A PROJECT REPORT ON

EFFECT OF SHIELDING ENVIRONMENT ON MICROSTRUCTURE AND

CORROSION BEHAVIOR ON 2205 DUPLEX STAINLESS STEEL
WELDMENTS
submitted in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Submitted by
21A85A0309 M.HARSHAD
21A85A0319 R. SATHISH
21A85A0320 R. LOKESH
21A85A0324 U. SRIKANU

Under the Esteemed guidance of

Dr. K. DORATHI M.E, Ph. D
Assistant professor

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

SRI VASAVI ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(Autonomous)
(Approved by A.I.C.T.E New Delhi and permanently affiliated to JNTU
KAKINADA)
(ACCREDIED BY NAAC WITH A GRADE)
TADEPALLIGUDEM
2020-2024

1
 A PROJECT REPORT ON
EFFECT OF SHIELDING ENVIRONMENT ON MICROSTRUCTURE AND
CORROSION BEHAVIOR ON 2205 DUPLEX STAINLESS STEEL
WELDMENTS
submitted in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Submitted by
21A85A0309 M.HARSHAD
21A85A0319 R. SATHISH
21A85A0320 R. LOKESH
21A85A0324 U. SRIKANU

Under the Esteemed guidance of

Dr. K. DORATHI M.E, Ph. D
Assistant professor

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

SRI VASAVI ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(Autonomous)
(Approved by A.I.C.T.E New Delhi and permanently affiliated to JNTU
KAKINADA)
(ACCREDIED BY NAAC WITH A GRADE)
TADEPALLIGUDEM
2020-2024

2
 2020-2024

SRI VASAVI ENGINEERING COLLEGE

(Autonomous)
(Approved by A.I.C.T.E New Delhi and permanently affiliated to JNTU KAKINADA)
(Accredited by NAAC with A grade)
TADEPALLIGUDEM
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

This is to certify that the project entitled “ EFFECT OF SHIELDING

ENVIRONMENT ON MICROSTRUCTURE AND CORROSION BEHAVIOUR OF
2205 DUPLEX STAINLESS STEEL WELDMENTS” is being submitted in partial
fulfillment for the award of degree of Bachelor of Technology in Mechanical
Engineering from Jawaharlal Nehru Technology University, Kakinada is a
bonafide work carried out by M.Harshad Kumar 21A85A0309, R.Sathish
21A85A0319, R.Lokesh 21A85A0320, U.Srikanu 21A85A0204 under my
supervision and guidance during academic year 2020-2024.

Dr. M.V. RAMESH Dr. K. DORATHI M.E, Ph. D

Head of the Department project guide

External examiner

3
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We express our sincere thanks to The Management of “SRI

VASAVI ENGINEERING COLLEGE” for the facilities made available

for completion of project.
We convey our deep sense of gratitude to Dr. G.V.N.S.R.
RATNAKARA RAO M.E, Ph. D Principal under whose guidance and
encouragement we have carried out this work successfully.
We would like to express our sincere thanks to Dr. M.V. RAMESH,
MTech Ph. D Prof. & Head of the department of Mechanical Engineering.
We express our heart full thanks to our esteemed guidance of Dr. K.
DORATHI M.E, Ph. D the grateful patience he has shown towards our work
for these timely advices and guidance.
We are also thankful to all Staff and Technicians of Mechanical
Department for their support during the course of the work.
We are also thankful to the Library & Library Staff of the college for
the reference books which helped us gathering some information about the project

PROJECT ASSOCIATES

M.HARSHAD KUMAR 21A85A0309

R. SATHISH 21A85A0319
R. LOKESH 21A85A0320
U. SRIKANU 21A85A0324

4
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1…………………………………………………………… 1
INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………… 1
1.1 INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………… 1
1.2 STEELS………………………………………………………………………… 1
1.2.1 Definition of Steel: ……………………………………………………. 1
1.2.2 Types of Steels ……………………………………………………….. 1
1.2.2.1 Carbon Steel ………………………………………………… 1
1.2.2.2 Stainless Steel………………………………………………. 2
1.2.2.3 Alloy Steel …………………………………………………. 3
1.2.2.4 Tool Steel …………………………………………………… 3
1.2.3 Applications of Steel …………………………………………………. 4
1.3 STAINLESS STEEL …………………………………………………………… 5
1.3.1 Definition of Stainless Steel ………………………………………….. 5
1.3.2 Types of Stainless Steel ……………………………………………… 5
1.3.2.1 Austenitic Stainless Steel:……………………………………. 5
1.3.2.2 Ferritic Stainless Steel:………………………………………. 6
1.3.2.3 Martensitic Stainless Steel:…………………………………. 6
1.3.2.4 Duplex Stainless Steel:……………………………………… 6
1.3.2.5 Precipitation Hardened Steel………………………………… 6
1.3.3 APPLICATIONS OF STAINLESS STEEL………………………….. 8
1.4 DUPLEX STAINLESS STEEL………………………………………………… 8
1.4.1 Overview of Duplex Stainless Steel………………………………….. 8
1.4.2 Microstructure of Duplex stainless steel……………………………… 8
1.4.3 Composition…………………………………………………………… 9
1.4.4 Mechanical properties………………………………………………… 9
1.4.5 Corrosion Resistance…………………………………………………. 10
1.4.6 Ferrite/Austenite Balance……………………………………………… 11
1.4.7 Duplex Stainless Steel………………………………………………… 12

5
 1.4.8 Applications of Duplex Stainless Steel ……………………………….. 12
1.5 WELDING TECHNIQUES OF DSS…………………………………………… 13
1.5.1 TIG welding: Principles and Applications……………………………. 13
1.5.2 Procedure for TIG welding…………………………………………… 14
1.5.3 Importance of Shielding Gases……………………………………….. 14
1.5.4 Importance of Welding in Fabrication………………………………… 15
1.6 MICROSTRUCTURE ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES…………………………… 16
1.6.1 Metallography and Microscopy………………………………………. 16
1.6.2 Optical Microscopy…………………………………………………… 17
1.7 CORROSION BEHAVIOR OF DSS WELDMENTS…………………………. 18
1.7.1 Types of Corrosion …………………………………………………… 18
1.7.2 Factors Affecting of Corrosion Resistance……………………………. 20
1.7.2 Corrosion Testing Standards and Procedure………………………….. 21

CHAPTER 2…………………………………………………………… 32
LITERATURE REVIEW…………………………………………………………. 32

CHAPTER3…………………………………………………………… 32
RESEARCH GAP AND OBJECTIVE……………………………………………… 15
3.1 Research gap……………………………………………………………. 15
3.2 Objectives………………………………………………………………. 15

CHAPTER 3…………………………………………………………… 42
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP AND METHODOLOGIES………………………… 42
3.1 MATERIALS…………………………………………………………………… 42
3.2 Filler Wire Composition………………………………………………………… 43
3.3 Flux Composition………………………………………………………………. 44
3.4 Shelding Gases………………………………………………………………….. 46
3.5 Weld Parameters and Process…………………………………………………… 48
3.6 WORK PLAN…………………………………………………………………… 49
3.7 Sample Preparation……………………………………………………………….. 49
3.7.1 Weld Plate Polishing:…………………………………………………………. 49
3.7.2 Etching Process: ………………………………………………………………. 50

6
3.8 Microscopic Analysis…………………………………………………………… 50
3.8.1 Optical Microscopy:…………………………………………………… 51
3.8.2 Grain Structure Examination:……………………………………………… 51
3.9 Corrosion Studies……………………………………………………………….. 52
3.9.1 Potential Dynamic Polarization (PDP)……………………………….. 52

CHAPTER 4…………………………………………………………… 53
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS…………………………………………………. 53
4.1. MICROSTRUCTURAL STUDEIS……………………………………………. 53
4.1.1. Base metal Microstructure…………………………………………… 53
4.1.2. Weld microstructure……………………………………………………. 54
4.2. PITTING CORROSION……………………………………………………….. 54

CHAPTER 5…………………………………………………………… 55
CONCLUSION………………………………………………………………………. 55
REFERENCES……………………………………………………………………….. 56

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 LIST OF FIGURES

Fig1.1-Austenitic stainless steel

Fig1.2-Ferritic stainless steel
Fig1.3 Martensitic Stainless Steel
Fig1.4 Duplex stainless steel
Fig 1.5 Microstructure of Precipitation Hardened Steel
Fig 1.6 Microstructure of DSS
Fig 1.7 Critical pitting and critical crevice corrosion temperatures for various DSS
Fig 1.8 Plot of the ASTM G150 critical pitting temperature vs. the PRE numbers.
Fig 1.9 Nickel - Chromium phase diagram for a 68% iron duplex stainless steel
Fig 1.10 compositions of duplex stainless steels:
Fig 1.11 TIG welding Schematic diagram
Fig 1.12– Microstructure Analysis
Fig 1.13- Metallography Microscope
Fig 1.14 Uniform corrosion
Fig-1.15 pitting corrosion
Fig-1.16 Cervices Corrosion
Fig-1.17 Galvanic corrosion
Fig-1.18 Stress Corrosion Cracking
Fig-1.19 Intergranular Corrosion
Fig 1.20 -Schematic Diagram of corrosion testing equipment
Fig 4.1. Micrograph of duplex base metal under (a) SEM (b) Optical Microscopy
Fig 4.2 Tig welding process
Fig 5.1 Optical Microstructure of DSS 2205 Stainless-steel
Fig 5.2 Optical Microstructure of weld zone of TIG Welded DSS 2205 Stainless-steel using
Pure Ar shielding gas
Fig 5.3 Interface microstructure of DSS using TIG welding with 100 % Ar shielded gas
Fig 5.4 Pitting corrosion data of weld zones of 2205 DSS in 1M NaCl solution
Fig 5.5 Pitting corrosion data of base metal zone of 2205 DSS in 1M NaCl solution
Fig 5.6 Pitting corrosion data of HAZ zone of 2205 DSS in 1M NaCl solution

8
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1.1: Types of carbon steel

Table 1.2: Types of stainless steel
Table 1.3: Types of Alloy Steel
Table 1.4: Types of Tool Steel
Table 4.1: Chemical composition of SAF 2205 type duplex stainless steel(wt%)
Table 4.2: Chemical composition of filler material(wt%)
Table 4.3: Composition of an activated SiO2 flux
Table 4.4: Welding parameters used for Welding of 2205 DSS plates
Table 5.1: Pitting corrosion data of weld zones of 2205 DSS in 1MNaCl
Solution

9
 ABSTRACT

The objective of the research is to investigate the impact of the shielding environment during
gas tungsten arc welding (TIG) of 2205 Duplex stainless steel (DSS) on the protective
characteristics of the passive film and changes in microstructure. Metallography, an optical
microscope-based technique, is employed to monitor microstructural alterations in the welds.
Potentiodynamic polarization experiments are conducted in a 1M NaCl solution using the basic
GillAC electrochemical system to observe the pitting corrosion behavior. The microstructure
analysis reveals that weldments consist of primary austenite, with secondary austenite forming
within the ferrite, and different types of primary austenite emerging at the interfaces between
primary austenite and ferrite in the weld area of the TIG process. Corrosion tests indicate that
weldments produced by the TIG method, utilizing 100% Ar shielding gas, exhibit Epit values
of 930mV in the weld zone and a corrosion rate of 0.213 mm/year, while the interface regions
display values of 530mV and a corrosion rate of 0.7mm/year.

Keywords:2205 Duplex stainless-steel; Gas tungsten arc welding; Shielding Gas, Corrosion
Resistance

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 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Duplex stainless-steels are extensively used in the oil and gas, petrochemical, and paper
industries due to their high strength, exceptional toughness, stress corrosion cracking, crevice
corrosion, and resistance to pitting. The required characteristics are influenced by the correct
balance of austenite phase and ferrite phase development, as well as key alloying elemental
concentrations including nickel, molybdenum, chromium, and nitrogen. TIG is a traditional
fusion welding method that is commonly employed in the production of DSS in industrial
applications. When compared to other arc welding techniques, TIG welding of Duplex Steels
produces superior weld quality and surface polish. Its applications are limited due to
solidification cracking and liquid cracking in the weld zone, as well as grain coarsening. In the
simulated heat affected zone (HAZ) of 2205 DSS, Liou et al. studied the impact of cooling rate
and nitrogen concentration on microstructural behaviour and stress corrosion cracking (SCC).
Z. Brytan et al. also studied effects of shielding gas composition like Ar lean DSS. The above
problems can be solved by employing a TIG which offers significant benefits such as increased
productivity and a greater depth-to-width ratio of penetrating depth. The effect of Flow ionized
shielding gases and fluxes are very crucial in TIG welding as it shows direct impact on weld
pool properties. So, by increasing arc stability and surface tension of the weld pool, de-
oxidizing the weld pool, increasing the depth to width ratio, reducing solidification cracking
and liquid cracking in the weld zone, and also reducing the grain coarsening effect in the HAZ
and Partial Melted Zone (PMZ), and better weld heat cycles, proper selection of shielding gases
and Activated fluxes can overcome weld bead problems. To avoid the afore mentioned issues,
the study of the corrosion behaviour and microstructure of 2205 DSS weld joints is critical. As
a result, an attempt was made to weld 2205DSSusing traditional TIG processes with Pure
Argon shielding gas, as well as SiO2 as an activated flux, in the current study.

