UNIT 12 SLIDING CONTACT BEARING AND LUBRICATION Structure 12.1 Introduction Objectives 12.2 Lubrication Regimes and Types of Friction in Sliding Bearings 12.3, Viscosity of Lubricants 12.4 Types of Sliding Contact Bearings 12.5 Petroff's Relation for Power Loss 12.6 Unstable and Stable Lubrication 12.7 Hydrodynamic Theory of Bearing 12.8 Load Cartying Capacity of Beatrig . au 12.9 Heating of Bebring’ ! ie 12.10 Practical Bearing Design 12.11 Non-dimensional Numbers 12.12 Cérrection for Finite Length of Bearing’ 12.13 Bearing Materials 12.14 Bearing Types 12.15 Summary 12.16 Key Words 12.17 Answetd to SAQs 12.1 INTRODUCTION All machines are made up of some moving parts and some stationary. There is a relative motion between moving and stationary parts. The niost'common relative motion is rotary which a shaft or axle makes in its supports. The relative motion of a cylindrical end of shaft moving in a cylindrical hollow will carry reaction (force) and hence both the end of the shaft and supporting hollow cylinder will experience a force of friction. All design efforts will be directed to reduce friction which otherwise will generate heat and consume power. Of course the fubbing surfaces need not always be cylindrical, They may be flat as a ram ofa shaping machine moving in its supports. Here, also the friction will come into play and has to be reduced. The friction is reduced by providing lubricant between the surface moving in relative motion. For shafts and axle, their ends rotating in enveloping hollow cylinder is not the only method of Supporting. Instead the shaft end, known as journal, may:be supported firm in a ring on whose periphety are placed balls’or rollers which are enveloped by. another ting or race. The outside of the outer race is held in some stationary part of machine. In this situation the balls or rollers roll on outer surface of inner ring and inner surface of the outer ring, thus resulting in rolling friction which is much less than sliding friction. These two methods of supporting shafts give rise to two types of beatings, viz. sliding contact and rolling contact beatings. Irrthis unit, we Will study sliding cohtact bearing which in the’contact of shafts are often referred to as journal beating as that part of the shaft which rotates in the bearing is known as joumal. Journal bearings are hollow SSSa Ceslen of Bearings, cylinders which may be axially split to facilitate assembly. If they are not split but are Sutches Brakes cylindrical, they are known as bushing. The journal bearings are made of such materials which have lower coefficient of friction in combination with steel which is common ‘material for shafts. Objectives After studying this unit, you should be able to know about bearing types, describe types of friction in sliding bearing, explain the types of lubrication and lubricant properties, understand theories of bearing and types, * describe power loss in sliding contact bearings, * discuss bearing design, and * know bearing materials, 12.2 LUBRICATION REGIMES AND TYPES OF FRICTION IN SLIDING BEARINGS [The intended design always envisages that rubbing surfaces are totally separated by lubricant layer. This is not always possible but feeding oll under pressure between the it is regarded to have failed if such a co1 in gear teeth contact such condition is common and may lead to scuffing, 1eSs equal to few modules Additives of certain types which can stick to surface with thickn can avoid scuffing. tween bearing surfaces is the ideal situation in icant will separate them and only fluid friction f semi-fluid friction or boundary fluid friction lubricant film is very thin and can be already described. In case of fluid Complete elimination of direct contact bet such bearings in which case a layer of lubric would exist. Sometimes a transition Stage of may also exist. These conditions occur when the li easily disturbed any minute surface irregularity as friction, the friction is offered by sharing of lubricant film only and is much less than that in other cases, thus, resulting to negligible power loss. The coefficient of friction in this case is generally between 0.0015-0.003, against 0.003-0.10 in mixed film and 0.1-0.25 in dry friction. Due to such low coefficient of friction the wear of rubbing surfaces of Joumal and bearing is almost completely absent and heating of bearings is very less. On the other hand, in case of dry friction the heating may even lead to ultimate failure, Figures 12.1(a), (b), (c) and (d) show, dry, boundary, semi-fluid and fluid friction conditions between surfaces of bearing and journal.Sliding Contact Bes and Labrie Figure 12.1 : Microscopie View of Surfaces of Conta: cn a ldlng Contact Dearing a) Dry Frlettn, (0) Boundary Friction, (©) Seml-lold Friction, and (d) Fluld Friction SAQI What are the different types of friction in sliding bearings? 12.3 VISCOSITY OF LUBRICANTS ‘When fluid friction condition exists in a bearing, the resistance is offered by viscosity of lubricant, The fluid viscosity is the property that resists its shearing, Ifa layer of a viscous fluid shears over another with a relative velocity v, over an area A, then the force resisting mutual shearing according to Newton's law is given by dv » =u u oe (121 FE ma my (2.1) which also means that shearing stress doy oY 2 (022 Ata Ea ™ ‘Two surfaces separated by film of thickness h is shown in Figure 12.2. The velocity at bottom surface is zero and it is v at top surface. h is very small so that 4 = 7 The Eq, (12.1) is the statement that viscous force, between two surfaces having relative ‘motion and separated by a lubricant film, is proportional to velocity gradient. The constant of proportionality, pit is called dynamic or absolute viscosity of the lubricant. It @ _ is most important property of the lubricant. Apparent from Eq, (12.1) or Bq, (12.2), the units of absolute viscosity are Ns/m? or Pa. or kg/m, moving surface, velocity u Fluid film stationary surface,velocity 0 Figure 12.2: Fluld Film between Statlonary and Moving Surfaces Kinematic viscosity, v, is related property and is defined as the ratio of absolute viscosity and density. kyims 4, ane ; +23) ‘Thus, the kinematic viscosity is expressed in units m’/s,Where [1p is viscosity of oil at pressure i uae i ‘ssure p and jt, is the viscosity at at i aisa oe of the lubricant. The effect of pressur evligble nin es fear - 40 MPa. iguer 12.3 shows variation of viscosity (Z in ¢ ) Of SAE oil oe temperature (°C), ‘p.) OF SAE oil with SAQ2 What do you understand by absolute viscosity? 