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 What is this course?
 Why do we study it?
 What is the relation between sets and logic?
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In mathematics, a proof is a demonstration that,
assuming certain axioms, some statement is necessarily
true. That is, proof is a logical argument, not an
empirical one. One must demonstrate that a proposition
is true in all cases before it is considered a theorem of
mathematics. An unproven proposition for which there
is some sort of empirical evidence is a conjecture.
Mathematical logic is the framework upon which
rigorous proofs are built. It is the study of the principles
and criteria of valid inference and demonstrations.
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In set theory, we study sets, which are informally
collection of objects. Although any type of object can
be collected into a set, set theory is applied most often
to objects that are relevant to mathematics. A rigorous
analysis of set theory belongs to the foundations of
mathematics and mathematical logic. A Set Theorist
explores what is provable—and what is not provable—
when one is allowed to use all of the usual tools of
mathematical constructions and proofs (tools such
as: creating
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function spaces, completions of various kinds of
objects, taking quotients, forming products, induction
and recursion, etc.).
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A fundamental concept in all branches of mathematics is
that of a set. A set is any well-defined list, collection, or
class of objects. The objects in sets, as we shall see
from our examples, can be anything: numbers, people,
letters, rivers, etc. These objects are called the elements
or members of the set.
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Sets will usually be denoted by capital letters
A, B, X, Y,…
The elements in our sets will usually be represented by
lower case letters
a, b, x, y,…
If we define a particular set by actually listing its
members, for example, let A consists of the numbers
1,3, 7 and 10, then we write
A = {1, 3, 7, 10}
The statement “p belongs to A” is written as p  A .The
statement that p is not an element of A, is written p  A
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that is, the elements are separated by commas and
enclosed in brackets { }. We call this the tabular form
of a set.
But if we define a particular set by stating properties
which its elements must satisfy, for example, let B be
the set of all even numbers, then we use a letter, usually
x, to represent an arbitrary element and we write
B = {x| x is even}
We call this the set-builder form of a set.
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All sets under investigation in any application of set
theory are assumed to be contained in some large fixed
set called the universal set or universe. We will denote
the universal set by U.
Examples are given below:
 In plane geometry, the universal set consists of all
points in the plane.
 In human population studies the universal set consists
of all people in the world.
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It is convenient to introduce the concept of the empty set,
that is, a set which contains no elements. This set is
sometimes called the null set. We denote it by symbol
ø.
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1. Let A be the set of people in the world who are
older than 200 years.
2. Let B  { x | x 2  4, x is odd}.Then B is the empty set .
3. The set S  {x : x is a positive integer, x 2  3} has no
elements since no positive integer has the required
property.
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Suppose every element in a set A is also an element of a
set B ; then A is called a subset of B. We also say that A
is contained in B or B contains A. This relationship is
written
A  B or B  A
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 Consider the sets
A {1, 3, 5, 8, 9}, B {1, 2, 3, 5, 7}, C {1, 5}
Then C  A and C  B . But B  A.
 The set A  {2,3, 4,5} is not a subset of B  {x : x is even}
since 3  A but 3  B .
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 Every set A is a subset of the universal set U since, by
definition, all the elements of A belong to U. Also
empty set ø is a subset of A.
 Every set A is a subset of itself since, trivially, the
elements of A belong to A.
 If A B and B C, then A  C .
 If A  B and B  A, then A = B.
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If A  B, then it is still possible that A = B. When A  B
but A ≠ B, we say that A is a proper subset of B.
For example, suppose
A = {1,2}, B = {1,2,3}, C = {1,3,2}
Then A and B are both subsets of C; but A is a proper
subset of C, whereas B is not a proper subset of C.
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In this topic, we will study a number of set operations,
including the basic operations of union, intersection,
and difference of sets, where new sets will be assigned
to pairs of sets A and B.
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The union of two sets A and B, denoted by A B, is the set
of all elements which belong to A or B; that is
A  B  {x : x  A or x  B}
The intersection of two sets A and B, denoted by AB, is
the set of all elements which belong to both A and B;
that is
A  B  {x : x  A and x  B}
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Let A = {1,2,3,4}, B = {3,4,5,6,7}, C = {2,3,8,9}.
Then
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Let U denote the set of students at a university, and let M
and F denote, respectively, the set of male and female
students at the university. Then
M∪ F= U
since each student in U is either in M or in F . On the
other hand,
M⋂F = ø
since no students belong to both M and F.
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For any set A and B, we have
1) A  B  A and A  B  B
2) A  A  B and B  A  B
By combining the above two results, we can write
A  B  A  A  B and A  B  B  A  B
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Complement of a set A, denoted by Ac , is the set of
elements which belong to U but which do not belong
to A; that is,
Ac  {x : x  U , x  A}
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Let U = {a, b, c, …, y, z} be the universal set, and let
A = {a,b,c,d,e}, B = {e, f, g}, V = {a,e,i,o,u}
Then
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Suppose the set R of real numbers is the universal set.
 denotes the set of rational numbers. Hence c will
denote the set of irrational numbers.
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Let A and B be sets. The difference of A and B, denoted
by A/B, is the set of elements which belong to A but
which do not belong to B ; that is,
A / B  {x : x  A, x  B}
Many texts denote A/B by A-B.
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Consider the sets
A = {1,2,3,4}, B = {3,4,5,6,7}, C = {6,7,8,9}
Then
A/B=
B/C=
B/A=
C/B=
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The symmetric difference of the sets A and B, denoted by
A  B  ( A  B ) / ( A  B)
or
A  B  (A/ B)  (B/ A)
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Consider the sets
A = {1,2,3,4}, B = {3,4,5,6,7}, C = {6,7,8,9}
Then
A B 

BC 
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A Venn diagram is a pictorial representation of sets where sets
are represented by enclosed areas in the plane. The universal U
represented by the points in a rectangle, and other sets are
represented by disks lying within the rectangle. If A  B , then
the disks representing A will entirely within the disk
representing B, as shown in the following figure.
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If A and B are disjoint, then the disk representing A will
be separated from the disk representing B, as in the
following figure.
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On the other hand, if A and B are two arbitrary sets, it is
possible that some elements are in A but not in B, some
elements are in B but not in A, some are in both A and
B, and some are in neither A nor B; hence , in general,
we represent A and B as in the following way.
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1) Union of A and B

2) Intersection of A and B
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3) Complement of A

4) Difference of A and B
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7) Symmetric difference of A and B
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Sets under the operations of union, intersection and
complement satisfy various laws(identities). Which are
listed below one by one.
 Idempotent Laws

A  A  A and A  A  A
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 Associative Laws
A  ( B  C )  ( A  B)  C
and
A  ( B  C )  ( A  B)  C
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 Commutative Laws
A B  B  A
and
A B  B  A
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 Distributive Laws
A  (B C)  (A B)  (A C)
and
A  (B C)  (A B)  (A C)
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 Identity Laws
A   A, A U  A
and
A U  U , A   
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 Involution Law
( Ac )c  A
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 Complement Laws
A  Ac  U , A  Ac  
and
U c  ,  c  U
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 DeMorgan’s Laws
( A  B )c  Ac  B c
and
( A  B )c  Ac  B c
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The identities that we have discussed above are arranged
in pairs. We now consider the principle behind this
arrangement. Let E be an equation of set algebra. The
dual E* of E is the equation obtained by replacing each
occurrence of , ,U ,  in E by , , ,U , respectively.
For example, the dual of
(U A)  (B A)  A is (  A)  (B A)  A.
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Question. Write the dual ( A  U )c  A  .
Solution.
The dual is
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A set is said to be finite if it contains exactly m distinct
elements where m denotes some nonnegative integer.
Otherwise set is said to be infinite. For example, the
empty set ø and the set of letters of the English
alphabet are finite sets, whereas the set of even positive
integers {2, 4, 6,…} is infinite.
Notation
The notation n(A) or |A| will denote the number of
elements in a finite set A.
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Suppose A and B are finite disjoint sets. Then A  B is
finite and
n(A  B) = n(A) + n(B)
For example,
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Let A be any set in a finite universal set U. Then

n( Ac )  n(U )  n( A)

