Table of Contents

Sl. No. Particulars. Page No.

1 Vision and Mission of The Department 1
2 PEOs, PSOs, POs 2
Course Details 4
3  Course Objectives
5
Syllabus
 Course Outcomes
4
 Conduction of Practical Examination
 CO-PO-PSO Mapping

5 Lab Evaluation Process 7

6 CHAPTER 1 Introduction 9
CHAPTER 2
Sample NS2 Script
Program 1 Ring Topology and Bus Topology 21

Program 2 Three node point to point network 25

Program 3 Ethernet LAN using n-nodes with multiple traffic 29

Program 4 Operation of Stop and wait Protocol 33

Program 5 Simple ESS with wireless LAN 35

7
Sample programs on JAVA 39

Program 6 Error detection using CRC-CCITT 41

Determination of shortest path using Bellman-Ford 46
Program 7
algorithm
Program 8 Congestion control using Leaky bucket concept 51
Program 9 Encryption and Decryption of data using RSA 54

Program 10 Client/ Server Communication using TCP/ IP Socket 59

8 CHAPTER 3 ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS 64
9 CHAPTER 4 VIVA QUESTIONS 69
CHAPTER 1

1. Introduction to NS-2

NS-2 stands for Network Simulator Version 2. It is an open-source event-driven

simulator designed specifically for research in computer communication networks.
Network Simulator-2 (NS2) is a popular open source network simulator for carrying
out network experimentation. Way back when it was being designed, its primary usage
was to analyze the performance of congestion control algorithms implemented in
Transmission control protocol (TCP). Even today, it remains the most widely used
network simulator for TCP research. Over the period of time, it gained wide
acceptance in industry, and now supports simulation of latest wired as well as wireless
networking protocols (e.g., routing algorithms, TCP, User Data Protocol (UDP)) and
paradigms such as Mobile Ad hoc Networks (MANETs) Vehicular Ad hoc Network
(VANETs), etc.
Another simulator called ns-3 has gained a lot of popularity in the recent past. It is not
a sequel of NS-2. NS-3 APIs are not compatible with those of NS-2 API. Both are
completely different tools.
Features of NS-2:

 It is a discrete event simulator for networking research.

 It provides substantial support to simulate protocols like TCP, FTP, UDP & DSR.
 It simulates wired and wireless network.
 It is primarily UNIX based.
 Uses TCL as its scripting language.
 Otcl: Object oriented support Tcl
 TclCL: Tcl with Classes and OTcl linkage
 Discrete event scheduler

Basic Architecture of NS2

NS-2 consists of two key languages: C++ and Object-oriented Tool Command
Language (OTcl). While the C++ defines the internal mechanism (i.e., a backend) of
the simulation objects, the OTcl sets up simulation by assembling and configuring the

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 objects as well as scheduling discrete events. The C++ and the OTcl are linked
together using TclCL. The Basic architecture of NS is as shown in Fig 1.

Fig. 1 Basic Architecture of Network Simulator

Why two languages? (TCL and C++)

 NS2 consists of two key languages: C++ and Object-oriented Tool Command
Language (OTcl).
 The C++ defines the internal mechanism (i.e.,a backend) of the simulation objects.
 The OTcl sets up simulation by configuring the objects as well as scheduling
discrete events (i.e., a frontend).
 The C++ and the OTcl are linked together using TclCL.
 NS2 uses OTcl to create and configure a network, and uses C++ to run simulation.
 C++ is fast to run but slow to change.
 OTcl, on the other hand, is slow to run but fast to change.
 We write a Tcl simulation script and feeditas an input argument to NS2 when
running a simulation (e.g., executing “ns myfirst_ns.tcl”).
 Here, “ns” is a C++ executable file obtained from the compilation.
 myfirst_ns.tcl is an input configuration file specifying system parameters and
configuration such as nodes, link, and how they are connected.
 C++ is used for the creation of objects because of speed and efficiency.
 OTcl is used as a front-end to setup the simulator, configure objects and
schedule events because of its ease of use.
Tcl scripting

• Tcl is a general purpose scripting language. [Interpreter]

• Tcl runs on most of the platforms such as Unix, Windows, and Mac.