12.4 TYPES OF SLIDING CONTACT BEARINGS ‘Two types of sliding contact bearings are identified as (a) hydrostatic, and (b) hydrodynamic. While hydrostatic bearings are pressurised from an external source, hydrodynamic bearing develop pressure in lubricating film entirely due to relative motion between moving and stationary elements. The pressure in the lubricant film in both the types make them capable of carrying the load. Journal bearings are example of hydrodynamic bearings in which radial load is carried by the bearing by pressure in oil film which is developed due to journal rotating in the bearing. These bearings are also called selfacting. Hybrid bearings have characteristics of both hydrostatic and hydrodynamic bearings. SAQ3 What are the two types of contact bearing? 12.5 PETROFF’S RELATION FOR POWER LOSS ‘The sliding contact bearings depending upon the hydrodynamic action of the lubricant for generation and maintenance of the oi film to cary the Toad will be discussed The geometry of this ofl film is complex and will be dealt with at ates siage, For calculating servof power due to viscosity of oil Petroft’s relation may be used. It is assumed that journal and bearing are concentric and a constant thickness layer of Wubricant exists jonryeen them, Since the oil film thickness is very small it does not sense the curvatre, pei rence the journal and bearing may be taken as two paralfel plates with viscous fluid aaa jeen them. This situation is shown in Figure 12.4 and similar to that shown in Figure 12.5, which shows that one ofthe two plates journal inthis ease) is moving with rrerjity v; The clearance between the journal and bearing is and journal i rotting Ath a speed of N rpm. The bearing is assumed to be of large length so that loss of pressure due to seepage of lubricant from side is neglected. If ‘journal diameter be D, then nwDN ve ms Velocity gradient, : == i Stlding Contact Bear and LubricatDesign of Bearings, Very often fluid viscosity is measured in arbitrary manner and is called secondary Clatehes, Braker viseosity: Ongsuch method-dcterenes the ime required fora given quantity pf 0). ehaed specified cate to spo taiughpcalbrapt orifice af «standardised vitcomi Saybote pea is used, the seoondity viscosity, ix expressed in Sayboltuniversa, ‘The absolute Viscbsity of.anoil is related with + by follaiing evita ) 0.18 . ; seGoxids, : w=(2d% lot pe ) es Pos Tr nay ‘yet another tnit of viscosity is derived from cgs systesit and called poise (p). ‘ 1» p= dyn, see/em? + + Since poise isa very large quantity it is convenieit to tise a mich sinallet unit. This ‘smaller units termed cent poise which is of poise and is expressed as ep. The” r 100 ys viscosity expressed in ep is denoted by Z:so that H(kg/ms or Pas)= 10-3 Z(cp) + (12.5) Table 12.1 describes various conversion factors, - Table 12.1 : Viscosity Conversion. : lee TT ah nee Tonomen: (SD Naa? _Ketsiaa® | Dotan aa me ania by ae 7 _P le ey eto 1.45% 10" Nei? |) 10, 1 1,02x 10" | 1.45 x10" Kgfsim? [9.87 x10 | 9.807 1 1.422 x 107 |” 1 Lorst | 69x10" | 69x10 | 7osaxi@ 1 Nisin? = Pas = kg/ms Viscosity varies with temperatures and pressure. y decreases as ‘eniperatire increases according to following 108i ee Where 7s the tempétature of lubricant in °C, isa characteristics numberof fluid varyingbetween l4and28, ; : Hp =H a? snes see 27) OB ce a3 5 oy 172 (12.6) yO =f : Temperatures —= Figure 123: Average Abualte Vscslty of SAE Oil Shown Ploted Agaast Temperatureir s Cpstee of Bearings, ‘The area over which the relative motion between journal and bearing is OCCURING is ye Roy Siyteben Brake area of journal surface covered by the bearing, Iti a eylindical surface of diame = and length L. Call this area A. A=nDL Hence, the viscous force which will resist the motion of journal in the bearing is aDN FewnDLh N Te 60e 2 pe - tn D'LN or Fell ""N +e (12, 600 We Remember that jis in Pa.s and D, L and cin m, Fei force acts tangential to the joursal, hence will apply frictional torque Myon the Journal, | ' D_uw Din My =F ge pa E RE Nm (12.9) This frictional torque will eause loss of ich wil it mec nes loss of power which will be converted into heat. Call ++ (12.10) + (1241) (12.12), Equating this F with that in Eq, (12.8) pone DLN 60 We Figure 12.4 : Journal-bearlog Model assumed a PetrofP'« Relation, cls the Small but Uslforsa Lubricant Film Thickness. W is the Load Carrled by Jouraal_— Ix willbe easy £0 correlate H’ with the pressure developed in the film. This pressure, p, ‘vill act radially on the journal at every point of the cylindrical surface of journal. Hence, Siiding Contact Lot WepLD (Note that /_D is the projected area of bearing of length L and diameter, D) 2 ro uN(D Hence, eT S is 130 p (¢ or proatt (2) .. (12.13) p \2e N D ' oa and (2) both are dimensionless, It is interesting to note that for a given bearing c D . ‘ uN : 2 isa constat, hence fis proportional to". However, this will be true only if the P film thickness remains constant. If due to some reason the film thickness reduces, then the coefficient of friction tends to increase. If there is increase in f, the operation of the bearing tends to become unstable. SAQ4 ‘What are the assumptions in calculating loss of power due to viscosity of oil? 12.6 UNSTABLE AND STABLE LUBRICATION Itis a good idea to study relationship between fand an this is what was done by McKee. The result is plotted in Figure 12.5. The ordinate AB separates fluid friction or thick film lubrication region on the right from thin film or boundary lubrication on the left. If'a bearing is operating at any point in the thick film lubrication zone and some change in operating condition causes the temperature to rise, this will result in lower coefficient of viscosity lowering the parameter a and thus shifting the point of operation tothe left. This shift in effect will reduce coefficient of friction fand thus produce less heat and lower the temperature. Lowering of temperature will cause increase in wand original value of the parameter !. willbe restored. Thus, the operation in this - zone of thick film lubrication is stable and hence itis also known as stable lubrication. This stable lubrication is predicted by PetrofT's equation for f stgbte RBrcouen Figure 12.5: CoetMcleat of Friction Ploted as Fusction of "trom Experime ?