ENIR 11

ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL

ENGINEERING

Dr Aditya Kumar
Assistant Professor, Department of Energy & Environment
NIT Trichy
Email id: adityakumar@nitt.edu
Course Content
• Present Energy resources in India and its sustainability - Different type of conventional
Power Plant--Energy Demand Scenario in India-Advantage and Disadvantage of
conventional Power Plants – Conventional vs Non-conventional power generation
• Basics of Solar Energy- Solar Thermal Energy- Solar Photovoltaic- Advantages and
Disadvantages-Environmental impacts and safety.
• Power and energy from wind turbines- India’s wind energy potential- Types of wind
turbines- Off shore Wind energy- Environmental benefits and impacts.
• Biomass resources-Biomass conversion Technologies- Feedstock preprocessing and
treatment methods- Bioenergy program in India-Environmental benefits and impacts.
Geothermal Energy resources –Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion – Tidal.
• Air pollution- Sources, effects, control, air quality standards, air pollution act, air
pollution measurement. Water pollution-Sources and impacts, Soil pollution-Sources and
impacts, disposal of solid waste.
• Greenhouse gases – effect, acid rain. Noise pollution. Pollution aspects of various power
plants. Fossil fuels and impacts, Industrial and transport emissions- impacts.
Course Plan

S. No. Weeks (Hours) Topics/Units Mode of Delivery

1 1 to 3 (6 ) Unit I Chalk & Talk, PPT

2 4 to 5 (3) Unit II Chalk & Talk, PPT

3 5 to 6 (3) Unit III Chalk & Talk, PPT

4 7 to 8 (4) Unit IV Chalk & Talk, PPT

5 9 to 10 (4) Unit V Chalk & Talk, PPT

6 11 to 12 (4) Unit VI Chalk & Talk, PPT

Text Books
• Boyle, G. 2004.’ Renewable energy: Power for a sustainable future’. Oxford
University press.
• B H Khan, ‘Non Conventional Energy Resources’-The McGraw –Hill Second
edition.
• G. D. Rai, ‘Non conventional energy sources’, Khanna Publishers, New Delhi,
2006.
• Gilbert M. Masters, ’Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science’,
2nd Edition, Prentice Hall, 2003.
• ‘Unleashing the Potential of Renewable Energy in India’ –World bank report.
• Godfrey Boyle, Bob Everett and Janet Ramage.2010.‘Energy Systems and
Sustainability. Power for a sustainable future’. Oxford Universitypress.
Course Assessment Methods

S. No. Methods/Mode of Assessment % Weightage

1 Mid Sem 20
2 Project idea submission 5
3 Objectives and Methodology submission 15
4 Results and report submission 30
5 Final Assessment 30
Course Objectives
• To introduce the energy consumption pattern in India and compare it with international scenario.
• To introduce the energy demand and potential of conventional energy resources of India.
• To educate on functioning of conventional power plants .
• To introduce various feedstocks of biomass along with its biochemical composition.
• To teach the different possible methods available for energy conversion of biomass.
• To introduce the function of ocean, tidal and geothermal energy power plants in terms of potential and energy
cycles.
• To educate on the sources, composition, impacts and control measures of air pollution and water pollution
• To introduce the various source of industrial noise, its characteristics, measures, impacts, foot print and control
methods.
• To discuss on green house gases, various impacts of fossil fuel use and pollutants from power plants
• To introduce the basics of solar energy and its applications in day-to-day life, and to teach the working principle of
solar thermal and electrical devices.
• To introduce the advantages and disadvantages of use of solar energy, and to educate about the environmental
impact of the solar devices and safety procedures to follow while handling it.
• To teach the working principle and basics of wind turbines, to introduce the wind energy potential and installed
capacity of wind turbines in India.
• To introduce the different types of wind turbines used to harness the wind energy, and to introduce the offshore
wind energy technology.
• To educate about the benefits of the wind energy and its impact on the environment.
Attendance Policy

• At least 75% attendance in each course is mandatory.

• A maximum of 10% shall be allowed under On Duty (OD)category.

• Students with less than 65% of attendance shall be prevented from

writing the final assessment and shall be awarded 'V’ grade.
 Unit I
Present Energy resources in India and its sustainability
Energy?
• Energy is the ability to cause changes, exert forces or
do work.
• In other words, energy is the ability to make things
happen!
• An energy resource is something that can produce heat,
power life, move objects, or produce electricity.
• Matter that stores energy is called a fuel. Energy can be
generated from fuel minerals like coal, Petroleum,
natural gas, uranium and from electricity.

❑ Sustainable energy is the practice of using energy in a way that "meets the needs of
the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs”.
Energy Units
• SI unit of energy is the same as the unit of work – the joule (J), named in honor of
James Prescott Joule.
• British Imperial units -
• foot-pound force (1.3558 J)
• British thermal unit (BTU) (1055 J)
• horsepower-hour (2.6845 MJ)
• gasoline gallon equivalent (about 120 MJ).
• Electricity- one kWh (3.6×106 J) (3600 kJ or 3.6 MJ).
• Natural gas- In US-sold in Therms /100 cubic feet (105.5 megajoules).
In Australia-sold in Cubic Meters (1m3 = 38 megajoules)
• Atom physics and chemistry- units electronvolts (eV)
• Food industry- a calorie of 4.184 J
Energy Units
Classification of Energy Resources
• Based on the energy storage or cycling time-Renewable or non-renewable resources
(Renewable resources have a cycling time less than 100 years, while for non-renewable
resources, it is greater than a million years)
• Based on the nature of their transaction- commercial -available to the users at some
price (coal, petroleum, natural gas and electricity) and noncommercial sources- available
free of cost to the users (fire wood, agricultural waste, cow dung)
• Based on consumption- exhaustible/ depletable- gets drained when used as an input of a
production process and non - depletable / renewable resources
• Based on regularity-conventional -have been in use since a long time (coal, oil, hydro,
nuclear, etc.) and non-conventional - recently developed and are still developing. (solar,
wind, tidal, geothermal, biogas, etc.) sources.
• Based on conversion-primary or secondary types - (primary sources - found in nature that
has not been subjected to any human engineered conversion process and secondary
sources- made from other energy sources).
 Energy resources Fossil fuel
(coal, oil, natural gas, peat)
Chemical
Biomass (wood, agricultural
Potential residues, etc.)
Based on energy Renewable
Water at a certain height
storage and cycling time Non-renewable Kinetic
wind, tidal (waves)
Radiation
Commercial solar(sun)
Based on transaction
Non-Commercial Heat Geothermal reservoirs,
ocean thermal reservoirs
Nuclear
Depletable Uranium & thorium
Based on consumption
Non- Depletable

