty of Amiens by declaring war on France in May 1803. Britain had
also signed an alliance with Russia. Austria was also defeated by France twice so it wanted
revenge.
In 1803, to raise funds for the war, France sold Northern American Louisiana territory to the
USA for $15 million, known as Louisiana purchase. He then returned to war with Britain, France
and Austria.
In 1805- in battle of Trafalgar, Britain registered an important naval victory against France,
which led napoleon to scrap his plans to invade England.
Other victories soon followed, which led to the expansion of French empire.
In Battle of Ulm- Austria was defeated with only 2000 French casualties and 60,000 Austrian
soldiers were captured.
After eliminating an Austrian army during the Ulm Campaign, French forces seized Vienna in
November 1805.
In Battle of Austerlitz, 2nd December- French faced Russian. Napoleon deployed French army
below the Pratzen Height and deliberately weakened his right flank, enticing the allies to launch
a major attack in the hopes of rolling up entire French line.
Shortly after Austria and France signed the Treaty of Pressburg. The treaty confirmed the
Austrian loss of land to France in Italy, Bavaria and Germany.

INVASION ON RUSSIA
CLIMATE OF RUSSIA- A SURPRISE FOR NAPOLEON.

Along with Russian invasion, French forces were engaged in Peninsular War. In this war, with
the help of Britain, Spanish and Portugal drove French forces out of Iberian Peninsula.
UNIFICATION OF GERMANY
Nation building.
Western Europe: Great Britain, France, Portugal and Spain- already established since
renaissance. They have been nationalized because they had access to Atlantic coastlines.
Central Europe: divided b/w Germanic and Italian dialects
Eastern Europe: influenced by Russian and Ottoman Empire.
Causes of Unification
1. Socio-economic reasons
In 19th century Europe- napoleon was expanding itself and in 1806 he controlled the Holy Roman
empire region but after his defeat in the battle of waterloo, the congress of Vienna converted
Holy Roman Empire into German confederacy- give rise to feeling of nationalism among people.
Since 1815, 39 German states formed a lose grouping called the German Confederation. The
confederation was dominated by the Prussian and the Austrian Hungarian empires- monarchy
was prevalent and wanted the support of conservatives. Prussia and Austria both had internal and
external influence over the confederation because there had territory out of confederation as well.
The social condition was similar to witnessed in any feudal in society.
In Germany, landlords were called Junkers (landed aristocracy), who dominated the affairs of the
state.
Economically, the division of Germany resulted in poor economic conditions. Restriction was
imposed on the free movements of goods.
Backward socio-political system- feudal system.
2. Napoleonic Wars
 3. Role of Prussia
Prussia enjoyed several advantage that would eventually help it forge a strong German state.
Unlike Austrian-Hungary, Prussia had mainly German speaking population.
As a result, Prussia was unified due to nationalism, while ethnic groups in Austria tore it apart.
Moreover, Prussian army was by far most powerful in Eastern Europe.
Finally, Prussia industrialized more quickly than other European nations- greater proximity of
Prussia to Great Britain- industrial revolution came about earlier.

Bismarck’s realpolitik
Preserve the interest of army and landed aristocracy in the affairs of the state- he was a
conservative.
Followed the policy of blood and iron- he implemented his policy swiftly and strategic expertise.

He employed following measures to attain his goal

Southern part of Denmark would give Prussia direct access to sea ports. Both Austria and Prussia
wanted access to they both made an alliance against Denmark. 1864!!
Then allied with Italy to remove Austria from the equation. 1866!!
Consequently- German confederation came to an end and became kingdom of Prussia.
In 1867- Bismarck formed the North German Confedration.

UNIFICATION OF ITALY (1948-71)

In the mid-17th century, northeastern part of Italian peninsula was controlled by Austria and
northwestern part was controlled by France. And Southern part was controlled by Spain (Naples,
Sisley, Sardinia). Papels states were under the control of pope (central Italian states)
In mid-18th century, southern part under control of Spain. Northwestern Italian states broke down
into smaller states (Savoy, Genoa, Tuscany). Northeastern state Venice was till prevalent. But
the control of France and Austria remained.
Treaty of Vienna- central Europe- German confederation 39. Efforts were made to unify Italy as
well but there was no official authority.
After the fall of Napoleon and Treaty of Vienna- France was no longer in control of northwestern
part.