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 • The strength of Tcl is its simplicity.
• It is not necessary to declare a data type for variable prior to the usage.
Structure of NS-2 Program:
 Creating a Simulator Object
 Setting up files for trace & NAM
 Tracing files using their commands
 Closing trace file and starting NAM
 Creating LINK & NODE topology &Orientation of links

2. Working of NS-2

 NS2 provides users with executable command ns which takes an input

argument, the name of a Tcl simulation scripting file.
 Users are feeding the name of a Tcl simulation script (which sets up a
simulation) as an input argument of an NS2 executable command ns.
 In most cases, a simulation trace file is created, and is used to plot graph and/or
to create animation.

Fig 2. Working of Network

Simulator 2

Trace file and NamTrace file:

 Once the simulation is complete, we can see two files: “trace.tr”, and “nam.out”.
 The trace file (trace.tr) is a standard format used by ns2.
 In ns2, each time a packet moves from one node to another, or onto a link, or
into a buffer, etc., it gets recorded in this trace file.

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  Each row represents one of these events and each column has its own meaning.
 Start nam with the command 'nam <nam-file>' where '<nam-file>' is the name
of a nam trace file that was generated by ns.

Network Animator Window

Fig. 3 Details of NAM Window

Advantages and Disadvantages of NS2:

Advantages

1. Open Source
2. Complex scenarios can be easily tested.
3. Results can be quickly obtained – more ideas can be tested in a smaller time frame.
4. Supported protocols
5. Supported platforms
6. Modularity
Disadvantages

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 1. Limitation in designing large scale systems
2. May be slow compared to real time network and computationally expensive
3. Does not reflect reality in large and complex networks.
4. Statistical uncertainty in results
Steps to create a scenario file:

Step1: Declare Simulator and setting output file

Step2: Setting Node and Link
Step3: Setting Agent
Step4: Setting
Application
Step5: Setting Simulation time and
schedules Step6: Declare finish.

Step 1: Declare Simulator and setting

$ns [new Simulator] #first line of tcl script. Creates ns object

get file [open out.tr w] #open the trace file
$ns trace-all $file
get namfile [open out.nam w] #open the nam file
$ns namtrace-all $namfile

Step 2: Setting Node and Link

$ n0 [$ns node] setting a node
ns duplex-link $n0 $n2 3Mb 5ms DropTail #bidirectional link between n0 and n2 is
declared bandwidth 3Mbps and delay 5ms.
DropTail is a waiting queue type.
$ns duplex-link-op $n0 $n2 orient right-down #Sets positions of node and link for Nam. It
does not affect to the result of simulation
$ns queue-limit $n2 $n3 20 #The length of queue on the link from n2 to
n3 is 20[packets].
$ns duplex-link-op $n2 $n3 queuePos 0.5 #The position of queue is set for Nam, 0.5 is
the angle between link and queue, it equals to
(0.5_).

Step 3: Setting Agent

UDP Agent :To use UDP in simulation, the sender sets the Agent as UDP Agent
while the receiver sets to Null Agent. Null Agents do nothing except receiving the

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 packets.
set udp [new Agent/UDP] #udp and null Agent are set for n0 and n3, respectively
$ns attach-agent $n0 $udp
set null [new Agent/Null]
$ns attach-agent $n3 $null
$ns connect $udp $null Declares the transmission between udp and null.
$udp set fid_ 0 Sets the number for data flow of udp. This number will
be recorded to all packets which are sent from udp
$ns color 0 blue Mark the color to discrete packet for showing result on NAM.
TCP Agent: To use TCP in simulation, the sender sets the Agent as TCP Agent while the
receiver sets to TCPSink Agent. When receiving a packet, TCPSink Agent will reply an
acknowledgment packet (ACK). Setting Agent for TCP is similar to UDP.