Conventional Electricity
Based on regularity
Non-conventional Mechanical
energy
Primary
Based on conversion Chemical
Secondary Refined oil products
energy
Global report on energy demand
Energy consumers Energy producers
(Kg of coal equivalent to per person) (Kg of coal equivalent to per person)

Europe & North America use 70 % of the world energy, World’s major consumers of energy are also the major
although this is only 20% of the world's population- producers i.e. the countries with less energy demand
experienced large-scale economic development, there and consumption have less energy production but still
original energy sources were fossil fuels – first coal and the resources to have a higher energy production.
the oil and gas • Global electricity demand is projected to grow between
Demand for energy over much of South America, Africa 62 and 185 percent by 2050 compared with 2021 levels.
& South-east Asia is very low-less economically The share of fossil fuels in the electricity mix declines
developed from 59 percent in 2021 to 2–55 percent by 2050
 Energy gap
Energy gap - the difference between a country’s rising demand for energy and its ability to produce that energy
from its own resources.
The gap is being widened by the deliberate phasing out of fossil fuels.
The loss of energy is greater than the amount of energy being generated for other renewable sources.
The mismatch between the distribution of energy consumption and Production.

India Energy Statistics

Year Peak
Requirement Availability Surplus(+)/Deficts(-) Peak Met Surplus(+) / Deficts(-)
Demand
2017-18 12,13,326 12,04,697 -8,629 -0.7 1,64,066 1,60,752 -3,314 -2.0

2018-19 12,74,595 12,67,526 -7,070 -0.6 1,77,022 1,75,528 -1,494 -0.8

2019-20 12,91,010 12,84,444 -6,566 -0.5 1,83,804 1,82,533 -1,271 -0.7

2020-21 12,75,534 12,70,663 -4,871 -0.4 1,90,198 1,89,395 -802 -0.4

2021-22 13,79,812 13,74,024 -5,787 -0.4 2,03,014 2,00,539 -2,475 -1.2

2022-23* 7,91,053 7,85,722 -5,331 -0.7 2,15,888 2,07,231 -8,657 -4.0

Total Installed Capacity (As on 31.05.2023) - Source : Central
Electricity Authority (CEA)

Sector MW % of Total
Central Sector 1,00,055 24.0%
State Sector 1,05,726 25.3%
Private Sector 2,11,887 50.7%
Total 4,17,668
Installed GENERATION CAPACITY(FUELWISE) AS ON 31.05.2023
CATAGORY INSTALLED % of SHARE IN Total
GENERATION
CAPACITY(MW)
Fossil Fuel
Coal 205,235 49.1%
Lignite 6,620 1.6%
Gas 24,824 6.0%
Diesel 589 0.1%
Total Fossil Fuel 2,37,269 56.8 %
Non-Fossil Fuel
RES (Incl. Hydro) 173,619 41.4%
Hydro 46,850 11.2 %
Wind, Solar & Other RE 125,692 30.2 %
Wind 42,868 10.3 %
Solar 67,078 16.1 %
BM Power/Cogen 10,248 2.5 %
Waste to Energy 554 0.1 %
Small Hydro Power 4,944 1.2 %
Nuclear 6,780 1.6%
Total Non-Fossil Fuel 179,322 43.0%
Total Installed Capacity 4,17,668 100%
(Fossil Fuel & Non-Fossil Fuel)
Non Renewable Energy Sources
Fossil Fuels: Fossil fuels such as coal , oil and natural gas all of which are mixture of
compounds containing carbon and hydrogen. These are formed by the decomposition
of the remains of plants and animals buried under the earth. Millions of years ago.
Crude Oil : petroleum products include gasoline, distillates such as diesel fuel
and heating oil, jet fuel, petrochemical feedstocks, waxes, lubricating oils, and
asphalt.
Natural Gas: Natural gas consists mainly of methane; it can be used as a fuel or
to make materials and chemicals.
Coal: It’s a sedimentary rock with a high amount of carbon and hydrocarbons.
Uranium (Nuclear Energy): Most widely used by nuclear plants for nuclear fission.
Uranium is considered to be a nonrenewable energy source, even though it is a
common metal found in rocks worldwide. Uranium, referred to as U-235.
 FOSSIL FUEL
Fossil fuels are hydrocarbons comprised
primarily of the following elements: carbon and
hydrogen and some sulfur, nitrogen, oxygen,
and mineral matter. Mineral matter turns into
ash when burnt.

The composition and the amounts of these

elements change for different fossil fuels
(coal, petroleum, and natural gas), but the
elements are the same. For example, there is
more hydrogen in liquid fuels than in coal per
unit mass.
Coal
Coal is the main source of energy in India as it fulfils almost
55 % of the total commercial energy consumed in the country.
India is the 2nd largest producer of coal.
This fossil fuel is found in a form of sedimentary rocks and is
often known as 'Black Gold'.
Coal is formed due the compression of plant material over
millions of years. It is originated from organic matter wood.
When large tracts of forests are buried under sediments, wood
is burnt and decomposed due to heat from below and pressure
from above. The phenomenon makes coal but takes centuries
to complete.
It is found in a variety of forms depending on the degrees of
compression and the depth and time of burial. Decaying
plants in swamps produce peat. Which has a low carbon and
high moisture contents and low heating capacity.
Classification of Coal
Classification on the basis of carbon content and time period.
Types of coal on the basis of carbon content
Anthracite (hard coal)-- best quality of coal which carries 80-95 % C content. It ignites slowly
with a blue flame. It has the highest calorific value. (Jammu and Kashmir).
Bituminous (Soft coal)-- 60-80 % C content and a low level of moisture content. It is widely used
and has high calorific value. (Jharkhand, West Bengal, Odisha, Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh).
Lignite (brown coal)-- 40-55 % C content. It is an intermediate stage which happens during the
alteration of woody matter into coal. It has high moisture content so it gives smoke when burnt.
(Rajasthan, Lakhimpur (Assam), and Tamil Nadu).
Peat -- less than 40 % C content. It is in the first stage of transformation from wood to coal. It has
low calorific value and burns like wood.