For example, if there are 20 male students in a class of 35

students, then there are 35-20=15 female students.
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Suppose A and B are finite sets. Then
n( A \ B )  n( A)  n( A  B )
For example, suppose an archery class A contains 35
students, and 15 of them are also in a bowling class B.
Then
n( A \ B )  n( A)  n( A  B)  35  15  20
That is, there are 20 students in the class A who are not in
class B.
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Suppose A and B are finite sets. Then
n( A  B )  n( A)  n( B)  n( A  B )
For example,
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Suppose A, B, C are finite sets. Then A  B  C is finite
and
n(A B C)  n( A)  n(B)  n(C)  n( A  B)  n( A C)  n(B  C)  n( A  B C)
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Consider the following data among 110 students in a
college dormitory:
30 students are on a list A (taking Accounting),
35 students are on a list B (taking Biology),
20 students are on both lists.
Find the number of students:
(a) On list A or B
(b) On exactly one of the two lists,
(c) On neither list.
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Given a set S, we may wish to talk about some of its
subsets. Thus we would be considering a “set of sets”.
Whenever such a situation arises, to avoid confusion,
we will speak of class of sets or a collection of sets. If
we wish to consider some of the sets in a given class of
sets, then we will use the term subclass or
subcollection.
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To understand this concept, we consider the set set S =
{1, 2, 3, 4}. Let A be the class of subsets of S which
contain exactly three elements of S. Then
A=
Let B be the class of subsets of S which contain 2 and
two other elements of S. Then
B=
Here we can see that B is a subclass of A.
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For a given set S, we may speak about the class of all
subsets of S. This class is called the power set of S, and
it will be denoted by P(S). If S is finite, then so is P(S).
Also
n( P( S ))  2n ( S )
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Suppose S = {1,2,3}. Then
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Suppose we have an infinite ladder, as shown in Figure 1.
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We want to know whether we can reach every step on
this ladder. We know two things:
1. We can reach the first step of the ladder.
2. If we can reach a particular step of the ladder, then
we can reach the next step.
Can we conclude that we can reach every step?
Answer is yes. Something we can verify using an
important proof technique called mathematical
induction.
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In general, mathematical induction can be used to prove
statements that assert that P(n) is true for all positive
integers n, where P(n) is a proposition. A proof by
mathematical induction has two parts, a basis step,
where we show that P(1) is true, and an inductive step,
where we show that for all positive integers k, if P(k) is
true, then P(k+1) is true.
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To prove that P(n) is true for all positive integers n,
where P(n) is a proposition, we complete two steps:
Basis Step: We verify that P(1) is true.
Inductive Step: We show that the conditional statement
P(k) P(k+1) is true for all positive integers k.
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Show that if n is a positive integer, then
n ( n  1)
1  2  ...  n 
2
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Let P(n) be the assertion that the sum of the first n odd
integers is n 2 ; that is,
P (n) : 1  3  5  ...  (2n  1)  n 2 .
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Use mathematical induction to show that
1  2  22  ...  2n  2n1  1

for all nonnegative integers n.

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Any axiomatic development of a branch of mathematics
begins with the following:
1) undefined terms,
2) Undefined relations,
3) Axioms relating the undefined terms and undefined
relations.
Then one develops theorems based upon the axioms and
definitions.
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Consider, for example, the axiomatic development of
plane Euclidean geometry. It begins with the
following :
1) “points” and “lines” are undefined terms;
2) “point on a line” is an undefined relation.
Two of many axioms of Euclidean geometry follow:
Axiom 1: Two distinct points are on one and only one
line.
Axiom 2: Two distinct lines cannot contain more than
one point in common.
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The axiomatic development of set theory begins with the
following:
1) “element” and “set” are undefined terms;
2) “elements belong to a set” is the undefined relation.
Two of the axioms of set theory follow:

Principle of Extension: Two sets A and B are equal if

and only if they have the same elements.
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Principle of Abstraction: Given any set U and any
property P, there is a set A such that the elements of A
are exactly those elements in U which have the
property P.
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The notation R will be used to denote the real numbers.
These are the numbers one uses in basic arithmetic and
algebra. R together with its properties is called the real
number system.
The set R of real numbers includes the following sets of
numbers:
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Irrational Numbers
Those real numbers which cannot be represented as the
ratio of integers, are called irrational numbers.
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One of the most important properties of the real numbers
is that they can be represented graphically by points on
a straight line.
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Real numbers can also be represented by decimals. The
decimal expansion of a rational number will either stop
as in ¾ = 0.75 or will have a pattern that repeats
indefinitely, such as 17/11= 1.545454… Even when the
decimal expansion stops, it can be rewritten using
repeated 9`s, for example, ¾ = 074999….

The decimal expansion of an irrational number never

stops nor does it have a repeating pattern. The points
representing the decimal 2.5 and 4.75 are indicated
below on real line.
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Let a and b be real numbers. We say a is less than b,
written a < b if the difference b-a is positive.
Geometrically, a < b if and only if the point a lies to
the left of the point b on the real line R.

Observe that we define order in R in terms of the positive

real numbers denoted by R  .
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There are two main properties of the positive real
numbers R  :
1) If a and b are positive, then a+b and ab are positive.
2) For any real number a, either a is positive, a = 0, or
–a is positive.
The following additional notation and terminology are
used:
a > b, means b < a
a ≤ b, means a < b or a = b
a ≥ b, means b ≤ a
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Any statement of the form a < b, a ≤ b, a > b, or a ≥ b is
called inequality; and any statement of the form a < b
or a > b is sometimes called a strict inequality.
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Basic properties of the inequality relation follow.
1) Let a, b, c be real numbers. Then:
(i) a≤a
(ii) If a ≤ b and b ≤ a, then a = b.
(iii) If a ≤ b and b ≤ c, then a ≤ c.
2) For any real numbers a and b, exactly one of the
following holds:
a < b, a = b or a > b
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3) Let a, b, c be real numbers such that a ≤ b. Then
(i) a+c ≤ b+c.
(ii) ac ≤ bc when c > 0; but ac ≥ bc when c < 0.
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Q. Prove that if a ≤ b and b ≤ c, then a ≤ c.
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Q. Let a, b, c be real numbers. Then prove that
(i) a+c ≤ b+c.
(ii) ac ≤ bc when c > 0; but ac ≥ bc when c < 0.

Do it yourself as assignment.
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The absolute value of a real number a, denoted by |a|,
may be viewed as the distance between a and the 0 on
the real line R. Formally, |a|= a or –a according as a is
positive or negative, and |0| = 0. That is:
a, if a  0
a 
 a, if a  0

Accordingly, |a| is always positive when a ≠ 0.

Geometrically, |a| is:
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The distance d between two points a and b is denoted by
d(a, b) and is obtained from the formula
d = d(a, b) = |a-b| = |b-a|
For example,
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Let a and b be any real numbers.
1) |a| ≥ 0, and |a| = 0 iff a = 0.
2) -|a|≤ a ≤ |a|.
3) |ab|= |a||b|.
4) |a±b| ≤ |a| +|b|.
5) ||a|-|b||≤ |a±b|.
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Q. Prove that |ab| = |a||b|.
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Q. Prove that |a±b| ≤ |a| +|b|.
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Let a and b be distinct real numbers with, say, a < b. The
intervals with endpoints a to b are denoted and defined
as follows:
(a, b) = {x: a < x < b}, open interval from a to b
[a, b] = {x: a ≤ x ≤ b}, closed interval from a to b
[a, b) = {x: a ≤ x < b}, closed-open interval from a to b
(a, b] = {x: a < x ≤ b}, open-closed interval from a to b
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 How do we represent these intervals on a real line?
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Find the interval satisfying each inequality, i.e., rewrite
the inequality in terms of x alone:
1) 2 ≤ x-5 ≤ 8

2) 6 ≤ -2x ≤ 4
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The inequality |x| < 5 may be interpreted to mean that the
distance between x and the origin 0 is less than 5; hence
x must lie between -5 and 5 on the real line R. How?
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Q. Rewrite |x-5| < 5without the absolute value sign.
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A set A of real numbers is said to be dense in R if every
open interval contains a point of A.

Example 1: The rational numbers Q are dense in R.

Example 2: The integers Z is not dense in R.

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Let a be any real number. Then the set of real numbers x
satisfying x < a, x ≤ a, x > a, or x ≥ a, is called an
infinite interval with endpoint a. The interval is said to
be closed or open according as the endpoint a does or
does not belong to the interval. The four infinite
intervals may also be denoted and defined as follows:
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These infinite intervals are pictured as:
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Let A be a set of real numbers. Then A is said to be
bounded according as there exists a real number M
such that, for every x  A, we have |x| ≤ M.
The number M is called a bound. Note that A is bounded
if and only if A is a subset of some finite interval.
Specifically M is a bound of A if and only if A is a
subset of [-M, M].
For example,
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Let A be a set of real numbers. Then A is said to be
bounded from above according as there exists a real
number M such that, for every x  A, we have x ≤ M.
The number M is called an upper bound.
For example,
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Let A be a set of real numbers. Then A is said to be
bounded from below according as there exists a real
number M such that, for every x  A, we have x ≥ M.
The number M is called a lower bound.
For example,
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State whether each set of real numbers is bounded or
unbounded:
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Let A be a set of real numbers. A number M is called the
least upper bound or supremum of A, written M =
sup(A) if M is an upper bound of A but any number less
than M is not an upper bound of A, that is, for any
positive number ϵ, there exist a  A such that, M - ϵ <
a.
For example, consider the set
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If a set of real numbers is bounded from above, then
sup(A) exists.
The real numbers R are said to be complete since it
satisfies the above property. For example, consider the
set:
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Let A be the following subset of the rational numbers Q:
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Suppose a and b are integers, not both 0. An integer d is
called a common divisor of a and b if d divides both a
and b, that is, if d|a and d|b. If d is largest then it is
denoted by gcd(a, b) and it is called the greatest
common divisor of a and b.
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Suppose d = gcd(a, b). Then there exist integers x and y
such that d = ax+by.
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A positive integer d = gcd(a, b) if and only if d has the
following properties:
1) d divides both a and b.
2) If c divides both a and b, then c|d.
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1) gcd(a, b) = gcd(b, a)
2) If x > 0, then gcd(ax, bx) = x. gcd (a, b).

3) If d = gcd(a, b), then gcd(a/d, b/d) = 1.

4) For any integer x, gcd(a, b) = gcd (a, b +ax).