1.2 STEELS
1.2.1 Definition of Steel:
Steel is a metallic alloy primarily composed of iron and carbon, with carbon content typically
ranging from 0.2% to 2.1% by weight. In addition to iron and carbon, steel often contains small
amounts of other elements such as manganese, silicon, sulfur, and phosphorus, which influence
its properties. Steel is known for its exceptional strength, durability, and versatility, making it
one of the most widely used materials in construction, manufacturing, transportation, and
numerous other industries. Its properties can be further modified through various heat treatment
processes and alloying additions to suit specific applications. The properties of steel can vary
widely depending on its composition and processing methods. These properties include
strength, hardness, ductility, toughness, corrosion resistance, and thermal conductivity.
Overall, steel's combination of strength, affordability, and versatility has made it indispensable
in modern society, serving as the backbone for countless infrastructure projects, machinery,
vehicles, and consumer goods.
1.2.2 Types of Steels
Steel is classified by its composition: iron is fused with carbon and any number of other
elements to achieve a specific end. The four main types are:
1.2.2.1 Carbon Steel
While all steel contains carbon, carbon steel is unique for the notable absence of other elements
in its makeup. Though it only contains 2% carbon or less by weight, its elemental nature makes
carbon steel a strong, durable material that is ideal for numerous uses. Carbon steel is

1
sometimes confused with cast iron, but the two have a distinct difference in their elemental
makeup. Carbon steel must contain less than 2% carbon, whereas cast iron contains 2% to 3.5%
carbon. This additional carbon is what gives cast iron its rough texture and more brittle nature.
Even though carbon steel is composed of alloyed metals, it doesn’t have an alloy classification
because of the lack of other alloying elements like cobalt, nickel, tungsten or titanium in its
composition.
Table 1.1: Types of carbon steel

Type Carbon % APPLICATIONS

Structural components,
Low Carbon Steel 0.05% - 0.30% automotive body panels,
sheet metal
Gears and shafts, railway
Medium Carbon Steel 0.30% - 0.60% tracks, forging and
machining components
Cutting tools, springs and
High Carbon Steel 0.60% - 2.1% wires, blades for knives and
saws

1.2.2.2 Stainless Steel

This type is commonly known for its role in manufacturing medical equipment and appliances,
but its range of use is far greater than just the gas range in your kitchen. Chromium is the alloy
that sets stainless steel apart, lending the material its distinctive luster. Chromium is more than
a purely cosmetic addition; however, the element is oxidation-resistant and increases the
metal’s longevity by preventing it from rusting. Typically, stainless steel has a chromium
content between 10.5% and 30%. Higher chromium content directly translates to a higher gloss
when polished and has greater corrosion resistance. High chromium stainless steels often get
confused for chrome. However, stainless steel is different from chrome because it features
chromium, nickel and other metals within the alloy. Chrome is carbon steel (or another metal)
to which a manufacturer adds a chromium outer layer. Another distinctive difference is that
chrome has a mirror-like appearance, while high-chromium stainless steel applications are still
shiny but less reflective. This is due to the addition of other elements.

Table 1.2: Types of stainless steel

Type Characteristics Applications
Non-magnetic, excellent Food processing equipment,
Austenitic Stainless Steel corrosion resistance, high chemical processing
ductility and formability equipment, medical devices
Magnetic, good corrosion Automotive exhaust systems,
Ferritic Stainless Steel resistance, lower toughness kitchen appliances, heat
compared to austenitic exchangers
stainless steel
Magnetic, high strength and Cutlery and knives, surgical
Martensitic Stainless Steel hardness, moderate instruments, valve
corrosion resistance components
Combination of austenitic Chemical and petrochemical
and ferritic microstructure, processing equipment, oil
Duplex Stainless Steel high strength and corrosion and gas industry
resistance

2
 components, marine
applications
High strength and hardness Aerospace components,
Precipitation Hardening through precipitation high-performance shafts,
Stainless Steel hardening, good corrosion nuclear reactor components
resistance

1.2.2.3 Alloy Steel

Alloy steel is iron fused with one of several other elements, each contributing its unique
attributes to the final product. All steels are indeed alloys, but carbon and chromium are specific
alloys with names attributed to the type of metal they form Alloy steel as a grouping includes
a diverse range of alloys with an equally diverse range of properties. Shipping containers use
a complex alloy that combines multiple elements to produce a durable and lasting product.
Silicon isn’t often thought of as a component of steel, but its magnetic properties make it a
perfect component of most large machinery. Aluminium is versatile and used in revolutionary
building materials that are both lightweight and extremely durable. Some of the elements that
combine with iron and carbon to produce alloys are also found in tool steels — cobalt, tungsten
and molybdenum, for example, are ultra-hard metals that are desired for their impact resistance
and cutting abilities.

Table 1.3: Types of Alloy Steel

Type Characteristics Applications
Contains additional alloying Commonly used in structural
elements such as manganese, components, automotive
Low Alloy Steel silicon, and nickel. Improved parts, and machinery.
strength and toughness Pressure vessels, pipelines,
compared to carbon steel. Good and construction equipment.
weldability and machinability.
Higher alloy content compared Used in gears, shafts,
to low alloy steel. Enhanced forgings, automotive
Medium Alloy Steel mechanical properties such as components, and industrial
strength and wear resistance. machinery.
Heat treatable for further
improvement of properties.
Contains significant amounts of Ideal for chemical processing
alloying elements such as equipment, aerospace
chromium, molybdenum, and components, gas turbines,
High Alloy Steel vanadium. Excellent corrosion and power generation
resistance in harsh equipment.
environments. Retains strength
and hardness at elevated
temperatures.
1.2.2.4 Tool Steel
Tool steels are exactly what they claim to be they are a type of high-carbon steel specifically
designed for use in the manufacturing of tools, such as drills, saw blades and tool bits. Tool
steel alloys along with other metals such as tungsten, chromium and vanadium improve its
strength, hardness and resistance to wear and corrosion. Tempering the process of adding high
heat, cooling quickly then heating again, creates tool steel that’s extremely hard and heat-
resistant. Tool steels are abrasive and can withstand high-impact environments.

3
Table 1.4: Types of Tool Steel
Type Characteristics Applications
Contains primarily iron and Cutting tools, drills, taps,
carbon, with carbon content reamers, and woodworking
typically ranging from 0.7% tools.
Carbon Tool Steel
to 1.5% by weight. Moderate
wear resistance and
toughness.
Contains additional alloying Used in cutting tools for
elements such as tungsten, machining operations such as
High-Speed Tool Steel molybdenum, and vanadium drilling, milling, and turning.
for enhanced heat resistance
and hardness.
High toughness and impact Suitable for applications
resistance. Contains requiring resistance to
Shock-Resisting Tool Steel additional alloying elements impact and shock loading,
such as chromium, such as hammers, chisels,
molybdenum, and nickel. and punches.
Excellent high-temperature Used in forging dies,
strength and hardness. extrusion dies, and die
Hot-Work Tool Steel Contains alloying elements casting moulds for
such as chromium, processing materials at
molybdenum, and vanadium. elevated temperatures.
High wear resistance and Commonly used in blanking,
dimensional stability at low piercing, and forming dies
temperatures. Contains for cold-forming operations.
Cold-Work Tool Steel
alloying elements such as
tungsten, molybdenum, and
chromium.

1.2.3 Applications of Steel

Industrial Pipelines: Steel is commonly used in the construction of industrial pipelines for
transporting various fluids, including oil, gas, and chemicals. Understanding the corrosion
behavior of steel weldments is crucial for ensuring the integrity and longevity of these
pipelines.
Marine Structures: Steel is a primary material for constructing marine structures such as
offshore platforms, ship hulls, and coastal infrastructure. The corrosive marine environment
presents significant challenges, making it essential to study the corrosion resistance of steel
weldments for these applications.
Oil and Gas Industry: Steel is extensively used in the oil and gas industry for drilling
equipment, storage tanks, and pipelines. The harsh operating conditions, including exposure to
corrosive fluids and high pressures, highlight the importance of evaluating the corrosion
performance of steel weldments in this sector.
Chemical Processing Equipment: Steel is employed in chemical processing equipment such
as reactors, vessels, and piping systems. Understanding the corrosion behavior of steel
weldments is critical for maintaining the safety and reliability of chemical processes and
preventing environmental contamination.

4
Structural Components in Harsh Environments: Steel is utilized in structural components
exposed to harsh environments, such as bridges, industrial facilities, and power plants.
Evaluating the effects of shielding and corrosion on steel weldments is essential for ensuring
structural integrity and safety in these applications.
Renewable Energy Infrastructure: Steel is integral to renewable energy infrastructure,
including wind turbines, solar panels, and hydroelectric facilities. Assessing the corrosion
resistance of steel weldments is vital for the reliability and longevity of renewable energy
systems, particularly in offshore and coastal environments.

1.3 STAINLESS STEEL

1.3.1 Definition of Stainless Steel
“Stainless steel is an alloy of iron, containing a minimum of 10.5% chromium along with
varying amounts of other elements such as nickel, manganese, and molybdenum”. The
addition of chromium to steel forms a protective oxide layer on its surface, known as the
passive layer, which gives stainless steel its corrosion-resistant properties. This passive layer
prevents rusting, staining, and corrosion in various environments, making stainless steel
suitable for a wide range of applications where durability, hygiene, and aesthetic appeal are
important. Stainless steel is known for its high strength, excellent formability, ease of
fabrication, and low maintenance requirements, making it a popular choice in industries such
as construction, automotive, aerospace, food processing, and healthcare.
Composition: Contains at least 10.5% chromium, which forms a passive oxide layer that
provides excellent corrosion resistance. Nickel, molybdenum, and other elements are often
added to enhance specific properties.
Properties: Stainless steel is corrosion-resistant, durable, and has good mechanical properties.
It comes in various grades, each offering different combinations of properties.

1.3.2 Types of Stainless Steel

1.3.2.1 Austenitic Stainless Steel:
Composition: Austenitic stainless steels are primarily composed of chromium (usually 16-
26%) and nickel (usually 6-22%), along with small amounts of other elements such as
manganese, nitrogen, and molybdenum.
Properties: They are non-magnetic, highly corrosion-resistant, and have excellent formability
and weldability. They also exhibit good mechanical properties at both high and low
temperatures.
Applications: Austenitic stainless steels are widely used in various industries, including food
processing, chemical processing, pharmaceuticals, automotive, and architectural applications.
Common grades include 304 (S30400) and 316 (S31600).

Fig1.1 Austenite stainless steel Fig 1.2 Ferrite stainless steel

5
1.3.2.2 Ferritic Stainless Steel:
Composition: Ferritic stainless steels contain chromium (usually 10-30%) and little to no
nickel, with small amounts of other elements such as manganese and molybdenum.
Properties: They are magnetic, have good corrosion resistance in many environments, and
offer higher strength than austenitic stainless steels. However, they generally have lower
toughness and weldability.
Applications: Ferritic stainless steels are often used in automotive exhaust systems, appliances
(such as refrigerators and dishwashers), architectural trim, and decorative applications.
Common grades include 430 (S43000).

1.3.2.3 Martensitic Stainless Steel:

Composition: Martensitic stainless steels contain higher levels of carbon (usually 0.1-1.2%)
and chromium (usually 12-18%) compared to other types of stainless steel, with minimal to no
nickel.
Properties: They are magnetic and offer high strength, hardness, and wear resistance.
Martensitic stainless steels can be hardened by heat treatment, making them suitable for
applications requiring a combination of corrosion resistance and high strength.
Applications: Martensitic stainless steels are used in cutlery, surgical instruments, shafts,
valves, and other components requiring hardness and wear resistance. Common grades include
410 (S41000) and 420 (S42000).

Fig1.3 Martensitic Stainless Steel Fig1.4 Duplex stainless steel

1.3.2.4 Duplex Stainless Steel:

Composition: Duplex stainless steels have a two-phase microstructure consisting of
approximately equal proportions of austenite and ferrite. They typically contain high levels of
chromium (19-28%), nickel (4-8%), and molybdenum (up to 5%).
Properties: Duplex stainless steels offer a combination of high strength, corrosion resistance,
and improved stress corrosion cracking resistance compared to austenitic and ferritic stainless
steels. They also have good weldability.
Applications: Duplex stainless steels are used in applications such as chemical processing, oil
and gas exploration, marine environments, and structural components where high strength and
corrosion resistance are required. Common grades include 2205 (S32205) and 2507 (S32750).

1.3.2.5 Precipitation Hardened Steel

Precipitation hardened steel, also known as age-hardened steel or PH steel, is a type of high-
strength alloy steel that gains its mechanical properties through a precipitation hardening
process. This process involves the formation of fine particles within the steel matrix, which
impede dislocation movement and increase the material's strength and hardness. Precipitation

6
hardening allows for the manipulation of the steel's properties to achieve a balance of strength,
toughness, and corrosion resistance, making it suitable for a wide range of applications.
Composition
Precipitation hardened steel typically consists of iron as the base metal, with additional
alloying elements such as:
Chromium (Cr): Provides corrosion resistance and enhances hardenability.
Nickel (Ni): Improves strength, toughness, and resistance to corrosion and oxidation.
Copper (Cu): Enhances strength and hardness.
Aluminum (Al): Forms precipitates during the hardening process, contributing to increased
strength.