Types of coal on the basis of a time period

Gondwana coal: Around 98 % of India's total coal reserves are from Gondwana times. This coal
was formed about 250 million years ago.
Tertiary coal is of younger age. It was formed from 15 to 60 million years ago.
Four Stages of Coal
 Coal reserves in India: State-wise
Total coal
State Type of coal Coal field with Coal mining centers
reserves
Bituminous (Gondwana Jharia(Dhanbad), Bokaro (Hazaribagh), Auranga, Giridh,
Jharkhand 26%
period) Karanpur, Ramgarh and Hutar.
Odisha Talchar (Dhenkanal and Sambalpur), Ib Valley (Jharsuguda) 24%
Chhattisgarh Korba(valley of river Hasdo), Chirmiri, Jhimli, and Johilla 17%
Raniganj (Bardhman & Birbhum), Darjeeling, Bankura,
West Bengal bituminous 11%
Jalpaiguri, and Puruliya
Madhya
Singrauli, Muhpani, Satpura, Pench Kanhan and Sohagpur 8%
Pradesh
Andhra
Singareni (Godavari valley) 7%
Pradesh
more moisture and has less
Maharashtra Kamptee (Nagpur) and Wardha valley (Nagpur and Yavatmal) 3%
carbon content
Rajasthan Lignite Palana and Khari mines (Bikaner)
Gujarat poor quality 35% of carbon Bharauch and Kachchh
Tamil Nadu lignite coal Neyveli
Jammu and
inferior quality Shaliganga, Handwara, Baramulla, Riasi, and Udhampur
Kashmir
Distribution of Coal Reserves in India
❑ Advantages
• The coal reserves are huge.
• The cost of production and transport is less.

• The low quality coal can be used for production of tar.

❑ Dis-Advantages
• It creates air and water pollution.
• It is heavy and bulky, so storing needs large areas.

• The ash produced on burning of coal creates health

problems.
 CRUDE OIL

CRUDE OIL: Crude oil means a mixture of

hydrocarbons that exists in liquid phase in natural
underground reservoirs and remains liquid at
atmospheric pressure after passing through surface
separating facilities.

PETROCHEMICALS: chemicals derived from

petroleum, essential component of over 3000
products, products include: tar, wax, and plastic.
Petroleum
‘Petroleum’ -Latin words Petra (meaning rock) and Oleum (meaning oil). Thus
petroleum is oil obtained from rocks; particularly sedimentary rocks of the earth.
Therefore, it is also called mineral oil.
Petroleum is an inflammable liquid that is composed of hydrocarbons which constitute
90-95 % of petroleum and the remaining is chiefly organic compounds containing
oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur and traces of organo-metallic compounds.
When ancient animals were buried in prehistoric oceans and lakes heat and pressure
build up. chemical changes eventually convert the remains into petroleum and natural
gas.
Petroleum is the next major energy source in India after coal. Petroleum refineries act as
a “nodal industry” for synthetic textile, fertilizer and numerous chemical industries.
Crude petroleum consists of a mixture of hydrocarbons-solid, liquid and gaseous. These
include compounds belonging to the paraffin series and also some unsaturated
hydrocarbons and small proportion belonging to the benzene group.
Utilization of Petroleum
Petroleum and petroleum products are mainly
used as motive power. It is a compact and
convenient liquid fuel which has
revolutionized transportation on land, in the
air and on water. It can be easily transported
from the producing areas to the consuming
areas with the help of tankers and more
conveniently, efficiently and economically by
pipelines.
It emits very little smoke and leaves no ash,
(as is the case in coal utilisation) and can be
used upto the last drop. It provides the most
important lubricating agents and is used as an
important raw material for various petro-
chemical products.
Origin and Occurrence of Petroleum
Petroleum has an organic origin and is found in sedimentary basins, shallow depressions
and in the seas (past and present). Most of the oil reserves in India are associated with
anticlines and fault traps in the sedimentary rock formations of tertiary times, about 3
million years ago.
Conditions for oil formation were favorable especially in the lower and middle Tertiary
period. Dense forests and sea organisms flourished in the gulfs, estuaries, deltas and the land
surrounding them during this period.
The decomposition of organic matter in the sedimentary rocks has led to the formation of oil.
An oil reservoir must have three necessary conditions:
porosity so as to accommodate sufficiently large amounts of oil;
permeability to discharge oil and/or gas when well has been drilled;
the porous sand beds sandstone, combination of fissured limestone containing oil
should be capped by impermeable beds so that oil does not dissipate by percolation in
the surrounding rocks.
About 63 % of India’s petroleum production is from Mumbai, 18 % from Gujarat and 16
% from Assam.
India
Petroleum
liquid imports
Petroleum
Advantages
The transport of liquid fuel is easy.
The liquid fuel is lighter than coal so it can be used in air transport.
The liquid fuel has lots of bi-products.
The liquid fuel does not require very huge area of storing.
Disadvantages
The fuel is evaporable and so it is to be stored in closed tankers
The production cost is higher than that of coal.
It creates air pollution through the pollutants like NO, SO2, CO, CO2.
The reserves of fuel oil are lesser than that of coal
Natural Gas
Natural gas is an important clean energy resource found in association with or
without petroleum. It is used as a source of energy as well as an industrial raw
material in the petrochemical industry. Natural gas is considered an environment
friendly fuel because of low carbon dioxide emissions and is, therefore, the fuel
for the present century.
Large reserves of natural gas have been discovered in the Krishna- Godavari
basin. Along the west coast the reserves of the Mumbai High and allied fields are
supplemented by finds in the Gulf of Cambay. Andaman and Nicobar islands
are also important areas having large reserves of natural gas
Consists primarily of methane; Propane, butane, pentane, and hexane are also present.
Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)-- Mixture of butane and propane.
Commonly occurs in association with crude oil.
Natural gas is often found dissolved in oil or as a gas cap above the oil.
Oil + Gas -- Associated Gas – Wet Gas (pressure of natural gas forces oil up to the surface)
Only Gas -- Non-Associated Gas – Dry Gas,
Hydrogen Sulphide in gas-- Sour Gas
Coalbed Methane == Sweet Gas (lack of hydrogen sulfide).
On the market, natural gas is usually bought and sold not by volume but by calorific value.
In practice, purchases of natural gas are usually denoted as MMBTUs (millions of British
thermal unit (BTU or Btu)) = ~1,000 cubic feet of natural gas.
Natural Gas Formation
Natural gas was formed millions of years ago when plants and tiny sea animals were
buried by sand and rock.
Layers of mud, sand, rock, plant, and animal matter continued to build up until the
pressure and heat turned them into oil and natural gas.
Uses of Natural Gas
Electric power generation.
Industrial, domestic, and commercial usage.
Many buses and commercial automotive fleets now operate on CNG.
It is an ingredient in dyes and inks .
Used in rubber compounding operations.
Ammonia is manufactured using hydrogen derived from methane. Ammonia is used to
produce chemicals such as hydrogen cyanide, nitric acid, urea, and a range of fertilizers.
Importance of Natural Gas to India
Power stations using gas accounted for nearly 10 per cent of India’s electricity.
Existing plants are operating below capacity on expensive imported liquefied natural gas
(LNG).
Source of Electricity in India
 Different type of
conventional power plant
POWER PLANT