MAZZANI (IDEALISTIC)
Sardinia leads Italian unification
Two big powers in unification of Italy were Sardinia and Austrian empire.
Sardinian royal family could claim their Italian descend whereas Hapsburg empire was German
speaking.

ALLIANCE WITH FRANCE TO DRIVE AUSTRA OUT OT NORTHERN ITALY!

CHALLENGES AFTER UNIFICATION
1866- Venice became part of Italy
1870- papal states were taken over by Italian forces

Dialectal issues.
WW1
1914- began in Europe and spread to entire world
Caused unprecedented damage
Was result of national rivalries that emerged in the aftermath of Industrial revolution
It was total war- total mobilization of resources
Impact on the economies of the world
Civilian causalities due to bombings, epidemics, etc. Previously, causalities were confined to
warring armies.
Battles of the war were fought in Europe, Asia, Africa, and the Pacific.
Ambition of big power- emerge as a global super power.

1885-1914-relatively peaceful period.

CAUSES!
M- militarism
A-alliances
I-imperialism
N- nationalism
1. Nationalism
Great powers
Western Europe: Britain, Netherlands, French, Spain, Portugal
Central Europe: Belgium, Luxemburg, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy
Eastern Europe: Russia, Polish Lithuania, Baltic States, Slavic countries, Ottoman Empire.
It can serve as a unifying force for a country. however, it can also cause intense competition
between states, with each seeking to overpower other.
By the turn of 20th century, a fierce rivalry had developed between Germany, Austria-Hungary,
Great Britain, Russia, Italy and France.
Rivalry stemmed from several sources, such as competition over markets and resources.
Great Britain, home for industrial revolution, had long been leader industry, finance, and
shipping. However, after 1850, other nations began to challenge its power.
One such nation was Germany. It competed with Great Britain for industrial resources.
Germany’s new industries made it a fastest growing economy.
Britain’s economic system was designed in a way to benefit 1% population- capitalist
For this to happen, Germany needed to industrialize itself, establish colonies, and strengthen its
navy to protect its trade routes.
OLD ORDER VS NEW ORDER
Nationalistic rivalries also grew out of territorial disputes.

Alsace-Lorraine region could serve as a natural border to France in face of Germany. Rhine river
was important in this regard.
Austria-Hungary multi-ethnic region. It was disintegrated into several smaller states.
2. Imperialism
1905- for the first time dispute over Morocco arose- it has Mediterranean and Atlantic coastline.
1914- it became part of France.
3. Militarism

Gun boat policy!

 4. System of alliances

1879-Bismarck formed a dual alliance with Austria-Hungary, three years later Italy- alliance
became known as the triple alliance.
1887, Bismarck took another allay away from France by making treaty with Russia.
But Bismarck was aware that his system of alliances was unstable because two the German
allies, Russia and Austria, were bitter rivals in Balkans.
SHIFTING ALLIANCES
1980s, Germany’s foreign policy changed dramatically.

He was also eager to show his might to show his credibility.

Germany’s treaty will Russia broke down in 1890. Russia responded by forming a defensive
military alliance with France in 1892- one of Bismarck’s fear.
War with either Russia or France would make Germany enemy of both- two front war on both its
Eastern and Western borders.

In 1904, Britain formed an alliance with France

In 1907, Britain made another entente, this time with both France and Russia, known as the
Triple Entente. However, it did not bind Britain to fight with France and Russia but it did
certainly ensure that Britain would not fight against them.
THUS BY 1907, THERE WERE TWO RIVAL CAMPS IN EUROPE, THE TRIPPLE
ALLIANCE AND THE TRIPPLE ENTENTE- WHICH HAD THE POTENTIAL TO
DRAW THE ENTIRE CONTINENT INTO WAR.
EVENTS PRECEDDING TO THE WAR.
In 1904, Britain and France entered into a secret agreement according to which Britain was to
have free hand in Egypt and France was to take over Morocco- this agreement aroused German
indignation.
The German Emperor went to Morocco and promised support to Sultan of Morocco for his full
independence.
It appeared that antagonism over Morocco would lead to war but war was averted in 1911.
Morocco was important for Germany to have control over Mediterranean and Atlantic trade.
France occupied most of Morocco, and in exchange, gave Germany a part of French Congo.