Fig 1.5 Microstructure of Precipitation Hardened Steel

Properties
High Strength: Precipitation hardening results in significant increases in strength, allowing
for the development of materials with high tensile and yield strengths.
Hardness: The formation of precipitates within the steel matrix leads to increased hardness,
providing excellent wear resistance and surface durability.
Toughness: Despite its high strength and hardness, precipitation hardened steel retains good
toughness, allowing it to withstand impact and dynamic loading conditions.
Corrosion Resistance: Depending on the alloy composition, precipitation hardened steel can
exhibit excellent corrosion resistance, particularly in environments where stainless steel may
not be suitable.
Dimensional Stability: Precipitation hardening minimizes distortion during heat treatment,
resulting in improved dimensional stability and tight tolerances in finished components.
Applications
Aerospace: Precipitation hardened steel is used in aircraft components, such as landing gear,
structural elements, and engine parts, due to its high strength-to-weight ratio and fatigue
resistance.
Defense: It is utilized in military equipment, including firearms, armored vehicles, and ballistic
armor, where superior strength and ballistic performance are essential.
Automotive: Precipitation hardened steel is employed in automotive components, such as
suspension systems, drive shafts, and transmission parts, to improve vehicle performance and
durability.
Tooling: It is used in the manufacture of cutting tools, dies, and molds for machining,
stamping, and forming operations, where high wear resistance and dimensional stability are
critical.
Medical Devices: Precipitation hardened steel is used in surgical instruments, orthopedic
implants, and medical devices due to its biocompatibility, corrosion resistance, and high
strength.

7
1.3.3 APPLICATIONS OF STAINLESS STEEL
Chemical Processing Equipment: Stainless steel, including duplex stainless steel, is widely
used in chemical processing equipment such as reactors, vessels, and piping systems.
Understanding the corrosion behavior of duplex stainless steel weldments is crucial for
maintaining the integrity and reliability of chemical processes, especially in corrosive
environments.
Oil and Gas Industry: Duplex stainless steel is employed in offshore platforms, pipelines, and
equipment for oil and gas exploration and production. Studying the effects of shielding and
corrosion on 2205 duplex stainless steel weldments is essential for ensuring the long-term
performance and safety of offshore structures and components exposed to harsh environments.
Marine Applications: Stainless steel weldments are commonly used in marine environments
for boat fittings, shipbuilding, and offshore structures. Investigating the corrosion resistance of
2205 duplex stainless steel weldments is critical for determining their suitability and durability
in marine applications subjected to saltwater exposure and marine atmospheres.
Structural Components in Harsh Environments: Stainless steel weldments, including those
made with 2205 duplex stainless steel, are utilized in structural components exposed to
aggressive environments such as chemical plants, coastal structures, and industrial facilities.
Analyzing the effects of shielding and corrosion on the weldments helps ensure the structural
integrity and longevity of these components.
Water Treatment and Desalination: Duplex stainless steel is used in water treatment plants
and desalination facilities for piping, valves, and equipment due to its corrosion resistance and
strength. Investigating the corrosion behavior of 2205 duplex stainless steel weldments is
essential for maintaining the efficiency and reliability of water treatment processes.

1.4 DUPLEX STAINLESS STEEL

1.4.1 Overview Of Duplex Stainless Steel
Duplex stainless steels have a combination of two phases, ferrite and austenite in approximately
equal measure. This allows them to benefit from the advantages of both austenitic and ferritic
stainless steels, leading to increased strength, improved weldability, higher toughness and
resistance to several types of corrosion. Commercially, they are also cheaper than austenitic
stainless steels due to their lower nickel content. Duplex stainless steel was developed in Sweden
in 1930, but commercial production didn’t commence until the 1970s due to the very complicated
process of its production. There has been a re-emergence in the steel in modern times after
significant advances in steelmaking techniques have made it easier to produce it. However, they
are still a relatively under-utilised group of stainless steels, with the world’s usage only between 1
– 3% due to the limitations of their application.

1.4.2 Microstructure of Duplex stainless steel

Duplex stainless steels have a two-phase microstructure that consists of ferrite and austenite.
The microstructure is achieved by thermomechanical processing of an alloy with balanced
alpha or gaama stabilizers elements.The microstructure of duplex stainless steels is shown in
the following figure:
Matrix phase: Ferrite
Dark phase: Ferrite
Bright phase: Austenite
The duplex microstructure of stainless steels gives them a combination of mechanical
properties and corrosion resistance.
Duplex stainless steels are the only family of steel that contain both austenitic and ferritic
microstructure. They contain 18-28% chromium content, 4.5-8% nickel content, and 2.5-4%

8
molybdenum contents. They have high resistance to corrosion and halide attack. Some
common duplex stainless-steel grades include: 2205, 2507, LDX 2101, 2304, and Zeron 100.

Fig 1.6 Microstructure of DSS

1.4.3 Composition Of DSS 2205

Duplex stainless steel is a type of stainless steel characterized by a two-phase microstructure
consisting of both austenite and ferrite phases. The composition of duplex stainless steel
typically includes elements such as:
Chromium (Cr): Chromium is the primary alloying element in duplex stainless steel, typically
ranging from 18% to 28%. It contributes to the formation of the passive oxide layer on the
surface, providing corrosion resistance.
Nickel (Ni): Nickel is added to promote the austenitic phase in duplex stainless steel, typically
ranging from 4% to 8%. It enhances ductility, toughness, and resistance to corrosion and
cracking.
Molybdenum (Mo): Molybdenum improves the pitting and crevice corrosion resistance of
duplex stainless steel, typically ranging from 2% to 5%. It also enhances strength and
weldability.
Nitrogen (N): Nitrogen is added to stabilize the austenitic phase and improve strength and
corrosion resistance. It is typically present in duplex stainless steel at levels ranging from 0.1%
to 0.3%.
Other Alloying Elements: Duplex stainless steel may contain small amounts of other alloying
elements such as manganese, silicon, copper, and tungsten to further enhance specific
properties such as strength, toughness, and corrosion resistance.The exact composition of
duplex stainless steel can vary depending on the grade and specific application requirements.
Common grades of duplex stainless steel include 2205 (UNS S31803/S32205), 2507 (UNS
S32750), and others, each tailored to meet specific performance criteria for different
applications. Duplex stainless steel offers a unique combination of high strength, corrosion
resistance, and cost-effectiveness, making it suitable for various industries, including chemical
processing, oil and gas, marine, and structural engineering.
1.4.4 Mechanical properties
The mechanical properties of duplex stainless steel, such as tensile strength, yield strength,
elongation, hardness, and impact resistance, are crucial for assessing its suitability for different
applications. Here are the typical mechanical properties of duplex stainless steel:
Tensile Strength: The tensile strength of duplex stainless steel typically ranges from 620 MPa
to 900 MPa (90 ksi to 130 ksi). This high tensile strength makes duplex stainless steel suitable
for structural applications where strength is paramount.

9
Yield Strength: The yield strength of duplex stainless steel ranges from 450 MPa to 620 MPa
(65 ksi to 90 ksi). This represents the stress level at which the material begins to deform
plastically, indicating its ability to withstand applied loads without permanent deformation.
Elongation: Duplex stainless steel exhibits elongation values ranging from 25% to 30%.
Elongation measures the ability of the material to stretch or deform before fracturing and is
important for evaluating its ductility and formability.
Hardness: Duplex stainless steel typically has a hardness range of 25 HRC to 35 HRC (250
HV to 350 HV). The hardness of duplex stainless steel depends on factors such as alloy
composition, heat treatment, and manufacturing processes.
Impact Resistance: Duplex stainless steel demonstrates good impact resistance, making it
suitable for applications subjected to dynamic loading conditions. Its toughness and ductility
allow it to absorb energy and resist fracture under impact.
Fatigue Strength: Duplex stainless steel exhibits high fatigue strength, enabling it to withstand
cyclic loading and repeated stress cycles without failure. This property is essential for
components subjected to fluctuating loads, such as offshore structures and automotive parts.
It's important to note that the mechanical properties of duplex stainless steel can vary depending
on factors such as alloy composition, heat treatment, manufacturing process, and testing
methods. Engineers and designers should carefully consider these properties when selecting
duplex stainless steel for specific applications to ensure optimal performance and reliability.
1.4.5 Corrosion Resistance (Pitting)
Duplex stainless steels comprise a family of grades with a wide range of corrosion resistance.
They typically have higher chromium contents than the standard austenitic grades and have a
molybdenum content that can vary from a fraction of a percent for some of the lean grades to
greater than 6.5 % for the S32707 hyper grade. As demonstrated by theoretical pitting and
crevice corrosion temperatures presented the resistance of duplex stainless steels to localized
chloride attack covers a very wide range and is proportional to the PRE number of the specify
c grade. For the lower range of corrosion resistance there are the lean duplex grades such as
S32001, S32101, and S32202which have a pitting and crevice corrosion resistance that is
superior to that of Type 304L (S30403) austenitic stainless steel and approaches that of Type
316L. In the mid-range are the standard grades such as Type 2205, which have a pitting
resistance about equal to that of Type 904L (N08904) austenitic stainless steel. On the high
end of corrosion resistance are the super duplex stainless steels which have a pitting and crevice
corrosion resistance similar to the 6% Mo super austenitic grades and the newly developed and
more resistant hyper duplex grades, which approach the pitting resistance of the Ni-Cr-Mo
alloy, C276 (N10276).

Fig1.7 Critical pitting and critical crevice corrosion temperatures for

10
 various duplex and austenitic stainless steel. Measurements
made using ASTM G48 Test methods A and B

Fig 1.8 Plot of the ASTM G150 critical pitting temperature vs.
the PREN numbers. plotted with data from producers.
1.4.6 Ferrite/Austenite Balance
duplex stainless steels solidify as 100% ferrite (a) and upon subsequent cooling will reach a
temperature where some of the ferrite transforms to austenite (g). The temperature for the a to g
transition will depend on the alloy composition and typically occurs in the range of 1200 to 1400°C
(2200 to 2550°F). As the temperature drops below the a to g transition temperature there is an
increase in the equilibrium amount of austenite down to about 1000°C (1832°F). Below this
temperature there is little change in the equilibrium austenite-ferrite balance. If a duplex grade is
cooled too rapidly, a condition that can occur with low heat input welds on large pieces, there may
be insufficient time for the austenite to form resulting in a structure that is enriched in ferrite. Figure
shows that increased nitrogen content moves the a to g transition to higher temperatures where the
rate of transition is faster making it more likely to achieve an acceptable austenite ferrite balance.
With second-generation duplex stainless steels and properly qualified fabrication procedures, the
problem of too much ferrite can usually be avoided. Duplex welding filler metals are over-alloyed
with nickel to promote austenite formation during cooling.The increased level of ferrite that occurs
upon heating to high temperatures can be useful in hot rolling or forging where the weak ferrite
phase facilitates production. If the steel cools sufficiently during hot rolling so that a substantial
amount of austenite forms, further deformation can produce cracking, sometimes very serious,
because of the mismatch in high temperature strengths of the austenite and ferrite phases. If ease
of production were the only consideration, then the duplex grades would be low in nitrogen and
balanced to ensure that the steel remains ferritic during hot rolling. However, the interests of the
fabricator and the user are opposite those of the producer in that the user wants rapid austenite
formation to ensure toughness and restore corrosion resistance. If the fabricator welds a low-
nitrogen duplex grade with a rapid quench of the HAZ (following what would be a good practice
for austenitic stainless-steel grades), then it is possible for this region to be excessively ferritic and
lacking in toughness and corrosion resistance. Although there is no single defined limit on ferrite
content, any level greater than approximately 70% (ISO 17781) would be considered unacceptable
for most applications. A more restrictive limit for ferrite content should be imposed by the user
when qualifying weld procedures in critical applications, especially those with substantial safety
risks, those involving hydrogen sulphide and those exposed to low operating temperatures. For
guidance on the measurement of the ferrite content of duplex stainless steels.

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 Fig 1.9 Nickel - Chromium phase diagram for a 68% iron duplex
stainless steel, showing the influence of increased nitrogen
content on the ferrite to austenite transition temperature.

1.4.7 Duplex Stainless Steel

Here are some typical Fig 1.10 compositions of duplex stainless steels:

1.4.8 Applications Of Duplex Stainless Steel

Chemical and Petrochemical Industry: DSS is extensively used in the chemical and
petrochemical industry for equipment such as storage tanks, pipelines, heat exchangers, and
reactors. These components often require welding during fabrication and installation. DSS offers
excellent corrosion resistance in corrosive environments containing acids, chlorides, and sulfides,
making it well-suited for these applications.
Offshore and Marine Structures: Offshore platforms, subsea pipelines, and marine structures are
exposed to aggressive seawater environments, making corrosion resistance a critical factor. DSS is
frequently used in these applications due to its superior resistance to pitting, crevice corrosion, and
stress corrosion cracking (SCC) in chloride-rich marine environments. Welded joints in DSS
structures maintain their corrosion resistance, ensuring the longevity and integrity of offshore
installations.
Desalination Plants: Desalination facilities require materials that can withstand the highly
corrosive nature of seawater and brine solutions. DSS is commonly utilized in desalination plants

12
for welded components such as piping, heat exchangers, and evaporators. Its resistance to chloride-
induced corrosion and erosion-corrosion makes it an ideal choice for these demanding applications.
Oil and Gas Production: DSS is employed in oil and gas production facilities for welded
components such as flowlines, manifolds, and downhole equipment. These components are
exposed to corrosive environments containing hydrogen sulfide (H2S), carbon dioxide (CO2), and
chloride ions. DSS offers enhanced resistance to sulfide stress cracking (SSC) and hydrogen-
induced cracking (HIC), reducing the risk of corrosion-related failures in oil and gas operations.
Wastewater Treatment Plants: Wastewater treatment plants utilize DSS in welded components
such as tanks, piping, and sewage treatment equipment. These components are exposed to
aggressive chemical and biological environments containing acids, alkalis, and organic
compounds. DSS provides excellent resistance to corrosion and abrasion, ensuring the durability
and reliability of wastewater treatment infrastructure.
Power Generation: DSS is utilized in power generation facilities for welded components such as
boilers, heat exchangers, and turbine exhaust systems. These components are subjected to high
temperatures, pressures, and corrosive gases. DSS offers superior resistance to corrosion,
oxidation, and thermal fatigue, making it suitable for power generation applications.