A power plant is an industrial facility used to generate electric power with the help of
one or more generators which converts different energy sources into electric power.

Electricity is a secondary energy source, which means that electricity is obtained from
the conversion of other primary sources of energy, such as coal, natural gas, nuclear,
solar, or wind energy. The energy sources used to make electricity can be renewable
or non-renewable, but electricity itself is neither renewable or non-renewable. The
power plant is the location in which the energy conversions take place.

Traditionally, large power plants have been located in sub-urban regions away from
cities, as they need a vast area of land and sometimes water. All electricity produced
in a power plant is alternating current (AC).
Thermal power plant
Thermal power plant or steam power plant is a generating station which converts heat energy of fossil
fuels into electrical energy. Generally bituminous, brown or peat type coal are used as the fuel
for coal based thermal power plant.

In a thermal power plant, coal is burnt in a big boiler which produces steam at high pressure and
temperature. This steam is passed through a steam turbine which converts steam's heat energy into
mechanical energy. The steam turbine acts as a prime mover and it is coupled to an alternator.

Now alternator collects the mechanical energy from the steam turbine and convert into electrical energy.
In this power plant, steam turbine sometimes acts as an auxiliary equipment's like pumps, strokes etc.

Though thermal efficiency and overall efficiency of thermal power plant is comparatively less than
other power plant like nuclear power plant but still it is very popular. The only reason behind that, is
coal. It is very cheap and easily available as well. Still, now maximum energy is supplied by the coal-
based thermal power plant.
TYPES OF THERMAL POWER PLANT
1. Condensing Type Thermal Power Plant:-
In Condensing type thermal power plant, discharges exhaust steam is coming to a condenser which creates
suction at very low pressure and it allows the expansion of steam in the turbine to a very low pressure. As a
result, turbine's efficiency increases. This type of thermal power plant plays an important role where there is
a question of availability of pure water. Because condensed steam water in the condenser can be re-
circulated to the boiler with the help of pumps. This plant extracts more energy from per kg of steam and
develops the greater amount of power according to the size of turbine. Condensing type plants are used to
supply electrical energy all type's of consumers (domestic, industrial and commercial). Since this type of
plant is very economical, so it is used both hydro power plant and thermal power plants for economical
power supply all the time. The condensing type system is also used in central power plant.
2. Non-Condensing Type Thermal Power Plant:-
In non-condensing type thermal power plant, exhaust steam is coming from turbine and steam pressure
greater the atmospheric pressure. This type of thermal power plant, a continuous supply of fresh feed
water is required. Industrial and Captive power plants are the non-condensing types. In industries, steam is
used for process purpose and it is also used in the steam turbine for generation of electrical energy. This
types of thermal power plant is basically small capacity power plants (nearly 10 MW).
Block Diagram of Thermal Power Plant
Different stages of power plant:
(i) Coal and Dust Handling Arrangement
Coal storage Coal handling Ash handling Ash storage
Transportation Boiler
plant plant plant plant
coal Coal
pulverization combustion and
process ash formation
(ii) Steam Generating Plant Utilize flue gas heat to
increase air temp
(increased thermal effic and
steam capacity per sq m)

Air
preheater

Economiser Boiler Superheater Steam turbine

Utilize flue gas Steam with dried and

heat to increase high temp and superheated
feed water temp pressure steam (increased
efficiency and
prevent blade
corrosion)