set tcp [new Agent/TCP] # tcp and sink Agent are set for n1 and n3, respectively
$ns attach-agent $n1 $tcp
set sink [new Agent/TCPSink]
$ns attach-agent $n3 $sink

$ns connect $tcp $sink #declares the transmission between tcp and sink.
$tcp set fid_ 1 #sets the number for data flow of tcp. This number will be
recorded to all packet which are sent from tcp
$ns color 1 red #mark the color to discrete packet for showing result on
Nam.

Step 4: Setting Application

In general, UDP Agent uses CBR Application while TCP Agent uses FTP Application.

set cbr [new Application/Traffic/CBR]

$cbr attach-agent $udp
set ftp [new Application/FTP]
$ftp attach-agent $tcp

Step 5: Setting time schedule for simulation

Time schedule of a simulation is set as below:

$ns at 1.0 "$cbr start" cbr transmits data from 1.0[sec] to 3.5[sec]
$ns at 3.5 "$cbr stop"
$ns at 1.5 "$ftp start" ftp transmits data from 1.5[sec] to 3.0[sec].
$ns at 3.0 "$ftp stop"

Step 6: Declare finish

After finish setting, declaration of finish is written at the end of file.

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 $ns at 4.0 "finish"
proc finish {} {
global ns file namfile tcpfile The finish function is used to output data file at the
$ns flush-trace end of simulation.
close $file
close $namfile
close $tcpfile
exit 0
}
Execute Simulation and start Nam
By executing below command line, simulation will be started and shows the
animation of simulation

ns sample.tcl
nam out.nam
View trace file
(out.tr)

Figure 4 . Details of Trace Window

1. The first field is the event type. It is given by one of four possible symbols r, +, -, d
which correspond respectively to receive (at the output of the link), enqueued,
dequeued and dropped.
2. The second field gives the time at which the event occurs.
3. Gives the input node of the link at which the event occurs.
4. Gives the output node of the link at which the event occurs.
5. Gives the packet type (eg CBR or TCP)
6. Gives the packet size
7. Some flags
8. This is the flow id (fid) of IPv6 that a user can set for each flow at the input OTcl

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 script one can further use this field for analysis purposes; it is also used when
specifying stream color for the NAM display.
9. This is the source address given in the form of “node.port”.
10. This is the destination address, given in the same form.
11. This is the network layer protocol’s packet sequence number. Even though UDP
implementations in a real network do not use sequence number, ns keeps track of
UDP packet sequence number for analysis purposes
12. The last field shows the Unique id of the packet.

AWK file:
The basic function of awk is to search files for lines (or other units of text) that contain
certain patterns. When a line matches one of the patterns, awk performs specified
actions on that line. awk keeps processing input lines in this way until the end of the
input files are reached. Programs in awk are different from programs in most
other languages, because awk programs are data-driven; that is, we describe the data
to work with, and then what to do when we find it. Most other languages are
procedural. When working with procedural languages, it is usually much harder to
clearly describe the data of our program will process. For this reason, awk programs
are often refreshingly easy to both write and read. When we run awk, we can specify
an awk program that tells awk what to do. The program consists of a series of rules.
(It may also contain function definitions, an advanced feature which we will ignore
for now. Each rule specifies one pattern to search for, and one action to perform when
that pattern is found). Syntactically, a rule consists of a pattern followed by an action.
The action is enclosed in curly braces to separate it from the pattern. Rules are usually
separated by newlines. Therefore, an awk program looks like this:
pattern { action } pattern { action }
Since we are dealing with column oriented data, AWK is probably the easiest tool we
can use to format our data. AWK is a simple scripting language that scans through a
file line by line. It allows to access any column in the current line by using special
variables $1, $2, $3, etc. for the first, second and third columns. The definition of each
column of the trace file is shown above, so we can use the AWK script to check the
value of each column and collect the data we need.