— The experiments by McKee investigated fon both sides of ordinate AB. It is scen left hand side a slight increase in temperature would decrease and hence the qu, HN it also decrease. The point of operation will shaft to left and up, resulting in P that og antity higher value of f. This higher value of fwill further increase temperature and reduce LAN resulting shifting of pint of operation in upward direction, Thus, this region of - operation is unstable as the coefficient of friction keeps increasing and heating of oil film and bearing continues. The region ECD is transition in which the value of y has reduced to make metal to metal contact possible. Thus, if point C has been reached then bearing will finally end up with bearing seized, For maintaining operation in stable zone proper Cooling of bearing has to be maintained so that jt does not reduce to the level of C. Example 12.1 A full journal bearing (full journal bearing is a complete cylinder enveloping cylindrical journal around 360°) has following specifications, load on journal, Y= 3000 N, diameter of journal, D = 40.0 mm, length of bearing, £ = 52 mm, speed of rotation of journal, N= 2000 rpm, viscosity of lubricant, Z=27.3 cp. Calculate power loss by Petroff’s method, and effective coefficient of friction, assuming uniform oil film is 0.04 mm thick. The density of oil, p= 860 kg/m’ and its specific heat is 1760 Jrkg*C. Find at what rate the oil should flow through the bearing if the temperature should not rise more than 8°C. Solution Use W=pLD So that P eon 1.44. Nimm? or 1.4410 Pa 52x 40 Use Eq. (12.13) ND 20334 D f= 0.33 a in which p = 10°? Z Pas Jo? x 27.3 2000, 40 =0.3: = 6256250 x 1079 7033 Taaio® Zac oga = 8256250210 . 0 = 0.0063 x 3000 x $2 =378N mm . <3, 2n 2000 Hy = My = 378% 10? x22 or y= 190.5 W or) (Remind yourself that | W = 1 Navs = 1 Js). If Q is the volume of lubricant flowing through bearing per s then heat carried =OpCyATUs Hence, in this bearing for A7’= rise in temperature of lubricant = 8°. Q * 860 x 1760 x 8 = 190.5 = 5__ a's 10°5 mite 860 x 1760%8 or Q= 9.44 m/min - (iii) aL . A journal bearing has a 1 and journal runs at 100 rpm. The lubricant is SAE oil to operate at a temperature of 40°C. If bearing diameter is 25 mm and the clearance is 0.05 mm, calculate the power loss in friction. If the speed of the shaft is likely to change by 5%, find by what amount frictional power will change Solution L For po oes, Les mm Use Eq. (12.10) for power loss in friction _PDILN 5>3e00c From Figure 12.3 read for SAE oil at 40°C that Z = 80 cp, p=107 x80 _ wx (25)? x10"? x 0,025 x 100? x 1073 x 80 H f 3600 x 0.05 x 107? =107> x 5383 W or 0.054 W -- If speed is 95 rpm (5% less than 100 rpm H 1 =0054x( 25) =0.05 W ii) ? 100 If speed is 105 rpm (5% greater than 100 rpm) 2 H yz = 0.054 x (3) = 0.06 W «+» (iii) SAQS (a) | What are different types of friction that may occur in a journal bearing? (b) How does absolute viscosity'of an oil change with temperature and pressure? Show typical variation of asb vis. with temperature, (c) | What is the main assumption of Petroff's equation? Discus stable and unstable lubrication. Which region is given by Petroff’s equation? (@) A full journal bearing is loaded by a radial load of 2750 N and the shaft runs at 1500 rpm, With diameter of journal as 35 mm the bearing length is 20% more and clearance is 0.1% of diameter. The absolute viscosity of oil is 0.085 Pa.s at a temperature of 35°C. Calculate coefficient of friction and volume of oil to flow per minute through bearing if temperature of oil is not to exceed 42°C. Take p for oil = 865 kg/m? and Cy = 1700 J/kg.C°.Desiga of Bearings, ee : i is / is sult and we will not attempt. We will use Figure 12 Te ta ee 1 which have diameters Dy and Dp and their centers gre ince between O, and Op is known as eccentricity ang he difference between radii of journal and bearing, ;. Solving this equat c describe the journal and bearin 0, and Os, respectively. The dista denoted by e, The clearance, c ist on +-(vi) Figure 12.7 : A Jouraal of Radius r (Diameter, D,) Rotating In Bearing of Radius r + c (Diameter, Dj) The journal eccentricity, e, is expressed as ¢ c. ¢ isa bearing parameter, eat +++ (vii) The coordinates are changed from x - y to r— 0 as shown in Figure 12.7. The solution obtained is 2 7 RurtNe _sinO(2+8c0s 0) ~p =e ++-(1217 ua Se? (2 +67) (1 +e C08 6)* ted Eq, (12.17) is known as Harrison equation, po in above equation is oil film pressure at line of centers, i.c. @ = 0. In this equation no oil is moving through edges, i.e. perpendicular to plane of paper. Also note that 1 is speed of rotation of journal in rpm so that _2nrN 60 Figure 2.18 shows the variation of pressure in oil film around the journal. The line of centers has been taken as horizontal. U tnner boundary of bearing Figure 12.8 : The Pressure Plotted Around Bearh abead of the Line Perpendicular to the Line of Centres\— Te 12.8 LOAD CARRYING CAPACITY OF BEARING a atone ‘The pressure developed in oil film due to hydrodynamic action bears the load W that comes upon journal. We would like to see how load is related to different bearing parameters The length of the bearing, L, is defined as the length of the journal contained in the bearing. Figures 10.7 and 10.9 represent journal bearing under typical condition of operation. The eccentricity ratio ¢, is the ratio of actual eccentricity e to the maximum D,-D,) a possible eccentricity c, | ¢ = 2 that is. or ++ (12.18) where fi. is minimum oil film thickness as shown in Figures 12.8 and 12.9, From the same figure it may be noted that at 180° from