Balkans

Serbia was near Adriatic Sea, had ports. Bulgaria was along strong.
Serbia wanted to formulate a Slavic state to have control over key routes. This ambition was
also shared by Russia to take control of Baltic sea, artic sea, Mediterranean Sea and black sea
trade by joining Slavic countries. Austria-Hungary also had Slavic population but it did not
want the establishment of a Slavic state because it had the tendency to instigate nationalism
among its Slavic population.
FIRST BALKAN WAR (8 October 1912 – 10 August 1913)
In the First Balkan War, the four Balkan States of Greece, Serbia, Montenegro and
Bulgaria (Balkan league) declared war upon the Ottoman Empire and defeated it.
Britain demanded Albanian independence because if Serbia got hold of it, it would get a
coastline in Mediterranean. Macedonia was divided but some states were not satisfied.
Bulgaria did not get a lot of territory of Macedonia and was not happy, more was given to
Serbia. Serbia also wanted Albania- prelude to second Balkan war.

Austria-Hungary was enemy of Serbia and Bulgaria attacked Serbia so Austria-Hungary

could aid it but Germany restrained Austria-Hungary. This was because it was important
for Germany that Balance of power remained favorable towards Western Europe. Britain
also did not come to aid Serbia. Germany took this as Britain’s disenchantment with
Russians- a miscalculation.

OUTBREAK OF WORLD WAR 1

GERMANY OFFERED BLANK CHEQUE TO AUSTRIA- GERMANY OFTEN

CRITICIZED FOR IT. BUT GERMNAY THOUHT BRITAIN WOULD NOT OFFER
ITS SUPPORT IF RUSSIA JOINS THE WAR, AND SO WILL FRANCE. GERMANY
WAS CONFIDENT ENOUGH KE WO RUSSIA KO NEUTRALISE KAR LAIN GY.
Japan had colonies in Pacific Ocean guinea island.
OUTBREAK OF WAR
Schlieffen Plan- German war plans in an event of two front war with France and Russia.
The plan stated that due to lack of rail roads, Russia would face difficulty in mobilizing its
troops, so Germany would first race west, defeat France, and then come to East to defeat
Russia.
Speed was important in this plan.
But Belgium was ready- It had armored railways. To delay German plan, Belgium employed
several tactics.
On the other hand, Russia attacked Prussia so Germany had to move its troops there as well.

Why Italy violated triple alliance?

Serbia and Austria possessed regions which had Italian speaking population- allied power
promised that in case of victory those regions would be given to Italy and that Italy would
be made protectorate of Albania.

BATTLE OF MARNE
TRENCH WARFARE
Shell grainades were used.
With Turkey defeated, the Suez Canal would be safe and a year-round Allied supply route could
be opened through the Black Sea to warm-water ports in Russia.
Why did US enter world war?
In 1917, the course of war shifted to high seas- international waters outside the jurisdiction of
any particular country.
A large part of American population felt bond with England- common ancestry, language,
institutions, and legal system.
Some argue that German atrocities stirred anti-German sentiments in the USA.
American economic ties with allies were much stronger with allied forces than central powers
because of the direct availability of ports in Atlantic Ocean. Trade with Great Britain and France
twice as much as with Germany.
That year, Germany intensified submarine warfare that had raged in the Atlantic Ocean since
shortly after the war began.
By 1917, failed crops as well as British naval blockade caused severe food shortage in Germany.