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In this topic, we will find very efficient algorithm for
finding both d = gcd(a, b) and the integers x and y such
that d = ax+by.
This algorithm, called the Euclidean algorithm, consists
of repeatedly applying the division algorithm(long
division). This algorithm is illustrated with the
following example.
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Let a = 540 and b = 168. We find d = gcd(a, b) by
dividing a by b and then repeatedly dividing each
remainder into the divisor until obtaining a zero
remainder.
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Next we find x and y such that d = 540x+168y. The first
three quotients from the previous long division gives
the equations:
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Let a = 8316 and b = 10920.
(a) Find d = gcd(a, b).
(b) Find integers m and n such that d = ma+nb.
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Let a = 8316 and b = 10920.
(b) Find integers m and n such that d = ma+nb.
 Z.
F
Suppose a and b are nonzero integers. Note that |ab| is a
positive common multiple of a and b. Thus there exists
a smallest positive common multiple of a and b; it is
denoted by lcm(a, b) and it is called the least common
multiple of a and b.
 Z.
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a) lcm(2, 3) = 6, lcm(4, 6) =12, lcm(9, 10) = 90.

b) For any positive integer a, we have lcm(1, a) = a.

c) For any prime p and any positive integer a, lcm(p, a)

= a or lcm(p, a) = ap according as p|a or p /| a.
 Z.
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Suppose a and b are nonzero integers. Then
| ab |
lcm( a, b) 
gcd(a, b)
Let a = 8316 and b = 10920. Find lcm(a, b).
As we know gcd(8316, 10920) = 84. So
 F
Z.
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F
Every integer n>1can be expressed uniquely as a product
of primes.
 F
Z.
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Z.
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Z.
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F
Two numbers written in a certain order. Usually written
in parentheses like (12, 5) which can be used to show
position on a graph, where the “x”(horizontal) value is
first and the “y”(vertical) value is second. So (12, 5) is
12 units along, and 5 units up.
 Z.
F
Let A and B be two sets. The product set or cartesian
product of A and B, written A B is the set of all
ordered pairs (a, b) such that a A and bB . Namely

A  B  {(a, b) : a  A, b  B}
One usually writes A2 instead of A A.
 Z.
F
is the set of all ordered pairs of real numbers. In
2    
xy-plane, each point P represents an ordered pair (a, b)
of real numbers and vice versa. 2 is also called the
Cartesian plane.
 Z.
F
Let A = {1, 2} and B = {a, b, c}. Then
 Z.
F
The idea of a product of sets can be extended to any
finite number of sets. Specifically, for any sets A1 , A2 , ..., Am
the set of all m-element lists (a1 , a 2 ,..., a m ), where each ai Ai
is called the cartesian product of the sets A1 , A2 ,..., Am . It
is denoted by A1  A2  ...  Am
 Z.
F
Let A = {1, 2}, B = {x, y, z}, C= {3, 4}. Find A  B  C.
 Z.
F
Let A = {1, 2}, B = {a, b, c}, C= {c, d}. Find A  ( B  C ).
 F
Z.
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F
Let A and B be sets. A binary relation or, simply, a
relation from A to B is a subset of A  B . Suppose R is a
relation from A to B. Then R is a set of ordered pairs
where each first element comes from A and each
second element comes from B. That is,
 Z.
F
The domain of a relation R from A to B is the set of all
first elements of the ordered pairs which belong to R,
and so it is subset of A; and the range of R is the set of
all second elements, and so it is a subset of B.

Note:Sometimes R is a relation from a set A to itself, that

is, R is a subset of A2  A  A . In such a case, we say
that R is a relation on A.
 Z.
F
a) Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {x, y, z}, and let

b) Suppose we say that two countries are adjacent if

they have some part of their boundaries in common.
Then “is adjacent to” is a relation R on the countries
of the earth. Thus:
 Z.
F
c) Set inclusion  is a relation on any collection of sets.

d) A familiar relation on the set Z of integers is “ m

divides n”.
 Z.
F
Let A be any set. Then A  A and ø are subsets of A  A
and hence are relations on A called the universal
relation and empty relation, respectively. Thus

An important relation on the set A is that of equality, that

is, the relation

which is usually denoted by =.

 Z.
F
Let R be any relation from a set A to a set B. The inverse
of R, denoted by R 1 is the relation from B to A. That
is

For example if R = {(1, y), (1, z), (3, y)} is the relation
from A = {1, 2, 3} to B = {x, y, z}, then

1 1 1
Note:( R )  R. Also domain of R is the range of R, and
vice versa.
 Z.
F
Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, and let R be the relation on A
defined by “x divides y”, written x|y.
a) Write R as a set of ordered pairs.
1
b) Find the inverse relation R of R.
 F
Z.
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F
Consider, for example, the following relation R from A =
{1, 2, 3} to B = {x, y, z}:
R = {(1, y), (1, z), (3, y)}
We can represent this relation R in two ways as follows:
 Z.
F
There is another way of picturing a relation R when R is a
relation from a finite set A to itself. Consider the set A
= {1, 2, 3, 4} and the following relation R:
R = {(1, 2), (2,2), (2, 4), (3, 2), (3, 4), (4, 1), (4, 3)}
First we write down the elements of the set A, and then
we draw an arrow from each element x to each element
y whenever x is related to y.
 Z.
F
Given A = {1, 2, 3 ,4} and B = {x, y, z}. Let R be the
following relation from A to B:
R = {(1, y), (1, z), (3, y), (4, x), (4, z)}
Draw the arrow diagram of R.
 Z.
F
Given A = {1, 2, 3 ,4, 6} and let R be the relation on A
defined by “x divides y”, written x|y. Draw its directed
graph.
Here R = {(1,1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5), (1, 6), (2,2),
(2,4), (2,6), (3,3), (3,6), (4,4), (6,6)}
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Z.
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F
Let A, B, C be sets, and let R be a relation from A to B
and let S be a relation from B to C. Then R and S give
rise to a relation from A to C denoted by R o S and
defined as follows:
R o S ={(a, c): there exist b ϵ B for which (a, b) ϵ R and
(b, c) ϵ S}
That is,

This relation R o S is called the composition of R and S;

it is sometimes denoted by RS.
 Z.
F
Let A = {1,2,3,4}, B = {a,b,c,d}, C = {x,y,z}, and let
R = {(1,a), (2,d), (3,a), (3,d)} and S = {(b,x), (b,z), (c,y),
(d,z)}. Then
 Z.
F
Suppose R is a relation on a set A. Then R o R, the
composition of R with itself, is always defined, and R o
R is sometimes denoted by R 2 . Similarly R 3  R 2o R  RoRoR
. Thus R n is defined for all positive n.
 F
Z.
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F
Let A, B, C be sets, and let R be a relation from A to B
and let S be a relation from B to C. Then R and S give
rise to a relation from A to C denoted by R o S and
defined as follows:
R o S ={(a, c): there exist b ϵ B for which (a, b) ϵ R and
(b, c) ϵ S}
That is,

This relation R o S is called the composition of R and S;

it is sometimes denoted by RS.
 Z.
F
Let A = {1,2,3,4}, B = {a,b,c,d}, C = {x,y,z}, and let
R = {(1,a), (2,d), (3,a), (3,d)} and S = {(b,x), (b,z), (c,y),
(d,z)}. Then
 Z.
F
Suppose R is a relation on a set A. Then R o R, the
composition of R with itself, is always defined, and R o
R is sometimes denoted by R 2 . Similarly R 3  R 2o R  RoRoR
. Thus R n is defined for all positive n.
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Z.
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Consider a given set A. A relation R on a set A is
reflexive if a R a for every a ϵ A, that is, (a,a) ϵ R for
every a ϵ R.
For example, let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and consider the relation
R = {(1,1), (1, 2), (2,1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4)}.
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F
A relation R on a set A is symmetric if whenever a R b
then b R a, that is, if whenever (a, b) ϵ R, then (b, a) ϵ
R.
For example, let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and consider the relation
R = {(1,1), (1, 2), (2,1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4)}.
 Z.
F
A relation R on a set A is antisymmetric if whenever a R
b and b R a then a = b, that is, if whenever (a, b) ϵ R,
and (b, a) ϵ R, then a = b or if (a, b) ϵ R with a ≠ b,
then (b, a) should not belong to R.
For example, let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and consider the relation
R = {(1,1), (1, 2), (2, 3), (1, 3), (4, 4)}.
 Z.
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A relation R on a set A is transitive if whenever a R b and
b R c then a R c, that is, if whenever (a, b) ϵ R, and (b,
c) ϵ R, then (a, c) ϵ R.
For example, let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and consider the relation
R = {(1, 3), (2, 1)} and S = {(1,1), (1, 2), (2, 3), (1, 3),
(4, 3)}.
 Z.
F
Consider the following relations:
a) Relation ≤ on the set Z of integers.
b) Set inclusion  on a collection of sets.
c) Relation | of divisibility on the set P of positive
integers.
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Z.
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The properties of being symmetric and antisymmetric
are not negative of each other. For example, the relation
R = {(1, 3), (3, 1), (2, 3)} is neither symmetric and
antisymmetric . On the other hand, the relation S = {(1,
1), (2, 2)} is both symmetric and antisymmetric.
 Z.
F
Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4}. Consider the following relation R
on A:
R = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 2), (4, 2),
(4, 4)}.
Reflexive:
Symmetric:
Antisymmetric:
Transitive:
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Z.
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Consider a relation R on a set A. R may or may not have
property P, such as reflexivity, symmetry, or
transitivity.
If there is a relation P(R) with property P containing R
such that P(R) is the subset of every relation with
property P containing R, then P(R) is called the closure
of R with respect to P.
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The reflexive, symmetric and transitive closures of a
relation R will be denoted respectively by:
reflexive(R), symmetric(R), transitive(R)
The next theorem tells us how to easily obtain the
reflexive and symmetric closures of a relation.
 Z.
F
Let R be a relation on a set A. Then:
(i) RU  A is the reflexive closure of R.
(ii) RUR 1 is the symmetric closure of R.
here  A  {(a, a) : a  A} is the equality relation on A.
 Z.
F
Consider the following relation R on a set A = {1, 2, 3,
4}:
R = {(1,1), (1,3), (2,4), (3,1), (3,3), (4,3)}
Then
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F
Let R be a relation on a set A with n elements. Then
transitive( R)  R  R 2  ...  R n