the minimum oil film thickness, the maximum clearance or oil film thickness between the journal and the bearing will exist, Apparently the maximum clearance, hy is related with c and ¢ as oe = (12.19) ' hip Max. : clearance thickness, Figure 12.9: Load oa Bearing It is assumed that load carried by the journal acts through its centre (load #7 in Figure 12.8). More importantly it is assumed that no leakage takes place through ends. Under the above two assumption the load carrying capacity of the bearing is calculated. An element at an angle @ from line of centers, subtending a small angle d® at the centre of the journal is chosen on the circumference of the journal. The radial force on this clement would be (p ~ pa) rd 8 per unit length and its component in the vertical direction ‘would be (p ~ po) rd @ sin 0. Therefore, the load carrying capacity of the bearing per unit length Ps w= (p-p)sindrao 3 ‘Substitute for (p ~ po) from Eq. (12.17) so that wef Bur Ne_sin?@(2+e6080) 4 a Se? (2+ £7) (1 +€ 008 0)” "7 qsThe finite integral results are taken from standard text. Design of Bearings aa ye eeN = perunit length... (12.20) Sc? (246) yl ‘The result is known as Harrison-Sornmefeld equation and expresses ideal load capacin of a journal bearing. The same can be written as | ‘D, 2 w= ZEN AL) ¢ (e) per unit length +6(122 0 (ec +++ (1222 where f@= are Since p, N, D, and c are constants in a given bearing, ¢ and(e) adjust to meet load. = £=0 means ¢=0 which is the condition of two centers being coincident or the @ journal and bearing being concentric. It is noted from Eq, (12.21) that such a bearing will have zero load carrying capacity. This capacity is infinite when a 1 which coincides with complete squeezing out of the oil rom between the journal and bearing, The minimum oil film thickness, iy will be zero as evidenced from Eq. (12.18). The pressure inthe oil film in bearing as given by Eq, (12.17) is purely ideal in which leakage through the ends, or loss of pressure due to presence of a hole or change of viscosity of oil due to rise in temperature is not permitted, However, in an actual bearing all these factors are present and hence load carrying capacity of bearing is reduced as ‘compared to that given in Eq. (12.20). This reduction may be taken as reduction in (e). An ideal bearing may be visualised as one for which 4 is infinite, but as this ratio reduces f(¢) is shown plotted against ¢ in Figure 12.10 for infinite z ratio. 5) .f_} _] y — y is 2] 1 0 7 ar az gee Figure 12.10: (0) Plotted sgaase Showing Two Extremes of/(0)=é and) = fore and ¢= t, Respectively Y me eaenrss” Example 12.3 ‘A 36 mm diameter journal rotates in a bearing at 1750 rpm. The bearing is lubricated with SAE 10 oil whose abs viscosity in Saybolt universal seconds at 40°C is 200, The maximum and minimum oil flm thicknesses ae respectively 0.0375 mm and 0.033 mm, Calculate the load carrying capacity of the bearing. leitt. solution Stiding Contact Bearing From Eq. (12.4) and Lubrication wa(22 010-218) ag t where t is Saybolt universal seconds w= 22x 10-* x 200 - 218 9.044 - 0.0009 200 or = 0.0431 Pas From Eqs. (12.18) and (12.19) abt or by +hare eae c= 2088 + 0.0575 = 0.03525 mm And from Eq, (12.18) oS 064 © From Eq. (12.22) © e (+e) VI- 0.064 “(2+ 0.0647) Jt - 0.0647 0.064 (2.004) x 0.032 2 2 2 EJ ) = 1.04 x 108 ce) ~ho0ss2s. Use Bq. (12.21) or fe) = 0.032 2 by , wee ue (24) fo) 10 SORTA 38 10-9 x 1.04 x 108 x 0.032 W = 44.4 KN per unit length. SAQ6 (2) Explain what do you understand of a hydrodynamic bearing. What assumptions are made in deriving pressure distribution in a hydrodynamic bearing? (b) Define eccentricity and eccentricity ratio, On a sketch show the variation of pressure in oil film between inner boundary of a hydrodynamic bearing and journal rotating in it, (©) How do you calculate the load carrying capacity of g hydrodynamic bearing? Explain with the help of a sketch, 19 rrL {A journal bearing develops hydrodynamic pressure in oil film whose absolute viscosity is 0.07 Pas. The diameter of journal is $0 mm, © a, Designo Bearings, @ ‘Clutches, Brakes: tnd CAD 13 and £=—L. 4 minimum oil film thickness of 0.045 mm is D maintained when bearing i rotating at 2000 rpm. Calculate (i) maximum oil film thickness, (ii) load on journal, : (iii) effective coefficient of friction by Petroff's method, arid (iv) _ power lost in friction. 12.9 HEATING OF BEARING Remember that we have already introduced the idea that bearing will be heated due to friction. We have calculated the power lost in friction which is heat that will raise the {temperature of oll film and bearing. Since rise in temperature will reduce viscosity which will further cause heating, hence the bearing temperature is maintained constant. It is allowed to rise above ambient temperature by such amount that viscosity reduces only slightly. The heat from bearing is dissipated through all three modes of heat transfer, viz. conduction, convection and radiation. The oil ie also cooled by taking it out and ‘cooling in a eat exchanger and re-eeding into bearing. In large journal bearings used in power generating machines such as turbines and generator oil coolers are integral parts. We will consider three modes of heat transfer and simplifying assumptions. ‘The most conservative method will be to assume that bearing heat is carried away by the oil low Q. Thus, if heat generated per s (equivalent of power lost in friction, in hear units) is H, then H =Cy pQ(AaT) ++ (12.23) Where Cy is specific heat, pis density and ATis tise in temperature of oil, Average values of Cy and p are 1760 Mkg°C and 861 kg/m’, respectively. These values maybe used for calculation. You would realise that we have already calculated Q, the oil flow through bearing in Example 12.1 of Section 12.7. ‘The heat dissipated through the conduction is usu: bearing are not at much lower temperature. ally very small as the parts attached to Yet another formula for calculating heat dissipation, taking both convective and radiation ‘modes of heat transfer has been proposed. In this case, the heat dissipation is approximated as H=C.A(-T,) (12.24) where H = Heat dissipated