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 The BEGIN and END sections are only executed once (before and after the file has
been processed). The middle section is executed for each line of the file. The AWK
script keeps three variables to store the throughput in Mb/s for flow 1, flow 2, and the
total. For each line of the trace file, it checks to see if a TCP packet ($5 == “tcp”) is
received ($1 == “r”) at node 3 ($4 == “3”), which is our destination node. If so, it
increments the count for the appropriate flow, using the size of the particular packet (in
bytes) from column 6. After each second, it prints the total while converting bytes to
Mb.
BEGIN { print "START" } { print }END { print "STOP" }

To run awk script

awk -f <filename.awk> <input_file> <output_file>
XGRAPH:
 Plotting purposes.
 Comes together with NS2 installation package.
 Running Xgraph

Xgraph <inputfile1>...<inputfilen> -bg <color> -t <graph_title> -x <xtitle> -y <ytitle>

NS Simulation Script

Fig 5. A Simple Network Topology and Simulation Scenario

This network consists of 4 nodes (n0, n1, n2, n3) as shown in Fig. 5. The duplex links
between n0 and n2, and n1 and n2 have 2 Mbps of bandwidth and 10 ms of delay. The
duplex link between n2 and n3 has 1.7 Mbps of bandwidth and 20 ms of delay. Each
node uses a DropTail queue, of which the maximum size is 10. A "tcp" agent is

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 attached to n0, and a connection is established to a tcp "sink" agent attached to n3. As
default, the maximum size of a packet that a "tcp" agent can generate is 1KByte. A tcp
"sink" agent generates and sends ACK packets to the sender (tcp agent) and frees the
received packets. A "udp" agent that is attached to n1 is connected to a "null" agent
attached to n3. A "null" agent just frees the packets received. A "ftp" and a "cbr" traffic
generator are attached to "tcp" and "udp" agents respectively, and the "cbr" is
configured to generate 1KByte packets at the rate of 1 Mbps.

The "cbr" is set to start at 0.1 sec and stop at 4.5 sec, and "ftp" is set to start at 1.0
sec and stop at 4.0 sec.
An Example Simulation
Script
#Create a simulator object
set ns [new Simulator]

#Define different colors for data flows (for NAM)

$ns color 1 Blue
$ns color 2 Red

#Open the NAM trace file

set nf [open out.nam w]
$ns namtrace-all $nf

#Define a 'finish' procedure

proc finish
{} { global
ns nf
$ns flush-trace

#Close the NAM trace file

close $nf

#Execute NAM on the trace file

exec nam out.nam
& exit 0
}

#Create four
nodes set n0 [$ns
node]
set n1 [$ns node]
set n2 [$ns node]
set n3 [$ns node]

#Create links between the nodes

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 $ns duplex-link $n0 $n2 2Mb 10ms DropTail
$ns duplex-link $n1 $n2 2Mb 10ms DropTail
$ns duplex-link $n2 $n3 1.7Mb 20ms DropTail

#Set Queue Size of link (n2-n3) to 10

$ns queue-limit $n2 $n3 10

#Give node position (for NAM)

$ns duplex-link-op $n0 $n2 orient right-down
$ns duplex-link-op $n1 $n2 orient right-up
$ns duplex-link-op $n2 $n3 orient right

#Monitor the queue for link (n2-n3). (for NAM)

$ns duplex-link-op $n2 $n3 queuePos 0.5
#Setup a TCP connection
set tcp [new Agent/TCP]
$tcp set class_ 2
$ns attach-agent $n0 $tcp
set sink [new Agent/TCPSink]
$ns attach-agent $n3 $sink
$ns connect $tcp $sink
$tcp set fid_ 1