Example 2: Consider the following relation on A = {1, 2,

3}:
R = {(1,2), (2,3), (3,3)}
Then
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Z.
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Z.
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Let S be a nonempty set. A partition of S is a subdivision
of S into nonoverlapping, nonempty subsets. Precisely,
a partition of S is a collection P  { Ai } of nonempty
subsets of S such that
(i) Each a ϵ S belongs to one of the Ai
(ii) The sets { Ai } are mutually disjoint; that is,

The subsets in a partition are called cells. Thus each a ϵ S

belongs to exactly one of the cells.
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F
Following figure is a Venn diagram of a partition of the
rectangular set S of points into five cells:
 Z.
F
Given a partition P  { Ai } of a set S, any element b  Ai is
called a representative of the cell Ai and a subset B of S
is called a system of representatives if B contains
exactly one element of each of the cells of P.
 Z.
F
Consider the following collections of subsets of S = {1,
2,…, 9}:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)

Note that B ={1, 2, 7 } is a system of representative of

the partition given in (iii).
 Z.
F
Find all partition of the set S = {a, b, c}.
 F
Z.
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Let S be a nonempty set. A relation R on S is an equivalence
relation if R is reflexive, symmetric and transitive. That is,
R is an equivalence relation on S if it has the following
three properties:
1) For every a ϵ S, aRa
2) If aRb, then bRa.
3) If aRb and bRc, then aRc.

The general idea behind an equivalence relation is that it is a

classification of objects which are in some way alike. We
use ~ or to denote the equivalence relation.
 Z.
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The relation = of equality on any set S is an equivalence
relation. How?
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F
The relation  of set inclusion is not an equivalence
relation. It is reflexive and transitive, but it is not
symmetric since
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F
Let m be a fixed positive integer. Two integers a and b
are said to be congruent modulo m written
If m divides a – b. For example,

We claim that this relation of congruence modulo m is an

equivalence relation.
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Z.
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Suppose R is an equivalence relation on a set S. For each
a in S, let [a] denote the set of elements of S to which a
is related under R; that is,
[a] = {x: (a, x) ϵ R}
We call [a] the equivalence class of a in S under R. The
collection of all such equivalence classes is denoted by
S/R, that is,
S/R = {[a] : a ϵ S}
It is called the quotient set of S by R.
 Z.
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Let R be an equivalence relation on a set S. Then the
quotient set S/R is a partition of S. Conversely, suppose
P  { Ai } is a partition of a set S. Then there is an
equivalence relation ~ on S such that the set S/~ of
equivalence classes is the same as the partitionP  { Ai }.
 Z.
F
Consider the relation R = {(1,1), (2,2), (1,3), (3,1), (3,3),
(4,4)} on S = {1, 2, 3, 4}.
 Z.
F
Let R3 be the relation on the set Z of integers defined by
x  y (mod 3)
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Z.
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For the first part, we want to prove that
(i) For each a ϵ S, we have a ϵ [a].
(ii) [a] = [b] if and only if (a, b) ϵ R.
(iii) If [a] ≠ [b], then [a] and [b] are disjoint.
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Z.
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For the 2nd part, let a, b ϵ S and define a ~ b if a and b
belong to the same cell Ak in P. We need to show that ~
is reflexive, symmetric and transitive.
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Suppose that to each element of a set A we assign a
unique element of a set B; the collection of such
assignments is called a function from A into B. The set
A is called the domain of the function, and the set B is
called the target set.
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Z.
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Z.
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Z.
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Z.
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Consider any set A. Then there is a function from A into
A which sends each element into itself. It is called the
identity function on A and it is usually denoted by
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Z.
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Every function f: A→B give rise to a relation from A to B
called the graph of f and defined by
Graph of f = {(a, b); a ϵ A, b = f(a)}
This ordered pair (a, b) is unique.
For example, consider the function f ( x)  x
2
. We can
represent this function as a relation and draw its graph
as follows:
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Z.
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F
Let f: A→B be the function defined as follows:

Then the graph of f is the following set of ordered pairs:

 Z.
F
Consider the following relations on the set A = {1, 2, 3}.
 Z.
F
Sketch the graph of f (x)  x2  x  6 .
 Z.
F
Let A = {1,2,3,4} and let f:A→A be defined by the
following diagram.

a) Find the graph of f.

b) Find f(A), the image of f.
c) Find f(S) where S = {1, 3, 5}.
1
d) Find (T) where T = {2, 3}.
f
 F
Z.
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F
Considers functions f:A→B and g:B→C, that is, where
the target set B of f is the domain of g. This relationship
can be pictured by the following diagram:

This new function is called the composition of f and g,

and it is denoted by g o f.
More briefly, if f:A→B and g:B→C, then we define a
new function g o f: A→C by
(g o f)(a) = g (f(a))
 Z.
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Let f:A→B and g:B→C be the functions defined in the
diagram.

We compute g o f: A→C by its definition:

 Z.
F
Let f:R→R and g:R→R be defined by
 Z.
F
Consider any function f:A→B. Then
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F
Let f:A→B, g:B→C and h:C→D. Then prove that
(f o g) o h = f o (g o h).
Proof.
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A function f:A→B is said to be one-to-one(injective) if
different elements in the domain A have distinct
images. Another way of saying the same things
follows:

For example, let f:R→R be defined by f(x) = 2x-3 is one-

to-one. But f ( x)  x 2 is not one-to-one.
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A function f:A→B is said to be onto(surjective) function
if every element of B is the image of some element in A
or, in other words, if the image of f is the entire target
set B. In such a case we say that f is a function of A
onto B or that maps A onto B. That is:

For example, f:R→R be defined by f(x) = 2x-3 is onto.

But f (x) 1 x2 not onto since 0 ϵ R but there is no real
number x such that f(x) = 0.
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A function f:A→B is said to be invertible if its inverse
relation f 1 is a function from B to A. Equivalently, f : A
→ B is invertible if there exists a function f  1 : B  A
called the inverse of f, such that
 Z.
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A function f : A → B is invertible if and only if f is both
one-to-one and onto.
For example, let f:R→R be defined by f(x) = 2x-3. Now f
is one-to-one and onto; hence f has an inverse function.
We can find the inverse of f as follows:
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If f : A → B is both one-to-one and onto, then f is called a
one-to-one correspondence(bijective) between A and B.
This terminology comes from the fact that each element
of A will correspond to a unique element of B and vice
versa. For example, f(x) = 2x-3 is a bijective function.
 Z.
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Consider functions f1 , f 2 , f3 and f 4 defined in the following
figure.
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Z.
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F
Consider functions f : A → B and g : B → C. Prove that
if f and g are one-to-one, then the composition function
g o f is one-to-one.
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Z.
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F
Let x be any real number. The integer value of x, written
INT(x), converts x into an integer by deleting the
fractional part of the number. Thus
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Let k be any integer and let M be a positive integer. Then
k(mod M)
(read k modulo M) will denote the integer remainder
when k is divided by M. More exactly, k(mod M) is the
unique integer r such that

When k is positive, simply divide k by M to obtain

remainder r. Thus
 Z.
F
When k is negative, divide |k| by the modulus M to
obtain the remainder s. Then, when s ≠ 0, k(mod M) =
M – s. Thus:
-26(mod 7) = 7 - 5 = 2, -371(mod 8) = 8 – 3 = 5.
 Z.
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The term “mod” is also used for the mathematical
congruence relation, which is denoted and defined as
follows:
a ≡ b (mod M) if and only if M divides b - a
M is called the modulus, and a ≡ b (mod M) is read “a is
congruent to b modulo M ”
 Z.
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Arithmetic modulo M refers to the arithmetic operations
of addition, multiplication, and subtraction. It is quite
simple: calculate as in ordinary arithmetic and reduce
the result to the smallest positive remainder by dividing
the modulus. For example,
12+9 ≡21≡1 mod 5 35˟ 7 ≡245≡0 mod 5
12-9≡ 3 mod 5
12+3≡0 mod 5
15-23≡ -8 ≡2 mod 5
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Z.
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An exponential function is a mathematical in form as
follows:

where x is a variable and a is a constant which is called

the base of the function and it should be greater than 0.
 Z.
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Logarithms are related to exponent as follows. Let b be a
positive number. The logarithm of any positive number
x to the base b, written

represents the exponent to which b must be raised to

obtain x. That is,

are equivalent statements.