in W, C= Combined coefficient of radiation and convection, Wim? K, 4 = Area of housing surface, m’, T) = Temperature of housing, K, and T, = Temperature of air surrounding the housing, K.The magnitude of constant C is difficult to Te agit co ‘cult to obtain, {t depends upon the material, colour caring housing surface. Th : S hese coefficients have by approximately determined as functions of air vel i described as Table 12.2. In a preliminary design usually taken Because of rotation of shaft and at movement possible Sliding Contact 8 and Labr locity over the bearing housing, are and a value of C equal to 250 Wim?.K is ees tached masses there will always be some “ides, some heat dissipation by conduction through shaft is always Table 12 ‘efficient of Heat Dissipation Eq, (12.24) Nir Velocity, m/s | 0 6 wz | 1 | a | a0 | Coefficient, C | 255 1360 | 1810 L 2100 | 2450 | 2770 it ts more important to know the temperature of oil Ty so that its viscosity under operating conditions is ascertained. This, however, will depend ‘upon the system of lubrication. In oil bath system part of journal is immersed in lubricant to provide good circulation. In ring oiled bearing a ring riding on the top of the journal dips into oil and carries some lubricant to the journal. In a wick-feeding method the amount of lubricant reaching the journal is not adequate and provides no cooling effect. The oil temperature is given by the following equation. Ty = B(T, ~T,) + Tp ++ (12.25) Alternatively 3 (J, - 7,) = 2 (Z, —T,) can be used for first calculation. The constant B is given in Table 10.4, ‘Table 12.3 : Constant B for Eq. (12.25) Lubrigation | Condition B O’Ring - | Still air 0.5-1.0 Moving air | 1.0-2.0 Oil Bath, Still air 0.2.04 Moving air | 0.5-1.0 ‘The Eq, (12.24) is preferably used in case for self contained bearing in which lubricant does not flow out of bearing housing, such bearing are used in industrial machines like fans, blowers, pumps and motors, etc. and are pedestal or pillow block type. The factor C (7, - T,) per unit projected area of bearing has been determined with respect to rise in temperature of bearing surface. Figure 12.11 depicts these results, 60 so A- Thin shell not attached to large radiating mass _| B- Average unventilated bearing 4 Ore. welt ventitated bearing a o C( Tp-Ta) kW/m? °C we $s— 12.10 PRACTICAL BEARING DESIGN In Section 12.7 the theoretical picture of a hydrodynamic bearing was drawn. It was ‘understood that the bearing action or creation of film between the journal and bearing took place because of suction of oil between the surfaces of journal and bearing and in effect a thin film of oil was capable of taking bearing load. The performance and also the design of the bearing mainly depended upon the ratio ¢ which is dependent upon clearance or minimum oil film thickness which had to be specified apriori as can be seen in the problems solved. In the cases dealt with no distinction between clearance and ‘minimum thickness of oil film was made, Petroff"s equation assumed uniform oil film thickness equal to the clearance. A number of simplifying assumption were made in Section 12.7 and are described here again as they are important in the practical approach to bearing design. The assumptions are : (a) _ the oil film thickness is so small that curvature of oil film is neglected, (b) the lubricant obeys Newton's law of viscous flow, (©) the inertia forces of lubricant are not considered, (d) the lubricant is regarded as incompressible, (©) the viscosity of lubricant is assumed to be constant throughout the film imespective of temperature changes, and (0) the presence of hole does not cause loss of pressure and even the leakage at the ends is neglected, in effec the bearing is assumed to have infinite D ratio with uniform pressure along the length. ‘The practical bearings need not be ful, i they may not have 360° contact with journal. is not full) is defined by angle by which the journal makes contact with the inside of the bearing. Itis shown in Figure 12.12. The contact angle B describes the partial bearing. It is important to realise that under situations of finite length as well as partial contact and in the presence of an oil hole the pressure distribution in the oil film is not same as predicted by hydrodynamic theory. Bearing outer shell ‘The practical bearings have finite 4 ratio. A practical beating (whi Figure 12.12: A Partial Bearing with B ax Angle of Coatact ‘The pressure distributions in oil film axially and radially in the absence of an oil hole and with oil hole are shown in Figures 12.13 and 12.14, Itcan be noted that | the pressure reduces at edges to zero both along the axis and radially. In case of oilhole there is considerable loss of peak value pressure. The important point to note is that in practical situation. It is very difficult to specify operating bearing clearance a priori and hence it would not be possible to calculate bearing load, power loss, heat generated, etc, ) Figure 12.13 : Distribution of Pressure in Partial Bearing along (a) Axial, and (b) Radiat Directions, the Length of Bearing ls Finite Pao TR ! | Past aio Longitudinal 0) Figure 12.14: Distribution of Pressure ina Paria Bearing of Finite Length (a) Along Axial Direction in Presence of a Circular Hole, (b) Along Radial Direction in Presence of 2 Longitudinal Groove So we will now look into design procedure afresh. We begin with identifying the variables of a bearing and will divide them into two groups. “The first group of variables is identified belo (@) ype of bearing, ie. full or partial, (6) _ the journal diameter and clearance between journal and bearing, Clearance of of diameter can be generally taken. However, there are several standards, (c) the absolute viscosity of the oil to be used. If the oil fom common machine sump is used, it is known, Otherwise it is selected, (4) the load per unit projected area of the bearing which is the permissible pressure and depends upon material of the bearing, and (©) the speed of rotation, which is known as the speed of the shaft. The designer of bearing has to have this as information as also the material of the