1.5 WELDING TECHNIQUES OF DSS

1.5.1 TIG welding: Principles and Applications
When we switch on the machine the high-frequency generator provides an electric spark. The
electric spark is struck between the Workpiece and the Electrode either by touching the
electrode with scrap material or by using a high-frequency unit. We need to do this operation
(Touching with the scrap material) at least 2-3 times to warm up the electrode before the actual
operation starts. Due to this, we can save the breaking of the electrode tip. In actual operation,
the heat generated by the electric spark fuses the metal from the joint area and produces a
molten weld pool. The size of the pool depends on the size of the electrode and the amount of
current supplied by the generator. The arc area is surrounded by an inert or reducing gas shield
to protect the weld pool and the non-consumable electrode. The process may be operated
autogenously, which means without filler material or filler material may be added by feeding
a consumable wire or rod into the established weld pool. Tungsten Inert Gas Welding produces
very high-quality welds across a wide range of materials with thicknesses up to about 8 or
10mm.

Fig 1.11 TIG welding Schematic diagram

Advantages Of TIG Welding

TIG welding offers a solution for welding critical joints, and for situations where small or
exceptionally precise welds are required.
It can be performed with a wide variety of metals
When done correctly, it produces a high-quality and high-purity weld compared with other
joining processes, which is crucial in many applications.

13
It can be done in both automatic and manual.
Overall, it is one of the most efficient ways to join two metals.
No slag is produced.
TIG Welding can be done in any position.
Applications Of TIG Welding
This is specially used in the welding of refractory, sheet, and reactive materials. Tungsten Inert
Gas welding can be used with such a large variety of metals, the process can be applied to
several industries and aid in the creation and repair of many items. This form of welding is
common in the aerospace, automotive, repair, and art fields.
Aerospace: Aircraft and spacecraft are constructed in part by means of TIG welding.
Automotive: Safe and secure construction is essential in the auto industry, as is making vehicles
stand the test of time.
Repair: TIG may be used in a number of repair applications. From fixing a child’s toy, like a
wagon or old-fashioned pedal car, to repairing aluminum tools, this welding method comes in
handy.
1.5.2 Procedure for TIG welding
1. In the TIG welding process or Gas Tungsten Arc Welding, the welding torch is connected
to a constant current welding power supply and shielding gas source.
2. With the help of the constant current supply, the electric arc is produced between the
electrode and two metal workpieces which are to be joined.
3. A filler metal is used to join the two metal pieces together. As the spark is struck, the filler
metal is inserted in the cavity, and due to intense heat, the filler metal melts and fills the cavity
between the two metal pieces and forms a strong weld.
4. A shielding gas (He or Ar) is used to protect the weld from atmospheric contaminations. As
the arc is produced, simultaneously the shielding gas also starts to spread near the weld area
and avoids the weld to combine with atmospheric air and protect it from contaminations.
5. The welding is performed by a highly-skilled operator. The operator has better control over
the weld. He can use both hands to control heat generated and filler metal. From one hand he
controls the arc produced and with the other hand he controls the feed of filler metal.

1.5.3 Importance of Shielding Gases

importance of shielding gas and fluxes in the context of your project on the effects of shielding
and corrosion on 2205 duplex stainless steel weldments:
Importance of Shielding Gas:
Atmospheric Protection: Shielding gas, such as argon or argon-nitrogen mixtures, creates an
inert environment around the weld pool, protecting it from atmospheric contaminants like
oxygen and nitrogen. This prevents the formation of oxides and nitrides, which can
compromise weld integrity and corrosion resistance.
Oxidation Prevention: By shielding the molten metal from atmospheric oxygen, shielding gas
prevents oxidation of the weld pool. Oxidation can lead to defects like porosity and slag
inclusions, which weaken the weld and increase susceptibility to corrosion.
Controlled Chemistry: Shielding gas composition influences the chemistry of the weld pool,
particularly in duplex stainless-steel welding. Nitrogen content in the shielding gas helps
maintain the desired balance of austenite and ferrite phases, crucial for achieving optimal
corrosion resistance in duplex stainless steel.
Sensitization Reduction: Proper shielding gas usage can minimize sensitization of the heat-
affected zone (HAZ) by preventing chromium carbide precipitation. This preserves the
corrosion resistance of the weldment, crucial for applications in corrosive environments.

14
Stable Weld Pool: Shielding gas stability ensures a consistent and stable weld pool during
welding, promoting uniform penetration, proper fusion, and minimal distortion. This
contributes to high-quality welds with improved corrosion resistance.
Importance of Fluxes:
Weld Pool Stability: Fluxes, such as activated fluxes or flux-cored wires, improve the stability
of the weld pool during welding. This is especially beneficial in challenging conditions like
high heat input or welding thicker sections, ensuring uniform penetration and proper fusion.
Sensitization Reduction: Certain fluxes can help minimize sensitization of the HAZ by
promoting the formation of stable chromium carbides. This prevents chromium depletion in
the HAZ, preserving the corrosion resistance of the weldment.
Surface Cleanliness: Fluxes aid in the removal of surface contaminants and impurities,
ensuring a clean weld surface free from oxides, scale, and debris. A clean weld surface
promotes proper fusion and enhances corrosion resistance.
Spatter Reduction: Fluxes can reduce spatter during welding, minimizing the formation of
weld defects and ensuring smooth, uniform welds. Reduced spatter also reduces the need for
post-weld cleanup, saving time and effort.
Improved Bead Appearance: Fluxes contribute to the appearance of the weld bead,
promoting a smooth, uniform finish with minimal surface defects. This enhances the aesthetic
appeal of the weld and may be important for certain applications.

1.5.4 Importance of Welding in Fabrication

the effects of shielding and corrosion on 2205 duplex stainless steel weldments, welding plays
a crucial role in the fabrication process. Here's why welding is important in fabrication,
especially when working with duplex stainless steel:
Joining Components: Welding is essential for joining individual components or pieces of
duplex stainless steel to create larger structures, assemblies, or products. It allows fabricators
to assemble complex shapes and configurations, enabling the creation of customized solutions
for various applications.
Enhanced Structural Integrity: Welding provides strong and durable joints between duplex
stainless-steel components, ensuring the structural integrity and stability of fabricated
assemblies. Proper welding techniques and procedures are essential to achieve reliable and
long-lasting weldments that can withstand mechanical loads, environmental stresses, and
service conditions.
Optimized Design Flexibility: Welding offers design flexibility, allowing fabricators to create
intricate and innovative designs tailored to specific project requirements. It enables the
fabrication of complex geometries, curved surfaces, and welded connections, facilitating the
realization of creative and functional designs in architecture, engineering, and manufacturing.
Cost-Effective Fabrication: Welding is a cost-effective fabrication method for joining duplex
stainless steel components, as it eliminates the need for mechanical fasteners, connectors, or
adhesives. It reduces material waste, labor costs, and assembly time compared to alternative
joining methods, making it an economical choice for large-scale production or custom
fabrication projects.
Seamless Integration of Components: Welding allows for the seamless integration of duplex
stainless-steel components, ensuring tight fits, smooth transitions, and continuous surfaces
between welded joints and adjacent areas. This minimizes discontinuities, gaps, or weak points
in the fabrication, enhancing the overall quality and appearance of the finished product.
Customization and Adaptability: Welding offers customization and adaptability in
fabrication, allowing fabricators to modify, repair, or retrofit existing structures or components
made of duplex stainless steel. It enables on-site fabrication and assembly, rapid prototyping,
and iterative design changes, facilitating agile manufacturing processes and project execution.

15
Corrosion Resistance Preservation: Proper welding techniques and procedures are essential
for preserving the corrosion resistance of duplex stainless-steel weldments. Careful selection
of welding parameters, shielding gases, and fluxes helps minimize sensitization, heat-affected
zone (HAZ) corrosion, and other factors that can compromise the corrosion resistance of the
material.In summary, welding plays a critical role in the fabrication of duplex stainless-steel
components and structures, offering advantages such as enhanced structural integrity, design
flexibility, cost-effectiveness, seamless integration, customization, and corrosion resistance
preservation. By employing appropriate welding techniques and procedures, fabricators can
achieve high-quality weldments that meet performance, durability, and aesthetic requirements
in various applications.

1.6 MICROSTRUCTURE ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES

Microstructure analysis techniques are essential for evaluating the internal structure and
characteristics of materials, including duplex stainless steel weldments. Here are some
commonly used techniques for microstructure analysis:
Optical Microscopy (OM):
Principle: OM involves examining polished and etched specimens under a light microscope
to observe microstructural features such as grain size, grain boundaries, phases, inclusions, and
defects.
Application: OM is widely used for routine inspection and characterization of microstructures
in metallographic samples. It provides valuable information about the overall structure and
morphology of the material.
1.6.1 Metallography and Microscopy
Metallography is the science of studying the microstructure of metals and alloys.
Microstructure refers to the internal structure of a material, which can be seen on a microscopic
level. It includes features such as the size and shape of grains, the presence of phases, and the
presence of defects.
Metallography is used to understand the relationship between the microstructure of a material
and its properties. This information is essential for developing new materials and improving
the performance of existing materials.
Specimen preparation: The first step in metallography is to prepare a specimen of the material
to be studied. This involves cutting, grinding, and polishing the specimen to create a smooth,
flat surface.
Etching: The specimen is then etched with a chemical solution that attacks different phases of
the material at different rates. This helps to reveal the microstructure of the material.
Microscopy: The etched specimen is examined under a microscope. The microscope can be
used to magnify the microstructure of the material by up to thousands of times.
Analysis: The metallurgist then analyzes the microstructure of the material to identify the
different phases present, the size and shape of the grains, and the presence of any defects.

16
 Fig 1.12– Microstructure Analysis

Fig 1.13- Metallography Microscope

1.6.2 Optical Microscopy
An optical microscope contains one or a series of lenses to create an enlarged image of a sample
that placed in the focal plane of the lens.
Principles of operation: -
The basic principles to operate an optical microscope are relatively simple. The objective lens
of an optical microscope is similar to a very strong magnifying glass. It is a lens with a short
focal length and should, therefore, be held close to the sample that is being examined. This
allows the light from the sample to come to a focus approximately 160 mm within the tube of
the microscope, creating an enlarged and inverted image of the subject. The real image created
by the objective lens is further enlarged by the ocular lens so that an individual can view it.
Most optical microscopes have a compound lens eyepiece, with one lens at the front and one
at the back of the eyepiece tube. This creates a couplet, which allows the virtual image to focus
between the lenses so that the eye is able to focus on the virtual image.
Operating techniques:
A compound optical microscope, which is the most common type of optical microscope used
in scientific research, can be operated as follows:
Preparing the microscope slide with the sample to be examined, including a coverslip over the
sample. Adjusting the objective lens to the lowest power of resolution. Placing the microscope
slide with the sample to be examined onto the stage and fasten in place. Adjusting the height
of the stage so that it is as close as possible to the objective without contact between the lens
and the sample. Viewing the sample through the eyepiece and adjusting the focus knob to bring
the image into focus. Changing the condenser and intensity of light to increase the contrast of
the image. Moving the microscope slide around to being the part of interest of the sample into
the centre of the field of view. Adjusting the focus knob, condenser and light intensity once
again to improve the clarity of the image. Changing to the next objective lens and readjusting
the focus, condenser and light as needed to view the image clearly.

Image viewing and illumination

The image created by any microscope should be viewed with the eyes focused at infinity,
beyond the subject. Focusing on the close range of the sample image can lead to tension
headaches and tired eyes. Some people may complain of tired eyes or headaches after using an
optical microscope. However, this is usually a sign that the eye is focusing at a close distance,
rather than beyond the subject. In the case, the individual should be There are many different
ways that the light path can be modified to improve the contrast and image of the sample from
an optical microscope. These include:
 Cross-polarized light illumination

17
  Bright field illumination
 Dark field illumination
 Phase contrast illumination

1.7 CORROSION BEHAVIOR OF DSS WELDMENTS

1.7.1 Types of Corrosion
Corrosion is the deterioration of a material, usually a metal, that is caused by a reaction with
its environment. There are many different types of corrosion, but some of the most common
are:
Uniform corrosion: This is the most common type of corrosion and occurs when a metal
surface is evenly attacked by its environment. A common example of uniform corrosion is
rusting of iron.

Fig 1.14 Uniform corrosion

Pitting corrosion: This is a type of localized corrosion that results in the formation of small
holes or cavities in a metal surface. Pitting corrosion is often difficult to detect because it can
occur under coatings or in areas that are not easily visible.

Fig-1.15 pitting corrosion

Crevice corrosion: This is a type of localized corrosion that occurs in areas where a metal
surface is in contact with another material, such as a gasket or a sealant. The crevice creates a
stagnant environment that can trap corrosive agents and accelerate corrosion.

18
 Fig-1.16 Cervices Corrosion

Galvanic corrosion: This type of corrosion occurs when two dissimilar metals are in electrical
contact with each other in a corrosive environment. The more active metal (anode) will corrode
at a faster rate than the more noble metal (cathode). A common example of galvanic corrosion
is the rusting of a steel screw in a brass faucet.

Fig-1.17 Galvanic corrosion

Stress corrosion cracking (SCC): This type of corrosion occurs when a metal is under stress
and is exposed to a corrosive environment. SCC can cause sudden and unexpected failures of
metals.

Fig-1.18 Stress Corrosion Cracking

Intergranular corrosion: This type of corrosion occurs at the grain boundaries of a metal. It
is caused by the precipitation of chromium carbide at the grain boundaries, which depletes the

19
surrounding area of chromium and makes it more susceptible to corrosion. Intergranular
corrosion is a particular concern for stainless steels.