(iii) Steam Turbine

(iv) Alternator Generator
(v) Feed Water
(vi) Cooling Arrangement
1. Fuel and Ash Circuit:-
The fuel (coal) is transported from supply points to power station by
roads, rails or water and is stored in coal storage plant. Generally, coal is
delivered into power station by rail wagon but in a case of small power
plants, it may be transported by road or water. After that this coal is stored
in the coal storage plant. From the coal storage plant, it is conveyed to the
coal handling plant. In the coal handling plant, coal is pulverised (i.e.
crushed into small pieces) to increase its surface tension to help rapid
combustion without using a large amount of excess air. This pulverised
coal is taken into boiler bunkers by conveyer belt. Coal is now stored into
the boiler bunker and fall into the hoppers by gravity. From the hopper,
required amount of coal either fall on the grate or fall into the coal
spreaders. If it is fall to the coal spreaders, maximum coal combustion is
done in the air and remaining portion burnt at the rear end of the grate.
The grate is types of boiler, where combustion is controlled by its speed.
The grate is made a move from rear end to front end with the help of
spreaders or without spreaders; it is move from front to rear. The total
coal combustion in the grate is controlled by its speed. After complete
combustion of coal, ash is delivered to the ash storage plant by scrap
conveyors for disposal. Generally, it is seen that a 100 MW power plant
which operates 10% to 12% load factor may burn 20,000 tons of coal per
month and ash is produced nearly 2000 to 3000 tons per month.
2. Air and Flue Gas Circuit:-
The thermal power plant consists of a boiler and other auxiliary equipment which is required to utilize
the air and flue gases. The air is coming from the atmosphere by a forced or induced draught fan
through the air pre-heater. In the air-preheater, air is heated by the heat of flue gases which passing to
the chimney. This flue gases are passing through boiler, super heater, air per heater and finally
exhausted to the atmosphere through the chimney. The boiler is an essential equipment of the thermal
power plant operation. In the boiler, heat is produced by coal combustion, is utilized to convert water
into steam at high pressure and temperature. The steam is the wet condition in the boiler and it is
converted dry and superheated condition by the flue gases when it is passed through the superheater.
Superheated steam means the steam temperature is above the boiling point of water and this will
provide added advantages to the turbine. This steam is increased the overall efficiency of the turbine
and protect the turbine's blade from corrosion. Economiser and air preheater are such type of devices
which extract the heat from flue gases on their way to a chimney and increased the temperature of the
feed water. Economiser is basically a feed water heater which recovers heat from flue gases and increase
the temperature of the fed water before it is supplied to the boiler. Air is also supplied for the coal
burning. Air preheater also extracts the heat from flue gases when it is passed in it. Air preheater
increases the heat of air as well as improves the overall efficiency of the turbine. It also increases the
steam capacity per square meter of boiler surface. Now this dry and superheated steam is fed to the
blades of steam turbine through the main valve. Here steam energy is converted to the mechanical
energy.
3. Feed water and steam circuit:-
Condensed steam is coming out of the turbine and the condensate is extracted from the condenser by
the condensate extraction pump. Exhaust steam is passed through the low-pressure feed water heater
where its temperature is raised by the bled steam. The feed water is now pumped by deaerator to high-
pressure feed water heater where this feed water is heated by the heat from bled steam extracted at
suitable point of steam turbine. Deaerator is to reduce dissolved oxygen content in the feed water. Feed
water is pumped into the boiler and it is passing through the economiser where it is heated by the heat
of flue gases. This will increase the overall efficiency. Some steam and water are lost when it is passed
through the different component of the system. Turbine is directly coupled to the alternator which
converts the mechanical energy of turbine into electrical energy and delivers the electrical output to
the bus bar.
4. Cooling water circuit:-
Cooling water is supplied from a natural source of supply such as river, channel, sea, etc. This water is
circulated through the condenser for condensing the steam. It will increase the overall efficiency of the
plant. The circulating water absorbs heat from the exhaust steam and becomes hot. This hot water is
coming out from the condenser and discharged at a suitable position like a lake, river etc. To ensure the
availability of cold water throughout the year, a cooling tower is used. During the scarcity of water, hot
water of condenser is passed to the cooling tower where it is cooled. The circulation of cooling water to
the condenser is to maintain low pressure in the condenser.
SITE FOR THERMAL POWER STATIONS

Cost and Type of Land : Cheap (rural areas) and the land bearing capacity of should
be adequate to install heavy machinery.
Availability of Water : A large amount of water is required for condensers 560 ×
103 kg of water is required for every 1 tonne of coal burnt. ----bank of a river or near
a canal
Supply of Fuel : Near the coal mines so that transportation cost of fuel is minimum.
Nearness to Load Centre : In order to reduce the transmission cost, the plant
should be located near the center of the load.
Distance from Populated Area : The plant should be located at a considerable
distance from the populated area to minimise pollution.
Ample Space : Future expansion
Disposal of Ash : Facility for the disposal of ash.
ADVANTAGES OF THERMAL POWER PLANT:

The fuel (i.e. coal) is used is quite cheap.

Less initial cost as compared to the other generating stations of the same capacity.
It requires less space as compared to the hydro-electric power station.
The cost of generation is lesser than the Diesel power station.
According to the demand, the load can be changed frequently without any difficulty.
Thermal Power plant can be installed anywhere irrespective of the availability of fuels. Fuel can be
transferred to the site of the plant by rail, road etc.
This type of plants is installed near load centre.
Thermal Power plant can be run with overload condition (around 25%).

DISADVANTAGES OF THERMAL POWER PLANT:

It pollutes the atmosphere due to the production of a large amount of smoke.
Maintenance cost and operating cost is high.
A Huge amount of water is required.
Running cost is high as compared to the other power plant.
Coal handling and ash disposal is quite difficult.
 Hydroelectric power plant
Hydroelectric power is developed by utilizing the potential energy of water.

In hydroelectric power plant, water is stored in a dam called hydroelectric dam which is located upper
level from the ground especially any hilly areas. Water head is created by construction the dam across any
river or lake. This type of water head store huge potential energy.

The water fall into water turbine and the potential energy of water is converted into kinetic energy.