Germany's resumption of submarine attacks on passenger and merchant ships in 1917 became
the primary motivation behind Wilson's decision to lead the United States into World War I.
END OF THE WAR!
Russian Withdrawal-Germany could concentrate almost all its forces in the Western front.
In March 1918, Germany mounted one last final attack on the allies in the France. More than
6000 German canon opened the offensive with largest artillery attack of the entire war.
By late 1918, German again reached the Marne River- Paris was less than 40 miles and victory
seemed within reach. But German forces had weakened and their effects to reach Marne river
exhausted its men and supplies alike.
Allies sensing the weakness of Germany, with the aid of nearly 140,000 fresh American troops,
launched a counter-attack.
CONCEQUENCES OF THE WW1
INTERWAR PERIOD
Immediate problems after war.
Despite several peace treaties, situation in mainland Europe was still volatile. Many past issues
remained unresolved and new areas of conflict were emerging.
Both Turkey and Italy resented peace treaties. Turkey opposed loss of its territories to Greece,
especially Smyrna on the Turkish mainland, and under Mustafa Kemal rejected the treaty of
Sevres.
Italy on the other hand argued that despite fighting on the side of allies it did not gain much from
the war.
With the rise of Mussolini in 1922, Italian dissatisfaction manifested violently in the form of
seizure of Fiume, the Corfu incident (1923) and later on invasion of Abyssinia (1935).
Relationship between France and Britain become strained due to different views on war
reparations. France wanted weak Germany but Britain wanted economically strong Germany to
serve as a market for its products.
In 1923, relations worsened when France seized Ruhr (an important German industrial region) to
extract reparations from Germany.
Economically weak Europe was prone to anti-peace activities
USA- policy of isolation but it continued to exercise considerable influence on Europe and
insisted on full payment of reparation.
Russia was now a communist state ruled by Bolsheviks- viewed as threat by the West.

THE LEGUE OF NATIONS

RISE OF NAZISM AND FASCISM
Fascism- use of nationalism to fulfill its political agenda.

1923-34- First phase

During this phase the prime determinant for Italy’s policy was rivalries with French in the
Mediterranean and Yugoslavia in the Balkans.
It also feared that Austria might fall under German influence which could compromise its
territorial integrity.
Italy mainly relied on diplomatic means to resolve these issues.
Post 1934- phase 2
POLICY OF APPEASEMENT

PHASES OF APPEASEMENT
MID 1920s-1937- Avoid war at all cost
FAILURE OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS

Police of the league of nations were Britain and France- it only served the interest of allied
powers.

Britain also had investments in Japan so it was not interested in attacking it- threat to
LON’s concept of collective security.
WORLD WAR II
Via Denmark, Germany acquired Norway so that Britain can’t stop German ships in the
North Sea.
Acquire France’s coastline after invading it and established puppet state Vichy France.

Germans faced stiff resistance in Stalingrad.

1942- Alan Turing decoded German enigma. He was a brilliant mathematician. Born in
London in 1912, he studied at both Cambridge and Princeton universities. He was already
working part-time for the British Government's Code and Cypher School before the Second
World War broke out.
“Mankind invented the atomic bomb, but no mouse would ever construct a mousetrap.” - Albert
Einstein
IMPACT OF WORLD WAR II
FORMATION OF THE UN
Peaceful: Canada, South-Africa, Australia
Revolts: e.g. passive aggressive in Indian subcontinent.
Duchess were not ready to leave their colonies in Indian subcontinent.
US VS USSR CONSOLIDATION OF THEIR BLOCS
VIA ECONOMIC STIMULOUS
US- TRADING RIGHTS THORUGH ECONOMIC AID. EG- CHEAP OIL
(CAPTILAISM, DEMOCRACY)
RUSSIA- COMMUNIST GOVERNMENT ESTABLISHMENT.
Yugoslavia kept on challenging USSR dictatorship because it has coastline for trade in the
Mediterranean.
ACQUISITION OF STATES
Resolution called for obligatory military aid to western Europe. This collective security was
enforced as opposed to the LON.
NATO was first peace time military alliance.
After ww1- entire Germany was demilitarized so USSR considered western part of Germany
being remilitarized as a threat.
They provided military and logistical support to both parties in the conflict who fought until all
pressure groups got eliminated and a puppet government was installed.
NON ALLIGNED MOVEMENT AND THE CUBAN MISSILE CRISES
COLLAPSE OF USSR

Invasion of Afghanistan- coastline (Indian Ocean) and oil wealth.

US intervened in Afghanistan against USSR via Saudi. Bought oil from it and in return Saudi
provided weapons to anti-USSR forces in the region.
Mikhail Gorbachev- globalization and open market.
Competitive elections because Baltic companies were getting impatient and were important
industrialized zones. But limited meant that only communist party decided who would take part
in elections.
Dispute arose because competition over representation.

Caucus region was important for oil

Baltic- industrialized
This violence was fund by USA via Turkey.
Old guards order- order of Stalin and Lenin.
New order- Gorbachev