Fig-1.19 Intergranular Corrosion

1.7.2 Factors Affecting of Corrosion Resistance
Corrosion resistance is a critical property of materials, including duplex stainless steel,
particularly in environments where exposure to corrosive agents is prevalent. Several factors
influence the corrosion resistance of materials, and understanding these factors is essential for
optimizing material selection and design. Here are some key factors affecting the corrosion
resistance of duplex stainless steel:
Chemical Composition: The chemical composition of duplex stainless steel significantly
influences its corrosion resistance. Elements such as chromium, molybdenum, and nitrogen
play crucial roles in enhancing corrosion resistance by forming passive oxide layers on the
surface of the material, which protect it from further corrosion.
Alloying Elements: Alloying elements, such as chromium, molybdenum, and nitrogen, are
added to duplex stainless steel to improve its corrosion resistance. Chromium enhances the
formation of a protective chromium oxide (Cr2O3) layer on the surface, while molybdenum
and nitrogen increase the material's resistance to localized corrosion, such as pitting and crevice
corrosion.
Phase Balance: The balance between austenite and ferrite phases in duplex stainless steel is
critical for achieving optimal corrosion resistance. A proper phase balance ensures a synergistic
effect between the two phases, enhancing resistance to various forms of corrosion, including
general corrosion, stress corrosion cracking, and chloride-induced corrosion.
Surface Finish: The surface finish of duplex stainless steel can affect its corrosion resistance.
Smooth and polished surfaces are less prone to corrosion than rough or contaminated surfaces,
as they promote the formation and stability of passive oxide layers. Proper surface preparation
techniques, such as mechanical polishing or pickling, can improve the material's corrosion
resistance.
Temperature and Environment: The temperature and environmental conditions to which
duplex stainless steel is exposed can influence its corrosion resistance. Elevated temperatures,
aggressive chemicals, high chloride concentrations, and acidic or alkaline environments can
accelerate corrosion processes, compromising the material's resistance to corrosion.
Mechanical Stress: Mechanical stress, including tensile stress, residual stress, and cyclic
loading, can affect the corrosion resistance of duplex stainless steel. Stress corrosion cracking
(SCC) is a common phenomenon where corrosion occurs under the combined action of tensile
stress and a corrosive environment. Proper design, fabrication, and operational practices can
mitigate the effects of mechanical stress on corrosion resistance.
Exposure Time: The duration of exposure to corrosive environments also affects the corrosion
resistance of duplex stainless steel. Prolonged exposure to aggressive chemicals or harsh

20
conditions can lead to accelerated corrosion and degradation of the material. Monitoring and
controlling exposure time are essential for maintaining long-term corrosion resistance.
Welding and Fabrication: Welding and fabrication processes can introduce localized changes
in microstructure, composition, and residual stresses, which may affect the corrosion resistance
of duplex stainless-steel weldments. Proper welding techniques, post-weld heat treatment, and
surface finishing are essential for preserving the material's corrosion resistance in welded
components.
1.7.3 Corrosion Testing Standards and Procedure
Corrosion testing standards provide guidelines and procedures for evaluating the corrosion
resistance of materials, including duplex stainless steel, in various environments and
conditions. These standards are established by organizations such as ASTM International,
NACE International, and ISO to ensure consistency, reliability, and comparability of test
results. Here are some commonly used corrosions testing standards:
ASTM G31 - Standard Practice for Laboratory Immersion Corrosion Testing of Metals: This
standard provides procedures for conducting laboratory immersion tests to evaluate the
corrosion resistance of metals in various environments, including acidic, alkaline, and salt
solutions
ASTM G48 - Standard Test Methods for Pitting and Crevice Corrosion Resistance of Stainless
Steels and Related Alloys by Use of Ferric Chloride Solution: ASTM G48 outlines methods
for assessing the pitting and crevice corrosion resistance of stainless steels, including duplex
stainless steel, using ferric chloride solution at elevated temperatures.
ASTM A923 - Standard Test Methods for Detecting Detrimental Intermetallic Phase in Duplex
Austenitic/Ferritic Stainless Steels: This standard describes procedures for detecting
detrimental intermetallic phases, such as sigma phase, in duplex stainless steel using
metallographic and etching techniques.
ASTM A262 - Standard Practices for Detecting Susceptibility to Intergranular Attack in
Austenitic Stainless Steels: ASTM A262 provides practices for assessing the susceptibility of
austenitic stainless steels, including duplex grades, to intergranular corrosion (IGC) or
intergranular attack (IGA) using various corrosion tests, such as the oxalic acid test, Strauss
test, and Huey test.
NACE TM0177 - Laboratory Testing of Metals for Resistance to Sulfide Stress Cracking and
Stress Corrosion Cracking in H2S Environments: This NACE standard specifies test methods
for evaluating the resistance of metals to sulfide stress cracking (SSC) and stress corrosion
cracking (SCC) in hydrogen sulfide (H2S) environments, which are relevant for assessing the
performance of duplex stainless steel in oil and gas applications.
ISO 9227 - Corrosion Tests in Artificial Atmospheres - Salt Spray Tests: ISO 9227 outlines
procedures for conducting salt spray (fog) tests to evaluate the corrosion resistance of metallic
materials, including duplex stainless steel, when subjected to accelerated corrosion in a salt
spray environment.
ASTM G85 - Standard Practice for Modified Salt Spray (Fog) Testing: ASTM G85 provides
guidelines for conducting modified salt spray (fog) tests to assess the corrosion resistance of
metallic materials, including duplex stainless steel, under conditions of continuous or
intermittent exposure to salt spray and humidity.These are just a few examples of corrosion
testing standards commonly used in the evaluation of duplex stainless steel and other materials.
Depending on the specific application, industry requirements, and environmental conditions,
other standards and test methods may also be applicable for assessing the corrosion resistance
of duplex stainless-steel weldments and components.

Corrosion Testing Procedure

21
Electrochemical testing is a widely used method for evaluating the corrosion resistance of
materials, including duplex stainless steel, in various environments. The procedure typically
involves techniques such as potentiodynamic polarization, electrochemical impedance
spectroscopy (EIS), and open circuit potential (OCP) measurement.

Here's a general overview of the electrochemical testing procedure:

Fig 1.20 -Diagram of corrosion testing equipment

Sample Preparation:
Prepare the duplex stainless-steel specimens according to the desired size and shape for testing.
Ensure that the surfaces are clean, free from contaminants, and representative of the material's
condition.
Electrochemical Cell Setup:
Set up an electrochemical cell with the duplex stainless-steel specimen as the working
electrode, a reference electrode (e.g., saturated calomel electrode or silver/silver chloride
electrode), and a counter electrode (e.g., platinum electrode). Ensure that the electrochemical
cell is filled with an electrolyte solution that simulates the intended corrosive environment,
such as saline solution, acidic solution, or alkaline solution, depending on the application.
Potentiodynamic Polarization:
Perform potentiodynamic polarization testing to determine the polarization resistance,
corrosion potential, and corrosion current density of the duplex stainless steel.
Apply a potential sweep (typically from a cathodic to anodic direction) to the working electrode
while monitoring the resulting current response. Measure the polarization curve, which
represents the relationship between applied potential and current density, to characterize the
corrosion behavior of the material. Measure the resulting impedance response, including the
magnitude and phase angle of the impedance, to assess the material's corrosion resistance and
capacitance behavior.

Data Analysis:
Analyze the electrochemical data obtained from potentiodynamic polarization, EIS, and OCP
measurements to evaluate the corrosion resistance of the duplex stainless steel.Calculate
corrosion parameters such as corrosion rate, corrosion potential, polarization resistance, and
impedance modulus to quantify the material's performance in the given environment.
Interpretation and Reporting:
Interpret the electrochemical test results to assess the corrosion behavior, mechanisms, and
susceptibility of the duplex stainless steel. Prepare a comprehensive report summarizing the
experimental setup, test procedures, data analysis, and conclusions regarding the material's
corrosion resistance and performance. By following these steps, electrochemical testing can
provide valuable insights into the corrosion behavior and performance of duplex stainless steel
in various environments, helping to guide material selection, design optimization, and
corrosion control strategies.

22
 CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW

The literature review focuses on the microstructure and corrosion behavior of duplex stainless
steel 2205 welded using TIG with 100% argon shielding gas. It explores how welding
parameters and gas composition influence microstructural evolution and corrosion resistance.
By analyzing existing studies, the review aims to identify trends and gaps in understanding. It
examines the relationship between weld microstructure, such as phase balance and grain
structure, and susceptibility to corrosion. Through concise analysis, the review aims to provide
insights for optimizing TIG welding practices to improve both structural integrity and corrosion
resistance of duplex stainless steel 2205 weldments.

SUMMARY OF LITERATURE

23
S.No Authors Material Title Findings
 The purpose of this work was to
investigate the effect of aging at
elevated temperatures on the balance
between austenite and delta-ferrite.
After TIG welding, the duplex
stainless steel was aged for 60
minutes in the temperature range of
800-1150°C. The microstructure was
characterized by metallographic and
X-ray methods. The toughness of
welded structures was also measured.
R. Badji, B. Effect of Post Weld Heat  After aging at high temperature, the
Belkessa, H. Treatment on morphology of the grain boundaries
Maza, M. Microstructure and evolves to the cellular form, attaining
2205 DSS
1. Bouabdallah, B. Mechanical Properties of the balance of the two phase structure
Bacroix and C. Welded 2205 Duplex according to the temperature
Kahloun Stainless Steel treatment.
 During aging process, as peak
intensity increases, microhardness
increases. Thus, the volume fraction
of austenite becomes higher then that
of δ-ferrite.

 The difference of micro hardness

between the structure of the melted
zone and the rest of the structure is not
significant for all treatments.

 It investigates the effects of specific

oxide powders SiO2, MoO3, Cr2O3 as
fluxes leads to an increase in
penetration capability, weld depth-to-
width ratio and tends to reduce the
Tsann-Shyi Study of the angular distortion in DSS TIG welds.
2.
Chern, Kuang-
DSS
characteristics of duplex  Physically contracting the plasma
Hung Tseng, stainless steel activated column and shrinking the anode root
Hsien-Lung Tsai tungsten inert gas welds increased the weld depth and
decreased the bead width for the
activated TIG process.
 Welded joints showed greater
mechanical strength.

24
  2205 duplex stainless steel has
undergone Gas tungsten arc welding,
Activated gas tungsten arc
welding(A-TIG) using shielding gas
to know the corrosion resistance.
 The weld microstructure consists of
primary austenite with secondary
austenite formed inside the ferrite and
various types of primary austenite
Arun Kumar Effect of shielding
Gurrala, environment on formed at the interface between the
Atmaramudu microstructure and primary austenite and ferrite in the
2205 DSS welding region of the A-TIG process.
3. Tirumalla, Surjan corrosion behavior of
Sheik, Raffi 2005 duplex stainless-  Corrosion tests show that welds made
Mohhammed steel weldments with A-TIG technology using 95% Ar
+ 5% N2 have better corrosion
resistance, by delaying ferritization.

 2205 duplex stainless steel has

undergone long-term aging to study
the structural characterization and
José Eduardo corrosion behavior.
Maya, Carlos  The results showed that 5000hrs of
Alberto Caldas de aging the corrosion resistance is
Souza , Pedro Effect of Thermal Aging decreased when the same sample
Augusto de Paula Conditions on the given better corrosion resistance at
Nascente , Paulo 2205 DSS Corrosion Properties and 7000hrs of aging than 3000 to 5000
4.
Soares , Carlos Hardness of a Duplex hrs aging.
Mauricio Stainless Steel  This is due to reduced chromium
Lepienski , oxide content in passive film at 5000
Sebastião Elias hrs aging.
Kuric
 An enhanced coarsening of phase
precipitates at 7000hrs aging.

Arun Kumar
Role of nitrogen shielding  2205 duplex stainless steel has
Gurrala, undergone Gas tungsten arc welding,
environment on
Atmaramudu Activated gas tungsten arc welding
2205 DSS microstructure and
Tirumalla, Surjan using shielding gas to know the
5. corrosion behavior of
Sheik, Raffi corrosion resistance.
welded 2205 duplex
Mohhammed

25
 stainless-steel using A-  The weld zone (WZ) grain
TIG process morphology of weldment is observed
to be a mixture of austenite and delta
ferrite. Secondary austenite resides
within the ferrite, but various forms of
primary austenite are found at the
interface between ferrite and primary
austenite around weld zone and heat
affected zone (HAZ).
 Corrosion studies show that welds
made with the A-TIG process using
95% Ar + 5% N2 have higher
corrosion resistance than TIG and A-
TIG joints using 100% Ar shielding
gas. This may be due to the presence
of nitrogen, which promotes austenite
formation in the ferrite matrix, by
delaying ferritization and grain
growth of ferrite.

 Post weld heat treated DSS

weldments has undergone solution
annealing to measure the ferrite count
Bernard- and pitting corrosion resistance.
Maxmillan Sim ,  Post weld heat samples has not shown
The Influence of Post
Tang-Sai Hong , any weight loss at 1050 °C , soaking
Weld Heat Treatment
Mohamed Arif- time for 2 hours, because of sufficient
Precipitation on Duplex
Azmah Hanim , DSS time available for the favorable
Stainless Steels Weld
Edwin-Jong Nyon formation of austenite and giving
6. Overlay towards Pitting
Tchan and optimum equilibrium fractions.
Corrosion
Mahesh-Kumar  This relates lower levels of ferrite in
Talari .
the weld metal compared to levels
prior to solid solution annealing.