Kinetic energy is converted into mechanical energy at the turbine shaft. A hydroelectric generator or
alternator is coupled with turbine shaft to convert mechanical energy into electrical energy. The power
P is developed-
Block diagram of hydroelectric power plant
 Working Principle of hydroelectric power plant
Hydroelectric power plant is becoming very popular nowadays to full feel rapid increasing
demand of electric power day by day. Every country is trying to develop more Hydro Electric Power
Station to full fill their demand for electricity. In other hand fossils, fuels ( i.e. coal, oil, and gas) are
limited stock in the world and these fuels are expensive. So hydroelectricity may be a good
alternative electrical source. So in a single word we can say, a generating Station which utilizes the
potential energy of high-level water for the generating of electrical energy is known as hydropower
plant or hydroelectric power plant.

conventional hydroelectric facilities- rely on a head difference created by man-made dams and
obstructions. Two types of systems that are considered conventional are hydroelectric dams and
tidal dam.
unconventional hydroelectric facilities- rely on hydroelectric discharge or on a small head
differential. Some examples of unconventional hydropower facilities are low head hydro, run-of-
the-river systems, instream hydro, and kinetic tidal.
Working principle of hydroelectric power plant depends on the conversion of hydraulic energy into
electrical energy.

Hydroelectric power station needs huge amount of water at sufficient head all the time. So a
hydroelectric dam is constructed across the river or lake.

An artificial storage reservoir where water is stored, is placed back side of the dam. This reservoir
creates sufficient water head.

A pressure tunnel is placed in between the reservoir to valve house and water is coming from
reservoir to penstock via this tunnel. An automatic controlling sluice valve is placed in valve house
and it controls water flow to the power station and the letter cuts off supply of water in case the
penstock bursts. Penstock is a huge steel pipe in which water is taken from valve house to turbine. A
surge tank is also provided just before the valve house for better regulation of water pressure in the
system. Now water turbine converts hydraulic energy into mechanical energy and an alternator which
is couple to the water turbine converts this mechanical energy into electrical energy.
SITE SELECTION FOR HYDROELECTRIC POWER PLANT
1.Water Availability:
Main fuel of this plant is water. So, such plant should be located nearer to river, canal etc. where sufficient
water is available all the time.
2.Water Storage:
Storage of water in a suitable reservoir or dam has to be placed by a careful geological study of the area to
get the maximum advantage of that water. Dam should be located across the river to get continuous water
supply throughout the year specially in a dry season. The storage capacity of dam can be determined by
hydrograph or mass curve or using analytical method. Adequate facilities of erection a dam and storage of
water are two important matters for site selection of hydro electric power plant.
3.Water Head:
It is an important point for site selection of hydroelectric power plant. Water head is directly related to the
cost of generation of electric power. If effective head is increased, water storage has to be reduced as well
as capital cost of the plant is reduced.
4.Distance from the load center:
Since it is located away from the load center, more transmission line is required to supply the power. To
avoid the line loss and economical power supply, distance of such plant should need more attention.
5.Transportation Facilities:
Good transportation facilities must be available to any hydro electric power plant, so that necessary
equipment should be reached easily.
6.Availability of land:
Hydro electric power plant needs enough space. It should be kept in mind that land cost must be cheap.
Advantages
Since water is the main source of energy, so no fossil fuels are required.
This plant is neat and clean and no smoke or as disposal is required.
It is the cheapest operating and maintenance cost as compared to the other power plants because
water is freely available in the world.
It is very reliable, robust and has a longer life app rocks 45 to 60 years.
This plant can start instantly.
It can start hydroelectric power with fluctuating load demand.
The efficiency does not fall at the age of this plant.
There is no standby loss in this plant.
At the initial time of construction highly skilled engineers are required and after that only few
experience persons can run the plant.
This plant also serves to help in irrigation and Flood control etc.
Since this plants are located remote area so land is available and competitively cheaper rates.
Disadvantages
Such plant requires large area
High construction cost is required due to construction of dam.
When experience skilled engineers are required to build this plant
Scenes such plant is located as from the load areas, long transmission line is required to transmit this
hydroelectric power.
It doesn't supply constant hydroelectricity due to the availability of water. In transition, power supply is
most affected.
Run off river power plants without pondage
Water is not available all the time.
Not suitable for constant steady load. There is no pondage or storage facility available in such type of
power plant. Plant is placed in such a area, where water is coming directly from the river or pond. This type
of hydroelectric power plant is called run off power plant without pondage. Plant produces hydro
electricity only when water is available.

Run off river power plants with pondage

This type of plant is used to increase the capacity of pond. The pond is used as a storage water of hydro
electric power plant. Increased the pond size means more water is available in the plant,
Used fluctuating load period depending on the size of pondage.

Reservoir power plants

Water is stored behind the dam and water is available throughout the year even in dry season.
Very efficient and it is used both base and peak load period
a. Low head hydro electric power plant
water head height is below 30 meters
dam construction is essential.
No surge tank is required for this plant, dam itself
discharge the surplus water from the river. large
diameter and low length pipe is used for this plant

b. Medium head hydro electric power plant

water head height is above 30 meters to 300 meters
A forebay is used for medium head hydro electric power
plant. Which act as a surge tank.
Forebay is tapped with the river and water is led to the
turbine via penstock.

c. High head hydro electric power plant

head of this power plant is more than 300 meters.
For high head more than 500 meters, Pelton wheel
turbine is used and for lower head Francis turbine is
useful.
a. Base load hydro electric power plant
Base load plant is suitable for constant load.
load factor of this plant is high
Run off river plants without pondage and reservoir plants are used as base load plants.

b. Peak load hydro electric power plant

This plant is suitable for peak load curve of power system.
Run off river plants with pondage and Reservoir plants can be used as peak load plants.

c. Pumped storage hydro electric power plant for the peak load
Two types of water pond is used, called upper head water pond and tail water pond.
Two water ponds are connected each other by a penstock.
During the off load period, surplus energy of this plant is utilized to pumping the lower head pond water to
upper head pond water.
This extra water is used to generate energy at peek load periods.
By doing this arrangement, same water is used again and again.
Nuclear power plant
It can produce a huge amount of electrical energy from relatively small amount of nuclear fuel as compared to
other conventional types of power stations.

It is seen that complete fission of 1 kg nuclear fuel like uranium-235 would produce energy equivalent to 4000
tonnes of high-grade coal.