shaft. and LubricationDesign of Bearings, Clutehes, Brakes and CAD, The second group of variables is identified as under : (a) the material of the bearing to decide, p, (b) the coefficient of friction, (©) the temperature rise of lubricant, AT, (@) the flow of oil, Q, and (©) _ the minimum of oil film thickness, fis, ‘The use of Petroff's equation permitted to find all these quantities, But the hydrodynamic theory could not yield the relationships between variables of two groups. The procedure il 0n variables of first groups and then calculate variables of the. second cP will require experience in design, Yet the absence of theory for Partial and finite length bearing will pose difficulties. It may be pointed out here that ‘We begin with reconsidering Eqs. (12.20), (12.21) and (12.22) in which load carrying ‘aPacity of bearing has been correlated with ¢ which is ratio £ A function of f(e) is also c introduced. It s possible to express —!_ as function of, Fo Np. and c, which are Variables of the first group, Remember that in Eq. (12.20) we can re i replace W by pL Dorp D for unit ji 7 ‘The equation then modifies to a it length or 2 pr. 2 3 2prn Eun ree se! . 12 (ey se pile + (12.23) 12.11 NON-DIMENSIONAL NUMBERS Right hand side of Eq, (12.23) can be seen to be similar to right hand side of Eq, (12.13), 2 It gives us the idea that (5 Fis proportional to (5) HN This is non-dimensional as c e. P ( 5) J: This number has been named as Sommerfeld number after realising that it Sen Sents basic bearing properties in first group of variables, viz. r,c, H, Nand p. The ‘Sommerfeld number is denoted by S and thus, 2 s-(4) BN ++ (12.24) 2) p Although S is dimensionless it often expressed as s/min to keep number large. Raimondi 4and Boyd expressed the variables of second group also as non-dimensional amir og fy, % ang 2. (Las length of bearing). They correlated the three numbers of Cu reNL Second group with S. they expressed {f= K 08) cSliding Contact Bearing 4, = fy (8 a. (12.25) i Labrie Q and = (S . rent 4) cl d cd the i arr en Ji.f2 and fs and plotted the graphs which are shown in Figures 12.15, ‘I | 2 7360" 2 ‘fx 180" 5 2 10 pest” 4 As100" 2 1 orz4 0 ee wz 4810 ‘SOMMERFELO NO, S, S/min Figure 12.15 Dimensonless Coetcient of Freon (: ei Ploted as Function of Sommerfeld 5 Number (S) for several Values B and Inflalte Bearing Length or No Side Leakage $2.0 fy (8), function of S 2 TE =| ee os of) ¥ > "ke os oa eet samt ae sowearele numaen,3, fern Pure 12.16: Non-dimeasonless Minimum OM Film Thickness (“2 | Ponte as Function of Sommerfeld Number(s) for various Values under Condon of No Side Leakage | q of Tf rs SK HH 1 + dl ¥ + 6 eoi0" Soumenrelo women 3, 47m Pgue 12.17; Newman OF Fin Namie (9) ated a uncon of 23 for No Side Leakage and for several Values of Angle B Sa SSSliding Contact Bear snd Lubeicat Figure 12.20 : Correction Factor for Coefficient of Friction, Ky, Plotted ‘on ot 2 ss Function of forever Yates of "2 B A ction of — for several Values of “2 : Correction Factor for Flow, Ko, Plotted. : \ ) Example 12.4 A.40 mm diameter full journal bearing supports a load of 3000 N. The length of the bearing is 52 mm and clearance is 0.038 mm. The viscosity of lubricating oil is 0.03 Pas at operating temperature. The shaft rotates at 2000 rpm. Compare power loss in friction from Petroff’s method and that calculated from characteristic numbers of bearing. Also find minimum oil film thickness and calculate rise in oil temperature assuming 70% of heat is carried in lubricant. Use p = 861 kg/m’, Cu = 1760 kg. Solution = 0.03 Pas, N= 2000 rpm, D= 40 mm, L = $2 mm, c = 0.038 mm HY, 300 81.44 Nim? = 1.44 «10° Pa TD” 32x40 a qu Psign of Bearings, Use Bq, (12.13) etches, Brakes p dcAD £=033EN B 9.33 208% 2000 40. p 997 ry p 2 (aan0® 2% 0.038 {WD InN 4, =Myat = 2007 «3000 20m 2000 9-9 w _ gg wy iy 30 Using bearing characteristic numbers 2 2 J awn) 2.03 % 2000 = 11354 s/min Ss ( P (0.038) 1.44 x 108 For full journal bearing f= 360°, From Figure 12.15 matk 11.54 on S axis (horizontal), raise an ordinate to cut the curve for B = 360° and read © 0.007 x 3000 40 2n x 2000 1073 2 60 or Hy=955W or iis «i ‘Apparently Petof’s method underestimates fand hence, Hy From Figure 12.16 corresponding to $= 11.4 from cutve for B = 360° read * =0.9, hence, 4h, = 0.9 x 0.038 = 0.0342 mm sy) Again from Figure 12.17 corresponding to S= 11.4 s/min read from curve for ° Q =3 = 3.125, B= 360", the value of — 125, Using values of re NL, Q = 3.125 x 20 x 0.038 x 2000 x 52 x 10-9 or Q= 247 «10° m/min Use Eq, (12.23), heat carried by lubricant = Q_p Cy AT 70% of heat produced is carried by lubricant 0.7%955%60__ ig reg oO Ar = - 247 x 10°° x 8611760 SAQ7 (a) There are two methods of lubricating a journal bearing, bath, In which case the oil will be cooler? (b) What are different ways through which bearings cool? (c) Define non-dimensional characteristic numbers for bearing. Show the variation of these numbers with sommerfeld number. For $= 15 s/min and r= 25 mm, c= 0,052 mm, find fand hy. B = 360° viz. oil ring and oil (@)(©) A full journat bear ‘Sliding Contact Bearin ‘and Labricatlo 12.13 BEARING MATERIALS A bearing material must possess Properties as outlined below ; (a) High compressive and fati normally not high. (b) High thermal conduc igue strength, the stress on journal bearing is ity so that it does not heat rapidly. (©) Coefficient of friction in contact with steel should be low. (4) Its wear rate should be low to have long life. (©) _Itshould be workable in foundry. (Q)_ Itshould permit foreign particles to embede rather score. If bearing and journal are of the same material coefficient of friction and hence wear is high. Such combinations are very rare in practice. Cast iron is used as bearing material with steel journal but non-ferrous materials are much preferred. Bronzes, babitts and Cu-Pb alloys are largely used as bearing materials in service. Brass was earlier used and is lately finding more frequent use because of its cheapness. Bronzes are alloys of Cu and Sn with small additions. Bronzes can take heavy loads and ‘impact and as such are used in locomotives and rolling mills. However, bronzes