 When the Ni content is low, ferrite

phase is more prone to corrode and
when the in N content is low,
The effects of nickel and austenite phase is more prone to
nitrogen on the corrosion. So, overall pitting
M MIURA, M
microstructure and
KOSO, T KUDO DSS corrosion resistance deteriorates.
corrosion resistance of
7.
and H TSUGE
duplex stainless steel  The increment of Ni and N content in
weldments the weldment, decreases the volume
fraction of ferrite and restrain the
precipitation of Cr carbide and
Nitride.

26
  This simultaneously, increase the
degree of Cr concentration, which
improves pitting corrosion resistance.

 A-TIG welding was imposed on 2205

DSS to determines the parameters like
Depth of penetration(DOP), bead
width on giving input process
parameters.
Optimization of A-TIG  ANOVA analysis approach was
Nanda Naik Korra welding of duplex
carried out for numerical and
, M Vasudevan stainless steel alloy 2205
2205 DSS graphical optimization to obtain the
and KR based on response surface
8. desirable maximum DOP.
Balasubramanian methodology and
experimental validation  The welding current has more effect
on DOP of A-TIG welding DSS
weldment compared to other process
parameters(torch speed).

 2205 DSS offers poor machinability

on comparing with Austenitic
Stainless Steel(ASS) grades(306 L
Weldability, and 316L) in terms of tool wear,
A. Vinoth Jebaraj, machinability and surface roughness and cutting force.
L. Ajaykumar , AISI2205 surfacing of commercial  It emphasizes about the importance of
C.R. Deepak , DSS duplex stainless steel surface quality in strongly corroding
9. K.V.V. Aditya AISI2205 for marine environment like marine
applications environment applications which can
be improved by peening techniques.

 DSS are fused by friction welding,

followed by post weld heat treatment
at 1080°C .
 Ni is more effective in controlling the
dual phase balance and absence of
Mohammed Asif. Effects of post weld heat
precipitates were conformed by XRD
M, Kulkarni UNS treatment on friction
peaks.
Anup Shrikrishna, S31803 welded duplex stainless
10.
P. Sathiya steel joints  There is increase in microhardness
due to reduction ferrite percentage.
 Microstructure of the weldment
resembles finer grains due to
recrystallization effect.

27
  Autogenous LBW resulted in non-
equilibrium microstructure in FZ of
DSS 2205 with α -phase volume
fraction which has been confirmed by
TEM.
 A study has shown that laser-beam
Effect of post-weld heat
Ziying Zhang , welding and post-weld heat treatment
treatment on
Zhiyu Wang , enhanced the pitting corrosion
UNS microstructure evolution
Yiming Jiang , resistance of welded joint on a UNS
S31803 and pitting corrosion
Hua Tan , Dong S31803 duplex stainless steel.
DSS behavior of UNS S31803
11. Han , Yanjun Guo  The results showed the joint displayed
duplex stainless steel
, Jin Li
welds impaired pitting corrosion resistance
and that pitting preferentially
occurred at ferrite grain in the fusion
zone. After 3 min heat treatment at
1080°C, the joints pitting corrosion
resistance was restored.

 Super martensitic stainless steel weld

with dissimilar weld(super duplex
Sérgio Souto stainless steel) by ATIG welding.
Maior Tavaresa , Effects of Post Weld Heat  The mechanical behavior of the
12. Clóvis Ribeiro Treatments on the weldment was inferior the base metal,
Super
Rodrigues , Juan Microstructure and by precipitation of intermetallic
martensitic
Manuel Pardal , Mechanical Properties of phases and Mo-rich phases.
stainless
Edvan da Silva
steel
Dissimilar Weld of Super  There is decrease in peak of hardness,
Barbosa , martensitic Stainless elongation in tensile test and impact
Hamilton Ferreira Steel toughness due to prolong post-weld
Gomes de Abreu
heat treatment(PWHT).

 Super duplex stainless

steel(UNS32750) undergoes fusion
by laser welding and these weld-joints
are subjected to post-weld heat
treatment at 1050°C for 2 hours.
Pulsed Nd: YAG laser  It enhances the fraction of austenite
S. Saravanana, K.
welding and subsequent phase, alleviates the phase imbalance
Raghukandan, N.
13. Super DSS post-weld heat treatment and improves corrosion resistance of
Sivagurumanikan
on super duplex stainless SDSS weldments.
dan
steel  Vickers microhardness and tensile
strength of weld joints are than
PWHT due to high ferritic phase in
weld joints.

28
  Ferrite in the WM of as-welded
specimen is easier to suffer attack of
pitting corrosion than austenite
because of the low nitrogen content
in ferrite. After PWHT,
precipitations of nitrides are
Effect of a brief post-weld dissolved into the matrix again.
Yanze Yang ,
heat treatment on the
Zhiyu Wang ,  The volume fraction of ferrite both in
UNS microstructure evolution
Hua Tan , Jufeng the WM and HAZ decreases with the
S31803 and pitting corrosion of
Hong , Yiming increase of PWHT temperature.
14. DSS laser beam welded UNS
Jiang , Laizhu
S31803 duplex stainless  The highest pitting corrosion
Jiang , Jin Li , resistance is obtained at 1080°C with
steel
the highest critical pitting
temperature and pitting nucleation
resistance for the annealed DSS 2205
welds.

 DSS has fused by electron-beam

welding, resulted large amount of
Cr2N was precipitated in large ferrite
grains and along ferrite grain
boundaries
 The as-welded joint exhibited poor
pitting corrosion resistance, and
pitting preferentially occurred at the
ferrite grain in the weld.
 Heat treatment promoted austenite
Effect of post-weld heat growth and intergranular austenite
Zhiqiang Zhanga ,
treatment on formation, Cr2N dissolution, and
Hongyang Jinga ,
microstructure evolution eliminated dendritic segregation,
Lianyong Xua, ,
DSS and pitting corrosion consequently improving the corrosion
15. Yongdian Hana ,
resistance of electron resistance of the welded joint.
Lei Zhaoa ,
beam-welded duplex
Xiaoqing Lva.  Pitting corrosion occurred
stainless steel
preferentially in welds after PWHT.
The weaker phase, austenite, was
prone to selective corrosion because
its pitting resistance equivalent
number(PREN) was lower than that
of ferrite. Austenite homogenization
during PWHT showed no significant
difference PREN between different
types of austenite, indicating similar
resistance to pitting corrosion.

29
  Despite its superior corrosion
resistance, super duplex stainless
steels (SDSS) are prone to hydrogen
embrittlement.
 In this paper, a novel in situ
electrochemical nanoindentation
technique is used to investigate the
hydrogen effect on the
Nousha
Effect of hydrogen on the nanomechanical response of the
Kheradmand ,
hardness of different existing phases in SDSS, i.e. ferrite
Roy Johnsen , Super DSS
phases in super duplex and austenite.
16. Jim Stian Olsen ,
Afrooz Barnoush
stainless steel  Consider the presence of residual
stresses in the microstructure and
their effects on the hydrogen
solubility of different phases, as
hydrogen can affect hardness,
modulus, and/or elastic-to-plastic
transition loads is needed.

 DSS under the influence of laser

welding has undergone Charpy
impact test to determine the fatigue
crack growth rate(FCGR) was studied
under the influence of gamma content
an its morphology followed by post-
weld heat treatment.
 Martensitic transformation due to
plastic deformation within the thin
The effect of short time layer caused crack closure and
M.C. Young , post-weld heat treatment explained the difference in crack
L.W. Tsay , C.-S. 2205 DSS on the fatigue crack growth behavior between samples.
17. Shin , S.L.I. Chan growth of 2205 duplex  The Short time post-heating of the
stainless steel welds weldment was able to effectively
raise the γ content and restore the α / γ
ratio .
 The great increase in c content and
change in γ morphology was
responsible for the improved weld’s
impact toughness and limited effect
on fatigue crack growth rate.

30
  It systematically highlights the effect
of joining processes and conditions on
microstructure, mechanical properties
Effect of welding and corrosion resistance of duplex
processes and conditions stainless steels and its various
Jagesvar Verma,
on the microstructure, combinations with dissimilar metals
Ravindra
DSS mechanical properties on the basis of structure.
Vasantrao
18. and corrosion resistance  The authors highlight the need for
Taiwade
of duplex stainless steel high heat input, optimization of inter
weldments
pass temperature, cooling rate, proper
selection of consumables, defect free
joints for rapid productivity.

 DSS has undergone aging treatment

Edgard de to determine the embrittlement
Macedo Silvaa, through speed of sound, Rockwell
Victor Hugo hardness, Charpy test.
Costa de
Phase transformations  Through speed of sound parameter, it
Albuquerque , showed two hardening stages, first by
evaluation on a UNS
Josinaldo Pereira UNS 31803 spinodal decomposition resulted
S31803 duplex stainless
19. Leite , Antonio DSS ductile fracture and other by grain
steel based on
Carlos Gomes growth resulted in brittle fracture.
nondestructive testing
Varela , Elineudo
 Speed of sound is important non-
Pinho de Mourac,
João Manuel R.S. destructive parameter for following
Tavares. up the embrittlement in DSS.

 Study of microstructure changes to

heat treated DSS sample
characterized by ultra-sonic plus echo
technique.
Influence of heat  The heat treatment at 1350°C
treatment on the ,resulted in coarse grained ferrite,
K. Vijayalakshmi
SAF 2205 microstructure, ultrasonic which favored formation of austenite
, V. Muthupandi ,
20. DSS attenuation and hardness with fast cooling.
R. Jayachitrac
of SAF 2205 duplex  Attenuation steeply increases, when
stainless steel
the grain size increases.
 Both grain size and phase content
have a combined effect on hardness
and velocity.

31
  In DSS multi-pass weld joints, the
austenite phase was dominating at
weld filler zone due to formation of
Intergranular austenite and extensive
ferritization at heat-affected
Xue-fang Xie , Nonhomogeneous
zone(HAZ).
Jingwen Li , microstructure formation
21.
Wenchun Jiang, and its role on tensile and  The tensile strength of the weld joint
Zhilong Dong, 2205 DSS fatigue performance of is greater than the base metal due to
Shan-Tung Tu , duplex stainless steel refinement of grains , and final
Xiangnan Zhai , u 2205 multi-pass weld rupture occurred in base metal zone.
Zhao joints  The fatigue lifetime was less
compared to base material though the
phase equilibrium is maintained, the
initiation of fatigue cracks propagates
over austenite phase.

 Post-weld heat treatment on the

sample has given a highest impact
toughness at 1080°C, hardness value
reached minimum and austenite
Ziying Zhang , volume fraction was elevated
Microstructure evolution significantly.
Huizhen Zhang ,
and mechanical
Jun Hu , Xiaoxiao  Beyond on increasing the
SAF 2507 properties of briefly heat-
Qi , Yang Bian , temperature, the hardness tends to
super DSS treated SAF 2507 super
22. Ao Shen , increase.
duplex stainless steel
Pingping Xu,
welds
Yiangqiang Zhao

 2205 TIG weld joint was examined

under microstructure strain
distributions of weld metal zone, high
Numerical analysis of the temperature heat affected zone, low
Song Gao,
deformation behavior of temperature heat effected zone and
Shaoning Geng
2205 duplex stainless base metal considering the
,Ping Jiang ,
23. 2205 DSS steel TIG weld joint based
Gaoyang Mi , Chu microstructure morphology, phase
on the microstructure and
Han , Liangyuan proportion and stress-strain curves of
micro-mechanical
Ren the constituent phases.
properties
 The quality of strain localized bands
are determined by the microstructure
morphology variation.

32
  Most of the strain localized bands
occur in austenite phase in LT-HAZ
and base metal .

 This paper is an attempt to quantify

the contribution of both spinodal
decomposition and G-phase
Quantification of precipitation values of the hardness
hardening contribution of increase of the ferrite of the cast and
R. Badyka , G.
G-Phase precipitation and lean steels for a wide range of
Monnet , S.
spinodal decomposition composition and temperature.
Saillet , C. DSS
in aged duplex stainless  In this study, not only spinodal
24. Domain , C.
steel: APT analysis and decomposition is the main contributor
Pareige
micro-hardness
of hardening but also G-phase
measurements
precipitator is the main contributor to
ferrite hardness increase at early stage
of ageing in Mo-bearing steels.

Summary of background:
With proper selection of activated flux and shielding gas, the weld bead will eliminate
the effect of grain coarsening effect, solidification cracking and liquid cracking, better
thermal cycles and depth of penetration in one single pass followed by post-weld heat
treatment the weldment to achieve homogeneous composition, eliminate the possibility of
embrittlement in the weld joint and less impact on corrosion behavior and mechanical
properties.
As a result, in the present study an attempt was made on 2205 DSS joints by
conventional TIG welding process with pure Argon shielding gas as shielding gas under SiO2
activated flux.

33
 CHAPTER 3
RESEARCH GAPS AND OBJECTIVES

3.1 Research gap

1. Studies on Effect of shielding environment on microstructure and corrosion behaviour of
2205 duplex stainless-steel weldments
2. Studies on Effect of fluxes environment on microstructure and corrosion behaviour of
2205 duplex stainless-steel weldments
3. Studies on post weld heat treatments of welding.