Although nuclear fuels (like uranium, thorium) are difficult to recover and these are expensive too but nuclear
fuel cost is considerably less than the conventional steam power station.

Fuel cost of nuclear power plant is generally 40% cheaper than a conventional steam power station.

Nuclear energy is converted to electrical energy is known as a nuclear power plant.

NUCLEAR CHAIN REACTION PROCESS:

Uranium-235 is natural and it will give higher fission percentage too.

Some other fissionable materials (U-233, PU-239) are present in the world.
U-235 is the most common isotope to use for a nuclear chain reaction.
It produces comparatively higher amount of energy and heat from the other
fissionable materials.

235 + 10n = 13956Ba + 9436Kr + 3 10n

92U

In the above reaction, it is shown that a heavy nucleus uranium-235 strikes

one neutron and it produce alternative three neutrons. These three neutrons
again strikes U-235 which produce nine neutrons and striking nine neutrons
produce another twenty-seven neutrons and so on, showing in the picture
A single fission reaction generates a large amount of energy, so the
complete nuclear chain reaction process will generate many times greater
energy.
It is seen that one fission reaction of U-235 release nearly 200 MeV of
energy.
200MeV energy: 200 X 1.6 X 10-13 = 3.2 X 10-11joules (or watt-seconds)
ADVANTAGES OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

There are lots of advantages of nuclear power plant as compared to other power plants.
Since the requirement of fuel is very small, so the cost of fuel transportation, storage etc. is small.
Nuclear power plant needs less space as compared to any other power station of the same size. Example: A 100
MW nuclear power station needs 38 - 40 acres of land whereas the same capacity coal based thermal power
plant needs 120-130 acres of land.
This type of power plant is very economical to produce large electric power.
Nuclear power plant can be located near load center because bulk amount of fuel (like water, coal) is not required.
Nuclear power is most economical to generate large capacities of power like 100 MVA or more. It produces huge
amount of energy in every nuclear fission process.
Using a small amount of fuel, this plant produces large electrical energy.
This plant is very reliable in operation.
Since, the large number of nuclear fuel is available in this world. So, a nuclear power plant can generate electrical
energy thousands of years continuously.
Nuclear Power Plant is very neat and clean as compared to a steam power plant.
The operating cost is low at this power plant but it is not affected for higher load demand. Nuclear power plant
always operates a base load plant and load factor will not be less than 0.8.
DISADVANTAGES OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

Initial installation cost is very high as compared to the other power station.
Nuclear fuel is very much expensive and it is difficult to recover.
Capital cost is higher in respect of other power station.
Good technical knowledge is required to operate such type plant. So, salary bill and other maintenance cost
will be higher to operate such of a plant.
There is a chance to spread of radioactive pollution from this type of plant.
Nuclear Reactor does not response efficiently with the fluctuating load demand. So, it is not suited for
varying the load.
Cooling water requirement is twice than a coal based steam power plant.
 Working Principle of nuclear power plant

1.Nuclear Reactor

2.Heat Exchanger

3.Steam Turbine

4.Alternator

Nuclear reactor is used to produce heat and heat exchanger performs to convert water into steam by using
the heat generated in nuclear reactor. This steam is fed into steam turbine and condensed in condenser.
Now steam turbine is turn to run an electric generator or alternator which is coupled to steam turbine and
thereby producing electric energy.
Block Diagram of
Nuclear Power Plant
1. Nuclear Reactor:-
Nuclear reactor, where nuclear fuel is subjected to nuclear fission.
By the braking of uranium atom, tremendous amount of heat energy and radiation is formed in the
reactor and the chain reaction is continuously running until it is controlled by a reactor control chain
reaction.
A large amount of fission neutrons are removed in this process, only small amount of fission uranium is
used to generate the electrical power.
The nuclear reactor is cylindrical type shape.
Main body of reactor is enclosed by reactor core, reflector and thermal shielding. It prevent reactor
wall from getting heated. It is also used to protect alpha ( α), bita (β) , gama (γ) rays and neutrons
which are bounce back at the time of fission within the reactor.
Mainly Nuclear reactor consists, some fuel rods of uranium, moderator and control rods.
Fuel rods are made of the fission materials and released large number of energy at the time of
bombarding with slow moving neutrons.
Moderator consists full of graphite which is enclosed by the fuel rods. Moderator maintains the chain
reaction by releasing the neutrons in a suitable manner before they mixed with the fissile materials.
Control rods are made of boron-10 and cadmium or hafnium which is a highly neutron absorber and it
is inserted into the nuclear reactor. When control rods are push down into the reactor core, it absorbs
most of fission neutrons and power of the reactor is reduced. But when it is pulling out from the
reactor, it releases the fission neutrons and power is increased. Real practice, this arrangement
depends upon according to the requirement of load.
A coolant, basically sodium metal is used to reduce the heat produce in the reactor and it carries the
heat to the heat exchanger.
2. Heat Exchanger:-
Coolant is used to raise the heat of the heat exchanger which is utilised in raising the steam. After that, it
goes back to the reactor.

3. Steam Turbine:-
Steam is coming from the heat exchanger to fed into the steam turbine through the valve. After that the
steam is exhausted to the condenser. This condensed steam is fed to the heat exchanger through feed
water pump.

4. Alternator:-
Steam turbine is coupled to an alternator which converts mechanical energy to electrical energy. The
output of alternator produces electrical energy to bus bars via major electrical apparatus like transformer,
circuit breakers, isolators etc.
 Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics, science of the relationship between heat, work, temperature, and
energy.

At present, fossil fuel is still the world’s predominant energy source. Burning of fossil
fuels generates only thermal energy.

To convert thermal energy into another form of energy a heat engine must be used.

Thermodynamic equilibrium -A state of a physical system in which the system is in

mechanical, chemical, and thermal equilibrium and in which there is no tendency
for spontaneous change.
Thermodynamic System
• A thermodynamic system refers to that part of the universe in which observations are
made, and the remaining universe constitutes the surroundings.