have poor heat conductivity. Babitt provides better antiftiction properties then bronzes. It absorbs impact and vibration ‘well and serves well under speed and pressure. Babbit has a good property to fuse with stee! and tinned bronze backing and in this state it provides good compressive strength. Babitt does not fuse with C.l and hence with this backing it has to be anchored in dovetail slots or drilled holes (Figure 12.20). Copper alloys (75% cu, 25%) typically have melting point of 980°C as compared to 200°C melting point of babbit. Al-Sn alloys also retain strength at high temperatures. These materials are described in following tables. ‘Table 12. Bronzes and | Composition, Mechanical Properties | Applications SAE UTS, | YS, % Number MPa | MPa | Elongation Leaded gun | Cu, 86-89; Sn, 9-11; Bushing metal 63 Pb, 1-2.5; P, 0.25 max; | 200 | 80 10 impurities, 0.5 max. Phosphere | Cu, 78.5-81.5; Heavy loads, bronze 64 | Sn, 9-11; Pb, 9-11; high hardness, P, 0.05-0. 167 | 80 8 lathes, pumps, Zn, 0.75 max; home impurities, 0.25 max. appliances Bronze Cu, 83-89, Sn, 4.5-6.0; Bronze backing backing 66 -10; Zn, 20; 167 | 80 8 impurities, 0.25 max. Semi-plastic | Cu, 76.5-79.5, Sn, 5-7; Soft and bronzes, 67 | Pb, 14.5-17.5; Zn, 4.0 antiftietion max; Sb, 0.4 max; Fe, 0.4 max; impurities, 1.9 max. 29 : Bearing Bronzes snRNAa of Bearings, Table 12.5 : Babbitts (White Bearing Metals) Some SAE No. Composition, Ye ‘Applications Sn, 90; Cu, 4-5; Sb, 4-5; Thin, lines on broaze backing, 10 0.08 max; | motors As, 0.1 max.; Bi, 0.08 max, Sn, 86; Cu, $6.5; Sb,6-7.5; | Hard babbitt good for heavy " : .08 max.; | pressure 5 Bi, 0.08 max, Sn, 59.5; Cu, 2.25. Cheap Babbit, good for large 12 | $6.95-115;Pb, 260 max; | bearings under moderate loads. Fe, 0.08 max.; Bi, 0.08 max. | Crank shaft bearings, transmission bushings electric equipment Sn, 45-5.5;Cy,05max; | Cheap Babbitt for lrge bearings 13 | So,9.25-10.75;Pb, 86.0 max, | under light load | ‘As, 0.2 max, Table 12.6 ; Aluminium Tin Alloys ‘Alloy Composition ‘Applications Aluminium low tin alloy |" AL92,Sn-8 _ | Diesel engine and compressors , : “Automotive engine erankshi Aluminium hgh tinalloy | Al-t0,S0-20 | Autome pit mf, 12.13.1 Other Bearing Materials An extensively hard wood of great density, known as lignum vitae, has been used for bearing applications. With water as lubricant and cooling medium its antftiction Properties and wear are comparable with those of bearing metals. Lignum vitae has been used with satisfactory results particularly in cases of step bearings of vertical water turbine, paper mill machinery, marin sevice and even rll neck bearings of rolling mil More recently, in such cases where use of water as lubricant is necessary, especialy if sand and grit are present soft vulcanised rubber bearings have been used. A soft, tolgh, resilient rubber acts as a yielding support, permitting grit to passthrough the bearing without scoring the shaf or the rubber. Longitudinal grooves inthe rubber lining allow free passage of the cooling water with any foreign matter present. With featheared edges, these grooves are also very effective in forming constricted passage in front of which the supporting pressure is built up in the fluid film. These bearings have coefficient of friction which compares will with roller bearings and loads of 4.0 to 5.5 MPa, may be carried if journal is very smooth and load is applied after it has attained a peripheral speed of 150 m/min. The cooling water temperature in case of rubber bearings must always be below boiling point. In some cases rubber bearings have been found to give as ‘uch as ten times the service as bearings of lignum vitae or metals. Table 12.7 : Self Lubricating Plastic Matertals for Journal Bearings Material [ Max. | Max. | Coefllcleat | Crit Resistance | Resistance Load | Speed of | Temperature | to to tx | ms | Friction ‘c Humldtty | Corrosion | Nylon 66 12 [0106 200 Pair Good ‘Ace 06 225 ois 150 Good Good | Polymide 4s 3 1-03 315 Good ‘Good Phenolic 178 3 9-11 150-200 Good ‘Good Filled Nylon | 89 12 | area 200 Far ‘Good PIPE filled | 8.0 4 | 0050.15 15 Good Good Acetal Filled as 3 01-03 3s Good Good Polymide Reinforced | 177 T 1-04 150-200 Good Good Phenalic Filled PTFE_| 43 | 233 | 008-025 20 Excellent | Excellent PTFE #450 | 025 | 005025 - Excellent | Excellentrubber bearings have been successfully used in centrifugal and deep well pumps, sand washers and several other applications where water must be used asa lubricant Fie resilience and cushioning properties of rubber may further be explefied bons rations of high speed shafts. sel een | ; Synthetic and neutral composite materials, plastic and reinforced plastic used as bearing materials now-a-days, However, their characteris icone votwal established as yet. Table 12.7 gives some information about plastic bearing materials are self-lubricating, Powder metallurgy bushing permits oil to penetrate into the material because of its porosity and is good for its antifiction properties. Bearings are frequently ball-indented in order to provide small basins forthe storage of lubricant while the journal is at rest. This supplies come lubrication during starting, The bearing walls may sometimes be indented and filled with graphite to provide lubricating effect at starting. Each bearing material before selection needs to be examined for its response to various situations of working and their finer aspects. The various property groups and their finer components that need deeper enquiry are described in Table 12.8 ‘Table 12.8 : Selection Criteria for Bearing Materials ‘Sl.No. |_Major Property Group Group Components ‘Compressive strength 1. | Mechanical Fatigue strength Modulus of elasticity Thermal conductivity ze | eres ‘Thermal expansion 3_| Chemical Rate of corrosion Machinabifty 4. | Manufacturing Casubilty Costand availabilty I Embedibility 5. Environmental Resistance to pitting duc to electric discharge Resistance to thermal degradation Wear rate 6. | Tebological Coefficient of friction Resistance to cavitation erosion | 12.14 BEARING TYPES A cylindrical hole formed in a machine member is the simplest type of