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Z.
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A recursive or inductive definition of a function consists
of two steps.
1) Basis Step: Specify the value of the function at initial
values. (e.g. f(0) defined.)
2) Recursive Step: Give a rule for finding its values at
an integer from its values at smaller integers. (For n >
0, define f(n) in terms of f(0), f(1), …, f(n-1))
 Z.
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a) If n = 0 or n = 1, then Fn .n
b) If n > 1, then Fn  Fn  2  Fn 1 .
Here the base values are 0 and 1. Hence, the sequence
can be found as:
 Z.
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Find f(1), f(2), f(3) and f(4) if f(n) is defined recursively
by f(0) = 1 and f(n+1) = f(n) +2 for n = 0, 1, 2, ….
 F
Z.
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F
Sets A and B are said to have the same cardinality or the
same number of elements, or to be equipotent, written
A≈B
if there is a function f : A → B which is bijective.
 Z.
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The relation ≈ of being equipotent is an equivalence
relation in any collection of sets. That is,
i) A ≈ A for any set A.
ii) If A ≈ B, then B ≈ A.
iii) If A ≈ B and B ≈ C, then A ≈ C.
Proof.
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Z.
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F
Let A and B be sets with exactly three elements, say,
A = {2, 3, 4} and B = {Anum, Bilal, Fahad}.
Then clearly we can find the one-to-one correspondence
between A and B.

Remark: The same idea may be used to show that any

two finite sets with the same number of elements are
equipotent.
 Z.
F
Let A = {a, b, c, d} and B = {1, 2, 3}. Then A and B are
not equipotent.

Remark: In a similar way, we can say that any two finite

sets with different number of elements are not
equipotent.
 Z.
F
Let I = [0, 1], the closed unit interval, and let S be any other
closed interval, say [a, b] where a < b. The function f: I →
S defined by
f(x) = (b - a)x + a
is one-to-one and onto. Thus I and S are equipotent.
Remark: Any two closed intervals are equipotent by theorem
1.
Reason: Since f: I → S bijective so f: S → I is also bijective.
Consider another closed interval T, say [c, d]. We can define
bijective function g : I → T as in the above example. So by
transitivity we can define another bijective function from S
to T. Hence S and T are equipotent.
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F
Remark: Any two closed intervals are equipotent by
theorem 1.
Reason: Since f: I → S bijective so f: S → I is also
bijective. Consider another closed interval T, say [c, d].
We can define bijective function g : I → T as in the
above example. So by transitivity we can define
another bijective function from S to T. Hence S and T
are equipotent.
 Z.
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Consider the set P = {1, 2, 3,…} of positive integers and
the set E = {2, 4, 6, …} of even positive integers. The
following defines a one-to-one correspondence
between P and E:

In other words, the function f : P → E defined by f(n) =

2n is one-to-one and onto. Thus P and E have the same
cardinality.
Note: What does this example show us?
 Z.
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A set S is infinite if it has the same cardinality as a proper
subset of itself. Otherwise S is finite.
For example, the counting numbers P, the natural
numbers(nonnegative integers) N, the integers Z, the
rational numbers Q, and the real numbers R.
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Z.
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A set D is said to be denumerable or countably infinite if
D has the same cardinality as P = {1, 2, 3, …}.

Countable Set
A set is countable if it is finite or denumerable, and a set
is nondenumerable if it is not countable.

Note: Thus a set S is nondenumerable if S is infinite and

S does not have the same cardinality as P.
 Z.
F
Any infinite sequence

of distinct elements is countably infinite.

Similarly all the following sets are countably infinite.

 Z.
F
Consider the product set
 Z.
F
Recall that N = {0, 1, 2, …} is the set of natural numbers
or nonnegative numbers. Now each positive integer a ϵ
P can be written uniquely in the form
 Z.
F
The set Z of integers can be put into a one-to-one
correspondence with P = {1, 2, 3, …} as follows:

The formula for the function f : P → Z is given by:

 F
Z.
 Z.
F
Every infinite set contains a subset which is
denumerable.
Proof.
 Z.
F
A subset of a denumerable set is finite or denumerable.
 Z.
F
A subset of a countable set is countable.
Proof. Proof is obvious from theorem 2.
 Z.
F
Let A1, A2 , A3 ,... be a sequence of pairwise disjoint
denumerable sets. Then the union
A1  A2  A3  ...  ( Ai : i  P)
is denumerable.
 Z.
F
The set Q of rational numbers is denumerable.
 Z.
F
The set Z of integers is denumerable.
 F
Z.
 Z.
F
The unit interval I = [0, 1] is nondenumerable.
Proof.
 F
Z.
 Z.
F
A set A is said to have the power of the continuum if A
has the same cardinality as the unit interval I = [0, 1].
 F
Z.
 F
Z.
 Z.
F
Prove that the set R of real numbers has the power of
continuum.
Proof.
 F
Z.
 F
Z.
 Z.
F
Each set A is assigned a symbol in such a way that two
sets A and B are assigned the same symbol if and only
if they are equipotent. This symbol is called the
cardinality or cardinal number of A, and it is denoted
by
|A|, n(A) or card(A)
Thus,
 Z.
F
0 is assigned to the empty set ø, and n is assigned to the
set {1, 2, … n}. Thus,

Alternatively, the symbols 0, 1, 2, 3,… are assigned,

respectively, to the sets
 Z.
F
Cardinal numbers of infinite sets are called infinite or
transfinite cardinal numbers.
The cardinal number of the infinite set P of positive
integers is
Thus,

In particular,
 Z.
F
The cardinal number of the unit interval I = [0, 1] is
denoted by c and it is called the power of continuum.
Thus:

In particular, we have |R| = c, and the cardinal number of

any interval is c.
 Z.
F
(a) A is denumerable or countably infinite means |A| =
(b) A is countable means |A| is finite or |A| =
(c) A has the power of continuum if |A| = c.
 F
Z.
 Z.
F
Let A and B be two sets. We say that |A| ≤ |B| if there
exists a one-to-one(injective) function f : A → B.
The above relation between cardinal numbers are well
defined, that is, the relations are independent of the
particular sets involved. Namely, if
 Z.
F
Example 1
Let A be a proper subset of a finite set B.

Example 2
Let n be a finite cardinal.

We may write
 Z.
F
Example 3
Consider the set P of positive integers and the unit
interval I, that is, consider the sets

The function f : P → I defined by f(n) = 1/n is one-to-

one.(prove it.)
 Z.
F
Therefore, |P| ≤ |I|.
On the other hand |P| ≠ |I|. Therefore
Accordingly we may write
 Z.
F
Example 4
Let A be any infinite set. So A contains a subset which is
denumerable. Accordingly, for any infinite set A, we
always have
 F
Z.
 Z.
F
For any set A, we have |A| < |P(A)|.
Proof.
 F
Z.
 F
Z.
 Z.
F
Prove that 20  c.
 Z.
F
0
2 c
 F
Z.
 F
Z.
 Z.
F
Addition and multiplication of the counting numbers N
are sometimes treated from the point of view of set
theory. The interpretation of 2+3 = 5, for example, is
the union of two disjoint sets, one having two elements
and the other having three elements, is a set with five
elements. This idea leads to a completely general
definition of addition of cardinal numbers.
 Z.
F
Definition: Let α and β be cardinal numbers and let A
and B be disjoint sets with α = |A| and β = |B|. Then
the sum of α and β is denoted and defined by
α + β = |(A ∪ B)|

Note:(1) This definition is well-defined.

(2) If A and B are any two sets, then

 Z.
F
(a) Let m and n be finite cardinal numbers. Then m + n
corresponds to the usual addition in N.

(b) Let n be a finite cardinal number.

 F
Z.
 F
Z.
 Z.
F
Let α and β be cardinal numbers and let A and B be sets
with α = |A| and β = |B|. Then the product α and β is
denoted and defined by
αβ = | A  B |
 Z.
F
(a) Let m and n be finite cardinal numbers. Them mn
corresponds to the usual multiplication in N.

(b) Since N  N is denumerable, so

(c) The Cartesian plane R 2  R  R has the same

cardinality as R. That is, cc = c.
 Z.
F
Let α and β be nonzero cardinal numbers such that β is
infinite and α ≤ β. Then
α + β = α β= β
 F
Z.
 Z.
F
Suppose R is a relation on a set S satisfying the following
three properties:
1) (Reflexive) For any a ϵ S, we have a R a.
2) (Antisymmetric) If a R b and b R a, then a = b.
3) (Transitive) If a R b and b R c, then a R c.
Then R is called a partial order or, simply an order
relation, and R is said to define a partial ordering of S.
The set S with partial ordering R is called a partially
ordered set or, simply an ordered set.
 Z.
F
The most familiar order relation, called the usual order, is
the relation ≤ on the positive integers P or, more
generally on any subset of the real numbers R. For this
reason, a partial ordering relation is frequently denoted
by
With this notation, the above three properties of a partial
order appear in the following usual form:
1) (Reflexive)
2) (Antisymmetric)
3) (Transitive)
 Z.
F
Although an ordered set consists of two things, a set S
and the partial ordering , one usually simply write S
to denote the ordered sets as long as the partial
ordering is fixed in the context of the discussion;
otherwise the ordered set is denoted by the pair
Suppose S is an ordered set. Then the statement

In this context we also write:

 Z.
F
1) Let C be any collection of sets. The relation of set
inclusion is a partial ordering of C. Specifically,

2) Consider the set P of positive integers. We say “ a

divides b”, written a|b, if there exists an integer c
such that ac = b. For example, 2|4, 3|12, 7|21, and so
on. This relation of divisibility is a partial ordering of
P.
 Z.
F
3) The relation “|” of divisibility is not an ordering of
the set Z of integers. Specifically, the relation is not
antisymmetric. For instance,
 F
Z.
 F
Z.
 Z.
F
Suppose a and b are distinct elements in a partially
ordered set S. We say a and b are comparable if