3.2 Objectives
1. Effect of shielding environment on microstructure and corrosion behaviour of 2205
duplex stainless-steel weldments
2. Effect of fluxes environment on microstructure and corrosion behaviour of 2205 duplex
stainless-steel weldments

34
 CHAPTER 4
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP AND METHODOLOGIES

4.1 MATERIALS
Duplex stainless steel (DSS) represents a unique class of materials, blending both austenitic
and ferritic phases. This combination confers exceptional strength from the ferrite phase and
remarkable toughness from the austenite phase. DSS exhibits superior resistance to common
issues like pitting, stress corrosion cracking, and crevice corrosion compared to conventional
stainless steels. Its structure is characterized by elongated γ-phases within the α-matrix,
resulting in significant anisotropy. Notably, this anisotropy minimally affects the Fatigue Crack
Growth Rate (FCGR) of 2205 DSS when exposed to air and chloride ions.The versatility of
DSS has led to its burgeoning utilization across diverse sectors. It serves as a structural material
in critical components of nuclear power plants, chemical industries, oil and gas sectors, paper
and pulp industries, transportation systems, marine machinery fasteners, and even in the
construction of bridges in cold climates.

Table 4.1
Chemical composition of SAF 2205 type duplex stainless steel(wt%)
Element C S P Si Mn Cr Ni Mo N Fe
wt% 0.02 0.003 0.024 0.58 1.13 22.83 5.45 3.10 0.1 Balance

a b

Fig 4.1. Micrograph of duplex base metal under (a) SEM (b) Optical Microscopy

Rationale for Choosing Duplex Stainless Steel (2205 Grade):

Duplex Stainless Steel 2205: The material under investigation is 2205 duplex stainless steel,
renowned for its high strength, corrosion resistance, and toughness. It comprises a balanced
microstructure of austenite and ferrite phases, offering superior performance in demanding
environments.
The 2205 grade of Duplex Stainless Steel (DSS) is utilized for various industrial applications
due to its exceptional properties that make it highly suitable for demanding environments. This
grade of stainless steel is chosen for its high strength, excellent corrosion resistance, and good
weldability, which are crucial characteristics in industries like oil and gas, petrochemical, and
paper industries.

35
Properties of 2205 Duplex Stainless Steel:
High Strength: 2205 DSS offers superior strength, making it ideal for applications where
structural integrity and durability are essential. This strength is crucial in industries exposed to
high stress conditions.
Corrosion Resistance: One of the key features of 2205 DSS is its exceptional corrosion
resistance. It is highly resistant to various forms of corrosion such as stress corrosion cracking,
crevice corrosion, and pitting. This property ensures longevity and reliability of equipment in
corrosive environments.
Weldability: 2205 DSS is known for its good weldability, which is vital for fabrication
processes in industrial applications. Understanding the welding techniques of 2205 DSS helps
optimize processes and ensure the integrity of welded components.

4.2 Filler Wire Composition

choice of filler wire (ER2209) specifically designed for welding DSS:
The choice of filler wire, such as ER2209, for welding Duplex Stainless Steel (DSS) is crucial
due to its impact on the welding process and the properties of the final weld. ER2209 filler
wire is specifically designed for welding DSS like 2205 due to its composition that
complements the base metal. ER2209 has a chemical composition that matches the base metal's
requirements, ensuring a balanced mix of austenite and ferrite phases, and key alloying
elements like nickel, molybdenum, chromium, and nitrogen. This balance is essential for
achieving the desired characteristics of DSS, such as high strength, toughness, and resistance
to various forms of corrosion like stress corrosion cracking, crevice corrosion, and pitting.

Table 4.2
Chemical composition of filler material(wt%)
ER2209 C Mn Si Cr Ni Mo N P S Fe
wt% 0.02 1.6 0.5 23 8.5 3.1 0.11 <0.01 <0.005 Balance

The ER2209 filler wire's composition, with elements like nitrogen, helps in enhancing the
nitrogen solution in the main and secondary austenite matrix in the Heat Affected Zone (HAZ)
and Weld Metal (WM). This addition of nitrogen can impact the transformation temperature of
ferrite to austenite, delaying ferritization and grain growth. Moreover, the ER2209 filler wire
contributes to grain boundary pinning, which impedes grain formation by retaining residual
austenite phases at elevated temperatures. This retention of austenite can have a positive effect
on impact toughness and the overall microstructure of the weld.
In summary, the choice of ER2209 filler wire for welding DSS like 2205 is based on its ability
to match the chemical composition requirements of the base metal, promote the formation of a
balanced mix of austenite and ferrite phases, enhance nitrogen solution for improved
properties, and contribute to the overall quality and integrity of the weld joint.

how the composition of the filler wire complements that of the base material to ensure
proper fusion and mechanical strength of the weld joint.
The composition of the filler wire, such as ER2209, plays a critical role in ensuring proper
fusion and mechanical strength of the weld joint when welding Duplex Stainless Steel (DSS)
like 2205. ER2209 filler wire is specifically designed to complement the base material by
matching its chemical composition requirements. The chemical composition of ER2209
includes key alloying elements like nickel, molybdenum, chromium, and nitrogen, which are

36
essential for achieving the desired properties of DSS, such as high strength, toughness, and
corrosion resistance.
Chemical Composition Matching: The chemical composition of ER2209 filler wire closely
aligns with that of the base material, ensuring a balanced mix of austenite and ferrite phases in
the weld joint. This balance is crucial for maintaining the mechanical properties and corrosion
resistance of DSS.
Enhanced Nitrogen Solution: ER2209 filler wire contributes to enhancing the nitrogen
solution in the main and secondary austenite matrix in the Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) and Weld
Metal (WM). This addition of nitrogen can impact the transformation temperature of ferrite to
austenite, delaying ferritization and grain growth, which is vital for the integrity of the weld
joint.
Grain Boundary Pinning: The filler wire aids in grain boundary pinning, which helps impede
grain formation by retaining residual austenite phases at elevated temperatures. This retention
of austenite can have a positive effect on impact toughness and the overall microstructure of
the weld, ensuring proper fusion and mechanical strength.
In summary, the composition of the filler wire, like ER2209, complements that of the base
material by matching key alloying elements, enhancing nitrogen solution, and promoting grain
boundary pinning. These factors work together to ensure proper fusion, mechanical strength,
and the desired properties of the weld joint when welding DSS like 2205.

4.3 Flux Composition

Activated SiO2 flux is a flux powder that uses silicon dioxide (SiO2) to increase the quality of
welding, efficiency, and reduce cost. The nano-SiO2 oxide in the flux causes the convection
movements to shift to centripetal. This centripetal Marangoni convection moves heat energy
from the surface to the lower part of the molten weld puddle, which results in deeper
penetration welds. In PPCA-TIG welding, the flux powder is fed into the arc with the outer gas
flow. This causes the arc to constrict, which increases weld penetration. SiO2 flux-based A-
TIG welding can achieve 6.86 mm penetration, compared to 3.59 mm for conventional TIG
welding. A-TIG welding also requires only two heating cycles, while TIG requires five.
Activated flux concentrates the electron beam, which creates a deep and narrow fusion zone.
A combination of laser and activated flux can improve welding quality, efficiency, and
penetration, and reduce cost. The composition of an activated SiO2 flux can vary depending
on its intended application and specific formulation. However, a typical composition may
include silica (SiO2) as the main component, along with various additives and activators. These
additives are chosen to enhance the flux's performance for specific tasks such as soldering,
welding, or metallurgical refiningCommon additives found in activated SiO2 flux
compositions may include:
Fluorides: Compounds like potassium fluoride (KF) or ammonium bifluoride (NH4HF2) are
often added to lower the melting point of the flux and improve its wetting properties.
Borates: Boron-containing compounds such as borax (Na2B4O7·10H2O) or boric acid
(H3BO3) can act as fluxing agents, facilitating the removal of oxides from metal surfaces.
Alkaline Earth Metal Oxides: Oxides of elements like calcium (Cao) or magnesium (MgO)
may be included to modify the flux's viscosity and improve its ability to dissolve impurities.
Activators: These are compounds that enhance the flux's activity and promote its interaction
with metal surfaces. Examples include chlorides (e.g., potassium chloride, KCl) or ammonium
compounds.
Solvents or Carriers: Some flux formulations may contain solvents or carriers to aid in
application and ensure uniform coverage on the workpiece.

37
It's important to note that the specific composition of an activated SiO2 flux can vary based on
factors such as the desired fluxing activity, compatibility with the base materials, and
environmental considerations. Additionally, manufacturers may have proprietary formulations
tailored to specific industrial applications.

Table 4.3 composition of an activated SiO2 flux along with approximate percentage
ranges for each component:
Components Percentage Range
Silica (SiO2) 60-80%
Fluorides (e.g., KF, NH4HF2) 5-20%
Borates (e.g., Na2B4O7·10H2O, H3BO3) 5-15%
Alkaline Earth Metal Oxides (e.g., CaO, 2-10%
MgO)
Activators (e.g., KCl, ammonium 2-10%
compounds)
Solvents/Carriers <5%

4.4 Shelding Gases

A shielding gas is a crucial component used in welding processes to protect the weld pool and
the molten metal from atmospheric contamination and oxidation. It creates a shield around the
welding area, preventing the weld from reacting with elements in the air that could lead to
defects in the weld joint. In the context of the provided sources, the shielding gas, such as Pure
Argon and Argon with 5% Nitrogen, was utilized during Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (TIG) and
Activated Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (A-TIG) of 2205 Duplex Stainless Steel (DSS) to
enhance the protective qualities of passive films, influence microstructural changes, and
improve corrosion resistance. The choice of shielding gas composition, like 95% Argon and
5% Nitrogen, played a significant role in determining the quality and characteristics of the
weldments by creating a controlled environment that shielded the weld pool from harmful
atmospheric elements.

Fig 4.2 Tig welding process

TIG Welding with Pure Argon:
Case: Welding of thin stainless-steel sheets for food processing equipment.

38
Description: Pure argon is used as the shielding gas in TIG welding due to its excellent inert
properties, preventing oxidation and ensuring a clean weld. In this case, the pure argon
atmosphere is ideal for welding stainless steel, as it maintains the integrity of the material and
prevents contamination that could affect the food-grade quality of the equipment.
Rationale for Shielding Gas Choice:
Corrosion Resistance: The shielding gas mixture of 95% Argon and 5% Nitrogen was selected
to improve the corrosion resistance of the weldments. This gas composition contributed to
creating a protective environment that reduced the susceptibility of the welds to corrosion,
enhancing the longevity and durability of the welded joints.
Microstructural Control: The use of Argon with 5% Nitrogen helped in controlling the
microstructure of the weldments. By influencing the nitrogen solution in the main and
secondary austenite matrix, this shielding gas mixture played a crucial role in regulating the
transformation temperature of ferrite to austenite, delaying grain growth, and promoting a more
stable microstructure.
Influence on Weld Quality:
Protection Against Atmospheric Contamination: The shielding gas mixture of 95% Argon and
5% Nitrogen provided a protective barrier around the weld pool, shielding it from atmospheric
contamination. This protection is essential for preventing defects like porosity and ensuring the
integrity of the weld joint.
Spatter Reduction: The chosen shielding gas composition also contributed to reducing spatter
during the welding process. By creating a stable arc and improving the surface tension of the
weld pool, the shielding gas helped in minimizing spatter formation, leading to cleaner and
more precise welds.

3.5 Weld Parameters and Process

Welding Parameters:
Current: Ranged from 130-150 amps.
Voltage: Maintained at 11 volts.
Arc Gap: Kept at 2mm.
Travel Speed: Set at 160 mm/min.
Shielding Gas: Utilized 100% Argon and a mixture of 95% Argon with 5% Nitrogen.
Power Source: Employed Warp INTIG-400i.
Flux Composition: Used 100% SiO2 as an activated flux.

Table 4.4 Welding parameters used for Welding of 2205 DSS plates
Current 130-150 amperes
voltage 11V
Arc Gap 2mm
Travel Speed 160 mm/min
Shielding Gas 100% Ar & 95%Ar +5% N2
Power Source Warpp INTIG-400i
Flux Composition 100 %SiO2

Welding Process:
Base Material: 2205 Duplex Stainless Steel (DSS) plates with dimensions of 200 X 130 X 6
mm³.
Filler Wire: ER2209 filler wire with specific chemical composition.
Shielding Gas: Pure Argon and Argon with 5% Nitrogen were used as shielding gases.

39
Flux: Commercially available flux with a chemical composition of 100% Silica (SiO2) was
employed.
Welding Techniques: Both traditional TIG and A-TIG processes were utilized.
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (TIG) Process:
1. Preparation:
Ensure the workpiece and filler material are clean and free of contaminants.
Set up the welding equipment, including the power source, torch, and shielding gas.
2. Setup:
Secure the workpiece in the desired position for welding.
Position the Tungsten electrode in the torch and adjust the gas flow rate.
3. Arc Initiation:
Strike the arc by bringing the electrode close to the workpiece and then retracting it slightly
to establish the arc.
4. Welding:
Control the torch movement and filler material feed to create the desired weld bead.
Maintain the correct arc length and travel speed for consistent weld quality.
5. Shielding Gas:
Ensure a continuous flow of shielding gas to protect the weld pool from atmospheric
contamination.
6. Cooling:
Allow the welded area to cool gradually to prevent cracking and ensure proper
metallurgical properties.

4.6 WORK PLAN

Duplex stainless steel

TIG, A-TIG Weldments (Tig-100%Argon)

Microstructural Corrosion Studies

Characterization  Potentio-dynamic
 Optical microscopy polarization (PDP)
 Grain structure
examination

Result and Discussion

Conclusion

40
4.7 Sample Preparation
the preparation steps undertaken to ensure the integrity and quality of the samples used for
analysis in our study
4.7.1 Weld Plate Polishing:
Materials Used: 1/0, 2/0, 3/0, 4/0 sandpaper, and disc polishing equipment.
Process:
Start with the coarsest sandpaper (1/0) and progress to finer grits (2/0, 3/0, 4/0) for a smooth
finish. Finish the polishing process using a disc polishing method to achieve the desired surface
quality. To prepare the weld plates for analysis, a meticulous polishing process was conducted
using abrasive papers of varying grit sizes. The weld plates were sequentially polished using
1/0, 2/0, 3/0, and 4/0 grit abrasive papers to achieve a smooth and uniform surface finish.
Additionally, disc polishing was employed to further refine the surface and remove any
remaining surface irregularities. This polishing process ensured the elimination of surface
contaminants and enabled precise microscopic analysis of the weld microstructure.