solid journal bearing. There is no means for the adjustment of wear and shaft must be introduced only endwise. The hole may or may not be lined with a bearing material like Babbitt or bronze. When worn the bearing may be restored to its original condition by replacing the Tiner. The piston pin bearing of connecting rod in an automobile is a familiar example of type of bearing. Unlined cast iron bearings are used for ordinary work, light loads and moderate speeds. Figure 12.22 shows a solid bushing and a cast iron bearing lined with Babbit is shown in Figure 12.23. Figure 12.22; A Bushing 31utches, Brakes 1CAD, lags, Figure 12.29: Babblte Lining ln Cast Iron Bearing Adjustable bearings are made in two parts so that adjustment of wear may be made Figure 12.24(a) shows such adjustable bearing, If construction permits, the division should be made on a plane passing though the exist at right angles to the direction of resultant load on the journal as shown in Figure 12.24(b). To avoid any horizontal movement, especially in bearings for heavy duty, projections on the cap, as shown in Figure 12.25 are often provided, Adjustment for wear is made by reducing the thickness of the shim placed between the cap and the base or by removing certain amount of metal from the division surface, Adjustable bearings may be made as individual units to be located and fastened in place, or they may be constructed as an integral part ofthe machine itself, (@) Split Journal Bearing (b) Angle Journal Bearing ‘Figure 12,24 A very common method of constructing a Babbitt-lined bearing is to pour the molten inetal directly in place, rigidly anchoring it to the bearing housing by means of recess or doveial slots. One such constuction is depicted in Figure 12.26. For ordinary werk hole may be cast to size, then scraped or reamed, if necessary, to fit the shaft In onder to overcome the shrinkage which occurs while the Babbitt is cooling and to pack the metal more densely in plac, the cast Babbitt should be peened with a hammer or rolled under pressure before boring. Figure 12.26 : Anchored Babbitt Lining tu Split Bearinga Sliding Contact Rearing and Lubrleation construction with oil grooves is illustrated Fig Figure 12.27 : Flanged Bearing Shell with ‘Chamfered Edges. Ol Groove also be seen 12.14.1 Oil Grooves The oil, which is introduced in the bearing clearances in the region of minimum pressure, is distributed in the space properly through oil grooves. Figure 1228 illustrates one such gil groove in the longitudinal direction. Such ol proove should be 3 to 4 mn eco hon the bearing length and equidistant from its ends, The oi bearings where clearance is large. This leads the oil to the centre of bearing length without allowing it to squeeze out from ends. Such groove must be'located 40 degrees ahead of the highest pregftrre region. ISN Figure 12.28 : Typical Groove Patterns la Developed View In the pressure fed bearing the circumferential groove would help reduce the 4 ratio of the bearing. Such bearings will have increased load carrying capacity because with increase in oil flow they would run cooler which in tur would not cause much reduction in the viscosity, The oi grooves must not be permitted to scrap off the oil from the journal and therefore they are chamfered along the edges as the edges of the split bearings are made (Figure 12.26). Figure 12.27 described several groove patterns in developed views that are commonly employed. SAQ8 (@) What criteria are considered for bearing material? (b) Distinguish between bronze and Babbitt as bearing material. Give compositions of these two non-ferrous materials, (c)__ Describe properties of non-metallic bearing material and mention their applications. (4) With the help of sketch describe some bearing construction. {e) What purpose is served by groove in a bearing? Give example.ngs, 's 12.15 SUMMARY A sliding contact bearing has a journal moving in a cylindrical shell. A thin oil layer is Present between the surfaces of moving journal and stationary bearing. The viscosity of oil, a property due to which the lubricant resists shearing plays an important role in deciding coefficient of friction between journal and bearing, Petroff’s simplifying assumption that oil film thickness is uniform and equal to radial clearance helps calculate Coefficient of friction but it is underestimated. The hydrodynamic theory of bearing considers the equilibrium of forces on a small element due to shearing stress and Pressure. It calculates the load carrying capacity of bearing as a function of eccentricity ratio. This theory also Predicts radial pressure variation and shows that maximum Pressure leads the line of load. It coincides with line of centers and minimum film thickness. Non-dimensional characteristic numbers for bearing are derivable from hydrodynamic theory. They have been Clearly defined and their use for calculating minimum film thickness, coefficient of friction and oil flow through bearing has been demonstrated. The friction in bearing results in heating. The amount of heat Tepresents power loss. The bearing has to be cooled. The outer surface is cooled by radiation and convection which may cool the oil. Yet the ojl flows out of bearing and thus cooled. The temperauure of oil is controlled by controlling flow of oil. Materials for bearing are normally bronze and Babbitt or copper alloys. These are non-ferrous alloys and have adequate properties for bearing. Some non-metallic materials like plastics are also found to have good properties. Several bearing construction and oil grooves have been described: * 12.16 KEY WORDS Bearing : Bearing may be defined as a machine member whose function is to support and retain a moving member. Slider Bearing : A slider bearing is a bearing in which the surfaces are parallel or nearly parallel to each other. Viscosity : Viscosity is a measure of the internal friction of a fluid, Hydrostatic Bearings : Hydrostatic bearings are pressurized from an external source, id ic Bearings : Hydrodynamic bearings develop pressure in Een ° lubricating film entirely due to relative motion between moving and stationary elements.