Thus a and b are noncomparable written

if
 Z.
F
Suppose that every pair of elements of S are comparable.
Then S is said to be linearly or totally ordered.
Although an ordered set S may not be linearly ordered, it
is still possible for a subset A of S to be linearly
ordered. Such a linearly ordered subset A of an ordered
set S is called a chain in S.
 Z.
F
a) Consider the set P of positive integers ordered by
divisibility.

b) The set P of positive integers with the usual order ≤ is

linearly ordered and hence every ordered subset of P
is also linearly ordered.
 Z.
F
c) The power set P(A) of a set A with 2 or more
elements is not linearly ordered by set inclusion. For
example,

d) Consider the set A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12, 24} ordered by

divisibility. Then clearly A is not linearly ordered as
for instance, 3 and 4 are not comparable. Observe that
the sets {1, 2, 4, 12, 24}, {1, 2, 6, 12, 24} and {1, 3,
6, 12, 24} are all chains.
 Z.
F
Let P = {1, 2, 3, …} be ordered by divisibility. State
whether each of the following is a chain in P.
a) A = {24, 2, 6}

b) B = {3, 15, 5}

c) C = {2, 8, 32, 4}

d) D = {7}
 F
Z.
 Z.
F
Let S be a partially ordered set, and suppose a, b ϵ S. We
say that a is an immediate predecessor of b, or that b is
an immediate successor of a, or that b is a cover of a,
written a << b, if a < b but no element in S lies
between a and b, that is, there exists no element c in S
such that a < c < b.
For example, consider the set P = {1, 2, 3, 4,…} with the
order <. Then we can see that 1 << 2, 2 << 3, and so on.
 Z.
F
Suppose S is a finite partially ordered set. Then the order
on S is completely known once we know all pairs a, b
in S such that a << b. This follows from the fact that x
< y if and only if x << y or there exists elements

For example, consider the set A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12, 24}

ordered by the relation “x divides y”. Then we can write
2 << 4, 2 << 6, 3 << 6, 4 << 12, 6 << 12, 12 << 24.
Also 1 << 2 << 4 << 12 << 24 or 1 << 2 << 6 << 12 <<
24 or 1 << 3 << 6 << 12 << 24.
 Z.
F
The Hasse diagram of a finite partially ordered set S is a
graphical representation of S as follows. The elements
of S are represented by points in the plane and there is a
directed line segment(arrow) drawn from a to b
whenever a << b in S. Instead of drawing an arrow
from a to b, we sometimes place b higher than a and
draw a line between them.
The Hasse diagram of an ordered set S is a picture of S.
Sometimes we define a partially ordered set by simply
presenting its Hasse diagram.
 Z.
F
Draw the Hasse diagram representing the divisibility
relation on set A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12, 24}.
Solution. As we saw 1 << 2 << 4 << 12 << 24 or 1 << 2
<< 6 << 12 << 24 or 1 << 3 << 6 << 12 << 24. We can
draw its Hasse diagram as follows:
 Z.
F
Let A={a,b,c}. Draw the Hasse diagram representing the
subset relation on the power set P(A).
 Solution. The power set P(A) contains all subsets of A:
 P(A)={ ,{a},{b},{c},{a,b},{b,c},{a,c},{a,b,c}}.
 We place the empty set at the bottom of the diagram. The
subsets with one element {a},{b},{c} are placed on the first
level, and the subsets with two
elements {a,b},{b,c},{a,c} are placed on the next level. The
element {a,b,c} occupies the top of the diagram. Finally we
connect the subsets with their immediate successor with
respect to the inclusion relation. The resulting diagram is
shown in the next slide.
 F
Z.
 Z.
F
Let A={1,2,3,4,5} and R={(1,1),(1,3),(1,4), (1,5),(2,2),(2,
3), (2,4),(2,5),(3,3), (3,4),(3,5), (4,4),(5,5)}. Show that
the relation R is a partial order and draw its Hasse
diagram.
Solution.
 The relation R is reflexive since it contains all reflexive
pairs: (1,1),(2,2),(3,3),(4,4),(5,5).
 R is antisymmetric since all non-reflexive elements do
not have the corresponding inverse pairs:
(1,3),(1,4),(1,5),(2,3),(2,4),(2,5),(3,4),(3,5).
 Z.
F
 R is transitive:
 (1,3) R,(3,4) R→(1,4) R;
 (1,3) R,(3,5) R→(1,5) R;
 (2,3) R,(3,4) R→(2,4) R;
 (2,3) R,(3,5) R→(2,5) R.
Hence, the relation R is a partial order and we can draw
its Hasse diagram, which is represented below.
 F
Z.
 F
Z.
 Z.
Let S be a partially ordered set. An element a ϵ S is called

F
a minimal element of S if no element of S strictly
precedes(is less than) a; that is, if
x ≤ a implies x = a
For example, let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 12, 18, 24} be
ordered by divisibility. Then we can see that A has only
one minimal element, 1.
 Z.
Let S be a partially ordered set. An element b ϵ S is called

F
a maximal element of S if no element of S strictly
succeeds(is greater than) b; that is, if
x ≥ b implies x = b
For example, let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 12, 18, 24} be a
set ordered by divisibility. Then we can see that A has
two maximal elements, 18 and 24.
 Z.
F
Geometrically speaking, a is a minimal element of S if no
edge enters a(from below), and b is a maximal element
of S if no edge leaves b (in an upward direction).
Note:S can have more than one minimal and more than
one maximal element. Hasse diagram of divisibility
relation on set A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 12, 18, 24} is
given below:
 Z.
F
If S is infinite, then S may have no minimal and maximal
element. For instance, the set Z of integers with the
usual order ≤ has no minimal and maximal element. On
the other hand, if S is finite, then S has atleast one
minimal and one maximal element.
 Z.
An element a ϵ S is called a first element of S if a ≤ x for

F
every x ϵ S, that is, if a precedes every other element in
S.
Similarly, an element b ϵ S is called a last element of S if
y ≤ b for every y ϵ S, that is, b succeeds every other
element in S.
For example, let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 12, 18, 24} be a
set ordered by divisibility. 1 is minimal element of A
which is also the first element of A. Set A has two
maximal element and neither is a last element.
 Z.
F
Note: We note that S can have at most one first element
which must be a minimal element of S, and S can have
at most one last element which must be a maximal
element of S. Generally speaking, S may have neither a
first nor a last element, even when S is finite.
 Z.
F
a) Consider the set P = {1, 2, 3,…} with the usual order
≤.

b) Let A be any nonempty set and let P(A) be the power

set of A ordered by set inclusion.
 Z.
F
c) Consider the ordered set A in the figure below:

1) Find all minimal and maximal elements of A.

2) Does A have a first element or a last element?
 F
Z.
 Z.
F
Let S be a partially ordered set, and let A be a subset of S.
An element m in S is called an upper bound of A if m
succeeds every element of A, that is, for every x ϵ A, we
have
x≤m
If an upper bound of A precedes every other upper bound
of A, then it is called the supremum of A and it is
denoted by sup(A).
 Z.
F
Let S be a partially ordered set, and let A be a subset of S.
An element n in S is called a lower bound of A if n
precedes every element of A, that is, for every y ϵ A, we
have
y≥n
If a lower bound of A succeeds every other lower bound
of A, then it is called the infimum of A and it is denoted
by inf(A).
 Z.
F
If A has an upper bound we say A is bounded above, and
if A has a lower bound we say A is bounded below. In
particular, A is bounded if A has an upper and lower
bound.
 Z.
F
Let S = {a, b, c, d, e, f} be ordered as in the Hasse
diagram below and let A = {b, c, d}.
 Z.
Let S = {1, 2, 3, …, 8} be ordered as in the Hasse

F
diagram below and let A = {4, 5, 7}.
 Z.
F
Consider the set Q of rational numbers, and its subset
 F
Z.
 Z.
F
Suppose X and Y are partially ordered sets. A one-to-
one(injective) function f :X → Y is called a similar
mapping from X into Y if f preserves the order relation,
that is, if the following conditions holds for any pair a,
b ϵ X:
a ≤ b in X if and only if f(a) ≤ f(b) in Y
The above condition is equivalent to the following two
conditions:
 Z.
F
Two ordered sets X and Y are said to be order-isomorphic
or isomorphic or similar, written

if there exists a one-to-one correspondence f : X → Y

which preserves the order relations. Such a function f is
then called an order-isomorphism or isomorphism
from X onto Y.
 Z.
F
Suppose S = {a, b, c, d} is ordered by the diagram below
and suppose T = {1, 2, 6, 8} is ordered by divisibility.
Determine whether S
 Z.
The set of positive integers P = {1, 2, 3, …} is order-

F
isomorphic to the set of even positive integers E = {2,
4, 6, …} since the function f : P → E defined by f(x) =
2x is an isomorphism between P and E.
 Z.
Consider the usual ordering ≤ of the positive integers P =