4.7.2 Etching Process:

Etchant Used: Carpenter's Etchant
Etchant Preparation:
1. Ingredients: 8.5 grams FeCl3, 2.4 grams CuCl2, 122 ml alcohol, 122 ml HCl, and 6 ml
HNO3.
2. Concentrations: Ferric chloride (FeCl3): 45 gm, Copper ammonium chloride (CuCl2): 9
gm.
Process:
Wear protective clothing and adhere to safety guidelines outlined in the chemical
manufacturer's Safety Data Sheets (SDS). Review the comments and conditions section for
each etchant to ensure safe handling. Following the polishing stage, the weld plates underwent
an etching process to reveal the microstructural features for analysis. Electrochemical etching
was employed using a specifically formulated etchant known as Carpenters Etchant. The
preparation of the etchant involved the following ingredients:
8.5 grams of Ferric Chloride (FeCl3)
2.4 grams of Copper Chloride (CuCl2)
122 ml of alcohol
122 ml of Hydrochloric Acid (HCl)
6 ml of Nitric Acid (HNO3)
This etchant formulation is particularly effective for revealing the microstructure of 300 series,
austenitic, and duplex stainless steels. The concentrations of the key components in the etchant
are as follows: Ferric chloride (45 gm) and Copper ammonium chloride (9 gm). It is imperative
to exercise caution and adhere to safety protocols when handling chemical etchants. Protective
clothing should be worn, and all precautions and warnings provided in the chemical
manufacturer's Safety Data Sheets (SDS) should be strictly followed. Additionally, thorough
review of the comments and conditions section for each etchant is recommended to ensure safe
handling and effective utilization. By employing this meticulous sample preparation process,
we were able to obtain high-quality samples suitable for comprehensive microscopic analysis,
facilitating a detailed investigation into the microstructural characteristics of the weldments.

4.8 Microscopic Analysis

Microscopic analysis was conducted to examine the microstructural characteristics of the
welded samples. This involved several techniques aimed at gaining insights into the grain
structure, phase distribution, and volume fraction of phases present in the weldments.

41
4.8.1 Optical Microscopy:
Optical microscopy was utilized to observe the microstructure of the weldments at low
magnifications. This technique provides a macroscopic view of the sample, allowing for the
examination of features such as weld bead geometry, inclusion content, and overall weld
quality. Optical microscopy helps in identifying regions of interest for further analysis at higher
magnifications.
Method: Optical microscopy at 100X magnification was used to examine the microstructure
of the weld zones.
Findings:
Primary austenite dissolution and grain development in ferrite were observed post-welding.
Different types of primary austenite were identified, including Grain Boundary Austenite
(GBA), Widmanstätten Austenite (WA), Intragranular Austenite (IGA), and Partially
Converted Austenite (PCA).
The presence of secondary austenite (γ2) at interfaces and within the ferrite was noted.

4.8.2 Grain Structure Examination:

Grain structure examination involved the observation of the grain morphology and distribution
within the weld metal and heat-affected zones (HAZ). This was achieved using optical
microscopy at higher magnifications. The grain structure provides valuable information about
the welding process parameters, solidification behavior, and potential microstructural defects
such as grain boundary segregation or coarsening.
Observations:
Welding led to the dissolution of primary austenite and subsequent grain formation in the
ferrite.
The study highlighted the impact of shielding gas composition on nitrogen solution in the main
and secondary austenite matrix, affecting ferrite transformation and grain growth.

4.9 Corrosion Studies

Corrosion studies were conducted to assess the corrosion resistance of the welded samples
under different environmental conditions. Various electrochemical techniques were employed
to evaluate the corrosion behaviour and performance of the weldments.

4.9.1 Potential Dynamic Polarization (PDP)

Potential dynamic polarization (PDP) tests were performed to determine the corrosion potential
and polarization resistance of the weldments. This involved subjecting the samples to varying
potentials while monitoring the resulting current response. The PDP curves obtained provide
valuable information about the corrosion behavior, passivation characteristics, and critical
corrosion potentials of the weld metal and heat-affected zones.
Procedure:
Specimen Preparation: A sample of the material to be tested is prepared according to relevant
standards. This typically involves grinding and polishing the surface to a smooth finish to
ensure a uniform test area.
Electrochemical Cell Setup: The prepared specimen is used as the working electrode in a
three-electrode electrochemical cell. A counter electrode (inert material like platinum) and a
reference electrode (with a stable potential) are also immersed in the test solution (electrolyte)
along with the working electrode.
Potentiodynamic Scan: The potentio at applies a progressively increasing or decreasing
potential to the working electrode at a constant scan rate. The current flowing between the
working electrode and the counter electrode is measured throughout the scan.

42
Data Analysis: The measured current is plotted against the applied potential to obtain the
potentiodynamic polarization curve. This curve provides valuable information about the
corrosion behavior of the material, such as:

Fig4.3 potentiodynamic polarization corrosion test

Corrosion potential (Ecorr): The potential at which the anodic (oxidation) and cathodic
(reduction) currents are equal.
Corrosion current density (Icorr): The current density at the corrosion potential. It is a
measure of the corrosion rate of the material.
Anodic Tafel slope (ba): The slope of the Tafel region in the anodic part of the curve. It
indicates the ease of oxidation of the metal surface.
Cathodic Tafel slope (bc): The slope of the Tafel region in the cathodic part of the curve. It
indicates the ease of reduction of the oxidizing species in the electrolyte.
Pitting potential (Ep): The potential at which a sudden increase in current density is observed.
This indicates the potential at which pitting corrosion can initiate.

43
 CHAPTER 5
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

5.1. Microstructural studies

5.1.1. Base metal Microstructure
The optical microstructure of 2205 DSS, as shown in the austenite and ferrite and ratiosin2205
DSS are determined by the chemical composition's essential constituents. In ferrite-containing
austenite stainless-steels, stress corrosion cracking (SCC) and intergranular corrosion (IGC)
resistance is stronger than in ASS.

Fig 5.1 Optical Microstructure of DSS 2205 Stainless-steel

5.1.2. Weld microstructure
In the optical microstructure of the weld zone of TIG welded DSS 2205 stainless steel using
pure Ar shielding gas, and the interface microstructure of DSS using TIG welding with 100%
Ar shielded gas, several key characteristics are observed. In the weld zone of TIG welded DSS
2205 stainless steel using pure Ar shielding gas, the microstructure typically undergoes
significant changes due to the welding process. Heating to the dual-phase area of austenite and
ferrite during multipass welding leads to the dissolution of the majority of austenite. However,
some residual austenite, known as partially converted austenite, may remain within the ferrite
matrix. This residual austenite can inhibit Mo and Cr segregation near the solidus temperature.
Additionally, secondary austenite (γ2) may develop within the ferrite and at the interfaces
between primary austenite and ferrite due to reheating in multi-pass welding.

Fig 5.2 Optical Microstructure of weld zone of TIG Welded DSS 2205 Stainless-steel
using Pure Ar shielding gas

44
Fig 5.3 Interface microstructure of DSS using TIG welding with 100 % Ar shielded gas

As for the interface microstructure of DSS using TIG welding with 100% Ar shielded gas,
similar microstructural features may be observed. The interface microstructure reveals the
interaction between the base metal and the weld material, as well as any heat-affected zone
effects. The microstructure at the interface may show a distinct transition between the base
metal and the weld material, indicating the fusion and solidification processes during TIG
welding.

5.2. PITTING CORROSION

Potentiodynamic polarization (PDP) is an electrochemical technique used to evaluate the
corrosion resistance of materials. It measures the current flowing through a material as its
electrical potential is varied in an electrolyte solution. By analyzing the resulting polarization
curve, researchers can gain valuable insights into the material's susceptibility to various forms
of corrosion, such as pitting corrosion. Duplex stainless steel (DSS) 2205 is known for its good
overall corrosion resistance due to its unique microstructure consisting of roughly equal
proportions of ferrite and austenite phases. The presence of chromium, molybdenum, and
nitrogen in its composition contributes to the formation of a passive oxide layer that protects
the underlying metal from corrosion. PDP studies on 2205 DSS typically show a passive region
in the polarization curve, indicating good resistance to corrosion within a specific potential
range. The critical pitting potential (pitting potential (Epit)) is a crucial parameter obtained
from the PDP curve. It represents the potential at which the passive layer breaks down, leading
to localized pitting corrosion. Higher Epit values indicate better pitting corrosion resistance. In
the context of DSS, ferrite and austenite exhibit slightly different electrochemical behavior.
Ferrite, with a lower chromium content compared to austenite, tends to be slightly more anodic
(active). This means under certain circumstances; ferrite can act as the anode and experience
accelerated corrosion relative to austenite in the DSS matrix. Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (TIG)
can introduce several factors that may influence the corrosion behavior of 2205 DSS weldments
compared to the base metal Heat Affected Zone (HAZ): The HAZ experiences a temperature
rise that can alter the microstructure and potentially reduce corrosion resistance. Researchers
often compare the PDP behavior of 2205 DSS weldments with the base metal to assess the
impact of welding on corrosion resistance. Studies have shown that the Epit of TIG weldments
can be lower compared to the base metal, indicating a potential decrease in pitting corrosion
resistance. Factors like optimizing welding parameters (heat input) and using appropriate filler
metals can help minimize the negative effects of welding on the corrosion behavior of 2205
DSS joints.

45
Fig 5.4 Pitting corrosion data of weld zone of Tig with pure Argon of 2205 DSS in
1MNaCl solution

Fig 5.5 Pitting corrosion data of base metal of 2205 DSS in 1MNaCl solution

46
 Fig 5.6 Pitting corrosion data of HAZ zone of 2205 DSS in 1MNaCl solution

Table 5.1 Pitting corrosion data of weld zones of 2205 DSS in 1MNaCl solution
Corrosion Icorr (mA/cm²) Corrosion Epit
Parameters Rate(mm/year)
TIG weld with 0.001756 0.021325 930mv
pure Ar
Interface of TIG 0.11778 0.5704459 530mv
focusing 100% Ar
2205 Base metal 0.25423 0.32354 915mv

Comparing the TIG welded part base with pure Ar shielding gas, the 2205 base metal, and the
interface zone of TIG welding, it's evident that the former two exhibit superior corrosion
resistance compared to the latter. The TIG welded part base and the 2205 base metal
demonstrate higher corrosion potentials (Ecorr) and pit transition potentials (Epit), indicating
a reduced susceptibility to both general corrosion and pitting corrosion initiation. Conversely,
the interface zone of TIG welding, characterized by lower Ecorr and Epit values, is more prone
to corrosion, particularly galvanic corrosion at the site of austenite and ferrite phases due to the
significant potential difference between them. Therefore, in terms of corrosion resistance, the
TIG welded part base and the 2205 base metal outperform the interface zone of TIG welding.
Icorr (Corrosion Current Density): This parameter indicates the rate at which the material
corrodes uniformly. A lower Icorr value signifies better corrosion resistance. Corrosion Rate:
This value represents the rate of material loss due to corrosion expressed in millimetres per
year. A lower corrosion rate indicates better resistance. Epit (Pitting Potential): This potential
represents the voltage at which pitting corrosion initiates. A higher Ep indicates better pitting
resistance Base Metal: The base metal (2205 DSS) exhibits the highest pitting potential (Epit

47
= 915 mV) and the lowest corrosion current density (Icorr = 0.001756 mA/cm²), indicating the
best overall corrosion resistance. This aligns with the inherent properties of 2205 DSS when
its microstructure is balanced and free of detrimental phases. TIG Weld with Pure Ar: The weld
zone using pure Ar shielding gas shows a significantly lower pitting potential (Epit = 530 mV)
and a higher corrosion current density (Icorr = 0.11778 mA/cm²) compared to the base metal.
This signifies a substantial decrease in pitting resistance. Interface of TIG (Pure Ar): The
interface region of the weld, likely due to the combined effects of heat input and potential
microstructural changes and thus increases the more galvanic sites between austenite and
ferrite, exhibits the least performance. It has the lowest pitting potential (Epit = 530 mV) and
the highest corrosion current density (Icorr = 0.25423 mA/cm²), indicating the most severe
susceptibility to pitting corrosion.

48
 CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSION

1. Duplex Stainless Steels of grade 2205 are successfully welded using conventional TIG
using 100% Ar shielding gas.
2. Microstructural studies revealed crucial characteristics of 2205 Duplex Stainless Steel
(DSS), including the presence of austenite and ferrite phases. TIG with 100%Ar
shielding gas induced significant microstructural changes in weld zones, such as
austenite dissolution, residual and secondary austenite formation, and affecting
corrosion susceptibility.
3. The interface region of DSS weldments showed the lowest performance in terms of
pitting resistance and corrosion susceptibility when compared to the base metal and
weld zone. This was attributed to the heightened presence of galvanic sites between
austenite and ferrite, leading to increased corrosion susceptibility.
4. Optimizing welding parameters and selecting appropriate shielding gases are crucial
for mitigating adverse effects on corrosion resistance, ensuring long-term performance
of welded 2205 DSS components in corrosive environments.

49
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51