• The surroundings contain everything other than the system. The system and the
surroundings together make up the universe.

• Boundary- separate system & surrounding; fix, movable and imaginery

• Thermodynamic systems are classified as :

• Open systems (turbine, pump, compressor)
• Closed systems (piston cylinder without valves)
• Isolated Systems (universe, hot coffee in a perfectly insulated thermos)
State ,Path and Process in Thermodynamics
• A state is condition of system and is specified by its properties. At a given state all the
properties of a system have definite values.

• Change of state is known as process.

• Change of state of a system is the consequence of any operation in which properties will
change. The series of states through which system passes during a change of state is
called the part of the process.

• A thermodynamic process (state 1 → state 2 ) is said to be reversible if the process can be

turned back to such that both the system and the surroundings return to their original
states, with no other change anywhere else in the universe.
• A process that eventually returns a system to its initial state is called a cyclic process. At
the conclusion of a cycle, all the properties have the same value they had at the
beginning.
 Thermodynamic cycles
A process that eventually returns a system to its initial state is called a cyclic process.
At the conclusion of a cycle, all the properties have the same value they had at the beginning.
Thermodynamic cycle consists of a series of thermodynamic processes transferring heat and work,
while varying pressure, temperature, and other state variables, eventually returning a system to its
initial state.
The thermodynamic cycles can be divided into two primary classes:

Power cycles-
Power cycles are cycles which convert some heat input into a mechanical work output.
Thermodynamic power cycles are the basis for the operation of heat engines, which run
the vast majority of motor vehicles and generate most of the world’s electric power.
Heat pump cycles-
Heat pump cycles transfer heat from low to high temperatures using mechanical work
input.
There is no difference between thermodynamics of refrigerators and heat pumps. Both
work by moving heat from a cold space to a warm space.
 Thermodynamic cycles
Classification of thermodynamic cycles according to their thermodynamic processes.
In practice, simple idealized thermodynamic cycles are usually made out of four thermodynamic processes.
The following processes usually constitute thermodynamic cycles:
Adiabatic process-
No heat transfer into or out of the system (Q = 0).
The system can be considered to be perfectly insulated.
In an adiabatic process, energy is transferred only as work.(very rapid process)
Isothermal process-
Temperature of the system remains constant (T = const).
The heat transfer into or out of the system typically must happen at such a slow rate in order to
continually adjust to the temperature of the reservoir through heat exchange
Isobaric process-
pressure of the system remains constant (p = const).
The heat transfer into or out of the system does work, but also changes the internal energy of the
system.
Isochoric process-
volume of the closed system remains constant (V = const).
the heat transfer into or out of the system does not depend on p∆V work, but only changes the
internal energy (the temperature) of the system.
Law of Thermodynamics
Zeroth law of thermodynamics – If two thermodynamic systems are each in thermal
equilibrium with a third, then they are in thermal equilibrium with each other.
First law of thermodynamics – Energy can neither be created nor destroyed. It can
only change forms. In any process, the total energy of the universe remains the same.
For a thermodynamic cycle the net heat supplied to the system equals the net work
done by the system.
Second law of thermodynamics –
• Kelvin–Planck Statement: It is impossible for any device that operates on a cycle to
receive heat from a single reservoir and produce a net amount of work.

• Clausius Statement: It is impossible to construct a device that operates in a cycle

and produces no effect other than the transfer of heat from a lower-temperature
body to a higher-temperature body.
Second Law of Thermodynamics

Kelvin–Planck Statement Clausius Statement

 Rankine Cycle
the cycle undergoes a series of four processes: two isentropic (reversible adiabatic)
processes alternated with two isobaric processes

1-2 Isentropic The liquid condensate is compressed adiabatically.

compression The surroundings do work on the fluid, increasing its enthalpy
(compression in a (h=u+pv) and compressing it. S is constant. The work required for the
centrifugal pump) compressor is given by Wpump = H2 – H1.

2-3 Isobaric heat constant-pressure. Heat transfer to the liquid from an external
addition (in heat source. The net heat added is given by Qadd = H3 – H2.
exchanger –
boiler)
3-4 Isentropic steam expands adiabatically. The steam does work on the
expansion surroundings (blades of the turbine) and loses an amount of
(expansion in a enthalpy equal to the work that leaves the system. The work done
turbine) by turbine is given by WT = H4 – H3. S is constant.
4-5 Isobaric heat constant-pressure process. heat is rejected from the partially
rejection (in heat condensed gas. The net heat rejected is given by Qre = H4 – H1
exchanger)

Steam turbine
 Power cycles normally with external combustion - or heat pump cycles:

Compression, Heat addition, Heat rejection,

Cycle Expansion, 3→4 Notes
1→2 2→3 4→1
A reversed
Bell Coleman adiabatic isobaric adiabatic isobaric
Brayton cycle
Carnot heat
Carnot isentropic isothermal isentropic isothermal
engine
The
Ericsson isothermal isobaric isothermal isobaric second Ericsson
cycle from 1853
Rankine adiabatic isobaric adiabatic isobaric Steam engine
Hygroscopic adiabatic isobaric adiabatic isobaric Hygroscopic cycle
variable pressure
Scuderi adiabatic adiabatic isochoric
and volume
Stirling isothermal isochoric isothermal isochoric Stirling engine
isochoric then Manson-Guise
Manson isothermal isochoric isothermal
adiabatic Engine
Stoddard adiabatic isobaric adiabatic isobaric
 Power cycles normally with internal combustion:

Compression, Heat addition, Heat rejection,

Cycle Expansion, 3→4 Notes
1→2 2→3 4→1
Jet engine. The
external
combustion
Brayton adiabatic isobaric adiabatic isobaric version of this
cycle is known as
first Ericsson
cycle from 1833.
Diesel adiabatic isobaric adiabatic isochoric Diesel engine
Pulse jets. Note,
1→2 accomplishes
Lenoir isobaric isochoric adiabatic both the heat
rejection and the
compression.
Gasoline / petrol
Otto adiabatic isochoric adiabatic isochoric
engines