F
{1, 2, 3,…} and the negative integers A = {-1, -2, -3,
…}. Then P is not order-isomorphic to A.
Proof.
 F
Z.
 Z.
F
Let A be an ordered set. Then A is said to be well-ordered
if every subset of A contains a first element.
Note: Any well-ordered set A is linearly ordered.
Proof.
 Z.
F
Let A be a well-ordered set. Then:
(i) Every subset of A is well-ordered.
(ii) If B is similar to A, then B is well-ordered.
 Z.
F
Consider the following two subsets of well-ordered set P:
 Z.
F
Let A be a well-ordered set. The initial segment s(a) of an
element a ϵ A consists of all elements in A which
strictly precedes a. In other words,

Consider the well-ordered set S as in previous example,

that is,
 Z.
F
Let S(A) denote the collection of all initial segments of
elements in a well-ordered set A, and let S(A) be
ordered by set inclusion. Then A is similar to S(A) and,
in particular, the function f : A →S(A) defined by f(x) =
s(x) is a similarity mapping between A and S(A).
Consider the set A = {1, 2, 3} with usual ordering.
 F
Z.
 F
Z.
 Z.
F
Let S be a subset of a well-ordered set A with the
following two properties:
 Z.
F
An element a in a well-ordered set A is called a limit
element if it does not have an immediate predecessor
and if it is not the first element.
Consider two finite well-ordered sets:
 Z.
F
Suppose A and B are well-ordered sets, and suppose A is
similar to an initial segment of B. Then A is said to be
shorter than B, and B is said to be longer than A.
 F
Z.
 F
Z.
 Z.
F
Consider a collection C of well-ordered sets. Each well-
ordered set A in C is assigned a symbol in such a way
that any two well-ordered sets A and B are assigned the
same symbol if and only if A and B are similar. This
symbol is called the ordinal number of A. We will write
λ = ord(A)
to indicate that λ is the ordinal number of A.
 Z.
F
The ordinal number of each of the well-ordered sets
ø, {1}, {1, 2}, {1, 2, 3},…
is denoted by 0, 1, 2, 3,… respectively, and is called a
finite ordinal numbers. All other ordinals are called
transfinite numbers.

Note: Since any two finite well-ordered sets with the

same number of elements are similar, 0, 1, 2, 3, …are
the only finite ordinal numbers.
 Z.
F
The ordinal number of the set P of counting numbers is
denoted by ω.
 Z.
Let λ and μ be ordinal numbers and let A and B be two

F
well-ordered sets such that λ = ord(A) and μ = ord(B).
Then
λ<μ
if A is similar to an initial segment of B. Accordingly,
 F
Z.
 F
Z.
 Z.
F
Let C be a non-empty set of non-empty sets. A function
f : C → ∪C is called a choice function for C if f(A) ϵ A
for all A ϵ C.
 Z.
F
Let C be the set of countries on earth, thinking of each
country as a collection of cities. Then ∪C is the set of
all cities on earth, and the function f that assigns to each
country its capital city is an example of a choice
function for C.
For example,
let A ϵ C denotes Pakistan, then f (A) = Islamabad ϵ A.
 Z.
F
Let C be the collection of all pairs of shoes in the world.
Then the function that picks the left shoe out of each
pair is a choice function for C.

Example 3
Let C = P(N)\ {ø}. The function f(A) = min(A) is a choice
function on A.
 Z.
F
Notice that in these examples, and in most other
examples the reader might think of, the choice function
f is defined by some rule: “choose the left shoe”,
“choose the least element”, “choose the capital city”,
and so on. In all of these we simply define the choice
function.
What the axiom of choice does is guarantee that there
always exist choice functions, even in the absence of
such a rule for defining one easily.
 Z.
F
Let C be a non-empty set of non-empty sets. There exists
a choice function for C.

The statement seems simple, but this is a subtle idea. To a

non-mathematician, we might summarize the statement
as, “If you have a bunch of choices, each of which is
possible to make, then you can make all of them.”
 F
Z.
 Z.
F
Recall that the set of positive numbers with the order < is
well-ordered. In general, a set with some order is called
well-ordered if any nonempty subset has a least
element. The set of even numbers and the set {1, 5, 17,
12} with usual order on numbers are two examples of
well-ordered sets and you can check this. However, the
set of integers with our usual ordering on it is not well-
ordered, neither is the set of rational numbers, nor the
set of all positive rational numbers.
Whether a set is well-ordered or not depends on how you
define the order on the set.
 Z.
F
Every set can be well-ordered.

Although Z with our usual < is not well-ordered, we can

define another kind of order on it which does make it

well-ordered. Let’s call this order  instead <. We
define it as follows:
a  b whenever |a| < |b| or if |a| = |b| and a is negative and
b is a positive number. As an example, we have :
 Z.
F
Let X be a nonempty partially ordered set in which every
chain (linearly ordered subset) has an upper bound in X.
Then X contains at least one maximal element.
Consider the partially ordered set X = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12,
24} ordered by divisibility. It has three chains {1, 2, 4,
12, 24}, {1, 2, 6, 12, 24} and {1, 3, 6, 12, 24}. All
chains
 has an upper bound 24. Also maximal element
of X is 24.
 Z.
F
The following are equivalent:
1) Axiom of choice;
2) Well ordering theorem;
3) Zorn’s lemma.



 F
Z.
 Z.
F
A proposition is a declarative sentence which is true or false,
but not both. Consider, for example, the following eight
sentenes:
(i) Paris is in France.
(ii) 1+1=2
(iii) 2+2=3
(iv) Islamabad is in Sri lanka.
(v) 9 < 6
(vi) x = 2 is a solution of x  4.
2

(vii) Where are you going?

(viii) Do your homework.
 Z.
F
We use letters to denote propositional variables, that is,
variables that represent propositions, just as letters are
used to denote numerical variables. The conventional
letters used for propositional variables are p, q, r, s, ….
The truth value of proposition is true, denoted by T, if it
is a true proposition, and the truth value of a
proposition is false, denoted by F, if it is a false
proposition.
 Z.
F
Many mathematical statements are constructed by
combining one or more propositions. New propositions,
called compound propositions, are formed from
existing propositions using logical operators.
Example:
1) “Roses are red and violets are blue” is a compound
proposition.
2) John is intelligent or studies every night.
 F
Z.
 Z.
F
Any two propositions can be combined by the word
“and” to form a compound proposition called the
conjunction of the original propositions. Symbolically,
p ˄ q read “p and q” denotes the conjunction of p and
q.
Truth Value:
Since p ˄ q is a proposition it has a truth value, and this
truth value depends on the truth values of p and q.
Specifically:
If p and q are true, then p ˄ q is true; otherwise p ˄ q is
false.
 Z.
F
Any two propositions can be combined by the word
“and” to form a compound proposition called the
conjunction of the original propositions. Symbolically,
p ˄ q read “p and q” denotes the conjunction of p and
q.
Truth Value:
Since p ˄ q is a proposition it has a truth value, and this
truth value depends on the truth values of p and q.
Specifically:
If p and q are true, then p ˄ q is true; otherwise p ˄ q is
false.
 F
Z.
 Z.
F
Any two propositions can be combined by the word “or”
to form a compound proposition called the disjunction
of the original propositions. Symbolically, p ˅ q read “p
or q”, denotes the disjunction of p and q.
Truth Value:
The truth value of p ˅ q depends only on the truth values
of p and q as follows:
If p and q are false, then p ˅ q is false; otherwise p ˅ q is
true.
 F
Z.
 Z.
F
Let p be a proposition. The negation of p, denoted by ~p,
is the statement “It is not the case that p” The
proposition ~p is read “not p”.
Truth Value:
The truth value of the negation of p is the opposite of the
truth value of p.
 F
Z.
 F
Z.
 Z.
F
Let p and q be propositions. The conditional statement
p → q is the proposition “if p then q”. The conditional
statement p → q is false when p is true and q is false,
and true otherwise. In the conditional statement p → q,
p is called the hypothesis and q is called the conclusion.
Useful Way to Understand the Truth Value:
Consider a statement that a professor might make:
“If you get 100% on the final, then you will get A.”
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Because conditional statements play such an essential
role in mathematical reasoning, a variety of
terminology is used to express p → q. You will
encounter most if not all of the following ways to
express this conditional statement:
“if p, then q” “p implies q”
“p implies q” “q whenever p”
“p is sufficient for q”
“q if p”
“q when p”
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Observe that the truth tables of p → q and ~p ˅ q are
identical. Accordingly, p → q and ~p ˅ q are logically
equivalent.
In other words, the conditional statement “If p then q” is
logically equivalent to the statement “Not p or q”
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Let p be the statement “Maria learns discrete
mathematics” and q the statement “Maria will find a
job.” Express the statement p → q as a statement in
English.
Solution: If Maria learns discrete mathematics, then she
will find a good job.
There are other ways to express this conditional
statement in English.
Maria will find a good job when she learns discrete
mathematics.
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We have now introduced four important logical
connectives- conjunctions, disjunctions,
conditional statements, and biconditional
statements- as well as negations. We can use
these connectives to build up complicated
compound propositions involving any number
of propositional variables. We can use truth
tables to determine the truth values of these
compound propositions.
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A compound proposition that is always true, no
matter what the truth values of the
propositional variables that occur in it, is called
tautology. A compound proposition that is
always false is called a contradiction.
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The proposition is a tautology and the
proposition is a contradiction.
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One way to determine whether two compound propositions are equivalent is to
use a truth table.
Consider the two propositions ~(𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) and ~𝑝 ∧∼ 𝑞. Truth tables for ~(𝑝 ∨ 𝑞)and
~𝑝 ∧∼ 𝑞 are given below:
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Show that 𝑝 → 𝑞 and ~𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 are logically equivalent.
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Show that (𝑝 → 𝑞) ∧ (𝑝 → 𝑟) ≡ 𝑝 → (𝑞 ∧ 𝑟) and ~𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 are logically equivalent.
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The logical equivalences that have been
established so far can be used to construct
additional logical equivalences. This technique
is illustrated in the following examples.
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Show that and are logically
equivalent.
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Show that and are logically equivalent by
developing a series of logical equivalences.
Show that
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Show that (( p  q )  p )  q is a tautology.
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We can form some new conditional statements
starting with a conditional statement . In
particular, there are three related conditional
statements that occur so often that they have
special names.
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The proposition is called the converse of

Example 1: Write the converse of the

conditional statement “The home team wins
whenever it is raining”.
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The contrapositive of is the proposition . We first
show that the contrapositive, of a conditional
statement always has the same truth value as

Example 2: Write the contrapositive of the conditional

statement “The home team wins whenever it is raining”.
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The proposition is called the inverse of . We will
show that the converse and the inverse of a conditional
statement are also equivalent.

Example 3: Write the inverse of the conditional statement “The

home team wins whenever it is raining”.
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State the converse, contrapositive, and inverse of each of
“A positive integer is a prime only if it has no divisors other
than 1 and itself.”
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An argument in propositional logic is a
sequence of propositions. All but the final
proposition in the argument are called
premises and the final proposition is called the
conclusion.
An argument is valid if the truth of all its
premises implies that the conclusion is true.
It means the argument form with premises
and conclusion q is valid, when
is a tautology.
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Consider the following argument involving propositions:
“If you have a current password, then you can log onto the network. ”

“You have a current password.”

Therefore

“You can log onto the network.”

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The tautology is the basis of
the rule of inference called modus ponens, or
the law of detachment. This tautology leads to
the following valid argument form:
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Suppose that the conditional statement “If it
snows today , then we will go skiing” and its
hypothesis, “It is snowing today,” are true.
Then, by law of detachment, it follows that the
conclusion of the conditional statement, “We
will go skiing,” is true. In notation form, we see
that
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Determine whether the argument given here is valid and
determine whether its conclusion must be true because of the
validity of the argument.

Solution.
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Find the argument form for the following argument and
determine whether it is valid. Can we conclude that the
conclusion is true if the premises are true?

If Socrates is human, then Socrates is mortal.

Socrates is human.
Socrates is mortal.
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What rule of inference is used in each of these arguments?
a) Salman is a mathematics major. Therefore, Salman is
either a mathematics major or a computer science major.

b) Ezaan is a mathematics major and a computer science

major. Therefore, Ezaan is a mathematics major.
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c) If it is rainy, then the pool will be closed. It is rainy.
Therefore, the pool is closed.

d) If it snows today, the university will close. The university

is not closed today. Therefore, it did not snow today.
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Use rules of inference to show that the hypotheses “Khan works
hard,” “If Khan works hard, then he is a dull boy,” and “If Khan
is a dull boy, then he will not get a job” imply the conclusion
“Khan will not get the job.”
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Let A be a given set. A propositional
function(or an open sentence) defined on A is
an expression

which has the property that is true or false

for each . That is, becomes a
statement (with a truth value) whenever any
element is substituted for the variable .
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The set A is called the domain of , and the
set of all elements of A for which is true
is called the truth set of In other words,

Note: Frequently, when A is some set of

numbers, the condition ( ) has the form of an
equation or inequality involving the variable .
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Let denote the statement What are
the truth values of and ?
Solution.
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Let p denote the statement
What are the
truth values of and ?
Solution.
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Let p denote the statement Find
the truth set of each propositional function
defined on the set
Solution.
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Let p denote the statement Find
the truth set of each propositional function
defined on the set
Solution.
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Let p denote the statement Find
the truth set of each propositional function
defined on the set
Solution.
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We can also have expressions that involve
more than one variable. For instance, consider
the expression “ .” We can denote this
expression by , where and are
variables. When value are assigned to the
variables and the statement has a
truth value.
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Let denote the statement
What are the truth values of the propositions
and
Solution.
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In general, a statement involving variables
can be denoted by p .
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When the variables in a propositional function are
assigned values, the resulting statement becomes a
Proposition with a certain truth value. However, there is
another important way, called quantification, to create
a proposition from a propositional function.
Quantification expresses the extent to which a
propositional function is true over a range of elements.
In English, all, some, many, none and few are used in
quantifications. We will focus on two types of
quantifications here: universal quantification, which
tells us that a propositional function is true for every
element under consideration, and existential
quantification, which tells us that there is one or more
element under consideration for which the
propositional function is true.
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Let be a propositional function defined on a
set A. Consider the expression
or (1)
which reads “For every in A”, is a true
statement” or, simply, “For all, ”. The symbol
which reads “for all” or “for every” is called the
universal quantifier.
The statement (1) is equivalent to the statement
A
that is, that the truth set of is the entire set A.
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Let be the statement “ .” What is
the truth value of the quantification ,
where the domain consists of all real numbers?
Solution.
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(a) The proposition is true
since

(b) The proposition is false

since
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(a) The proposition is true
since

(b) The proposition is false

since
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Let be the statement “ ” What is the
truth value of the quantification , where
the domain consists of all real numbers?
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What is the truth value of if the
domain consists of all real numbers. What is
the truth value of this statement if the domain
consists of all integers.
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Let 𝑝(𝑥) be a proposition function defined on a

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set A. Consider the expression

Which reads

Statement in (1) is equivalent to the statement

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a) The proposition ∃𝑛 ∈ 𝑃 𝑛 + 4 < 7 is true since

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b) The proposition ∃𝑛 ∈ 𝑃 𝑛 + 6 < 4 is false since
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What is the truth value of ∃𝑥𝑝(𝑥), where 𝑝(𝑥) is the

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statement “𝑥 2 > 10” and the domain consists of the
positive integers not exceeding 4?
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Determine the truth value of each of these

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statements if the domain of each variable consists of
all real numbers.
2
a) ∃𝑥(𝑥 = 2)

b) ∃𝑥(𝑥 2 = −1)

c) ∀𝑥(𝑥 2 + 2 ≥ 1)

d) ∀𝑥(𝑥 2 ≠ 𝑥)
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Consider the propositional function 𝑝(𝑥) as “𝑥 is prime” with domain

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set 𝐴 = {2,3,5}.
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Consider the propositional function 𝑝(𝑥) as “𝑥 2 > 10” with domain set 𝐴

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= {1,2,3,4}.
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Consider the propositional function 𝑝(𝑥) as “𝑥 has taken a course in

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calculus” and the domain consists of the students in your class. Then
the statement:
“Every student in your class has taken a course in calculus.” This
statement is a universal quantification, namely,
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Consider the proposition,

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“There is a student in this class who has taken a course in calculus.”
This is the existential quantification, namely,
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Consider the proposition,

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“There is a student in this class who has taken a course in calculus.”
This is the existential quantification, namely,
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What are the negations of the statements ∀𝑥(𝑥 2 > 𝑥) and ∃𝑥(𝑥 2 = 2).

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Suppose that the domain of the propositional function 𝑝(𝑥) consists of

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the integers 0, 1, 2, 3 and 4. Write out each of these propositions
using disjunctions, conjunctions, and negations.
a) ∃𝑥𝑝 𝑥

b) ∀𝑥𝑝 𝑥

c) ∃𝑥~𝑝 𝑥

d) ∀𝑥~𝑝 𝑥

e) ~∃𝑥𝑝 𝑥

f) ~∀𝑥𝑝(𝑥)
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Theorem:

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Propositions:

Proof:

Axioms

Lemma:
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Corollary:

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Conjecture:
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Proving mathematical theorems can be difficult. To construct proofs

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we need all available ammunition, including a powerful of different
proof methods. These methods provide the overall approach and
strategy of proofs. Understanding these methods is a key component
of learning how to read and construct mathematical proofs.
In this course, we will focus on proving the conditional statements. The
followings proofs technique will be discussed here:
1) Direct proofs

2) Indirect proofs
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A direct proof of a conditional statement 𝑝 → 𝑞 is

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constructed when the first step is the assumption
that 𝑝 is true; subsequent steps are constructed
using axioms, definitions, and previously proved
theorems, together with rules of inference, to show
that 𝑞 must also be true. Before we give the first
example, we need to define some terminology.
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The integer 𝑛 is even if there exists an integer 𝑘 such

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that 𝑛 = 2𝑘, and 𝑛 is odd if there exists an integer 𝑘
such that 𝑛 = 2𝑘 + 1.
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Give a direct proof of the theorem “If 𝑛 is an odd integer, then

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𝑛2 is odd.”
Solution:
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Give a direct proof that if 𝑚 and 𝑛 are both perfect squares,

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then 𝑛𝑚 is also a perfect square.
Solution:
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Prove that if 𝑛 is any even integer, then (−1)𝑛 = 1.

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Solution:
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Use a direct proof to show that the product of two rational

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numbers is rational.
Solution.
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1) Prove that the product of an even integer and an odd

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integer is even.
2) Prove that the square of an even integer is even.

3) Prove that if 𝑛 is an odd integer, then 𝑛3 + 𝑛 is even.

4) Prove that the sum of any three consecutive integers is

divisible by 3.