#Setup a FTP over TCP connection

set ftp [new Application/FTP]
$ftp attach-agent $tcp
$ftp set type_ FTP

#Setup a UDP connection

set udp [new Agent/UDP]
$ns attach-agent $n1
$udp set null [new
Agent/Null]
$ns attach-agent $n3 $null
$ns connect $udp $null
$udp set fid_ 2

#Setup a CBR over UDP connection

set cbr [new Application/Traffic/CBR]
$cbr attach-agent $udp
$cbr set type_ CBR
$cbr set packet_size_ 1000
$cbr set rate_ 1mb
$cbr set random_ false

#Schedule events for the CBR and FTP agents

$ns at 0.1 "$cbr start"
$ns at 1.0 "$ftp start"
$ns at 4.0 "$ftp stop"

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 $ns at 4.5 "$cbr stop"

#Call the finish procedure after 5 seconds of simulation time

$ns at 5.0 "finish"

#Print CBR packet size and interval

puts "CBR packet size = [$cbr set packet_size_]"
puts "CBR interval = [$cbr set interval_]"

#Run the simulation

$ns run

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Program No. 1: Implement Ring topology and Bus topology operation using NS2.
#Ring Topology
#Create a simulator object
set ns [new Simulator]

#Open the nam trace file

set nf [open out.nam w]
$ns namtrace-all $nf

#Define a 'finish' procedure

proc finish {} {
global ns nf
$ns flush-trace
#Close the trace file
close $nf
#Executenam on the trace file
exec nam out.nam &
exit 0
}

#Create four nodes

set n0 [$ns node]
set n1 [$ns node]
set n2 [$ns node]
set n3 [$ns node]
set n4 [$ns node]
set n5 [$ns node]

#Create links between the nodes

$ns duplex-link $n0 $n1 1Mb 10ms DropTail
$ns duplex-link $n1 $n2 1Mb 10ms DropTail
$ns duplex-link $n2 $n3 1Mb 10ms DropTail
$ns duplex-link $n3 $n4 1Mb 10ms DropTail
$ns duplex-link $n4 $n5 1Mb 10ms DropTail
$ns duplex-link $n5 $n0 1Mb 10ms DropTail

#Create a TCP agent and attach it to node n0

set tcp0 [new Agent/TCP]
$tcp0 set class_ 1
$ns attach-agent $n1 $tcp0
#Create a TCP Sink agent (a traffic sink) for TCP and
attach it to node n3
set sink0 [new Agent/TCPSink]
$ns attach-agent $n3 $sink0
#Connect the traffic sources with the traffic sink
$ns connect $tcp0 $sink0

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 # Create a CBR traffic source and attach it to tcp0
set cbr0 [new Application/Traffic/CBR]
$cbr0 set packetSize_ 500
$cbr0 set interval_ 0.01
$cbr0 attach-agent $tcp0

#Schedule events for the CBR agents

$ns at 0.5 "$cbr0 start"
$ns at 4.5 "$cbr0 stop"

#Call the finish procedure after 5 seconds of simulation

time
$ns at 5.0 "finish"

#Run the simulation

$ns run

#Bus Topology
#Create a simulator object
set ns [new Simulator]

#Open the nam trace file

set nf [open out.nam w]
$ns namtrace-all $nf

#Define a 'finish' procedure

proc finish {} {
global ns nf
$ns flush-trace
#Close the trace file
close $nf
#Executenam on the trace file
exec nam out.nam &
exit 0
}

#Create four nodes

set n0 [$ns node]
set n1 [$ns node]
set n2 [$ns node]
set n3 [$ns node]
set n4 [$ns node]

#CreateLanbetween the nodes

set lan0 [$ns newLan "$n0 $n1 $n2 $n3 $n4" 0.5Mb 40ms
LL Queue/DropTail MAC/Csma/Cd Channel]

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 #Create a TCP agent and attach it to node n0
set tcp0 [new Agent/TCP]
$tcp0 set class_ 1
$ns attach-agent $n1 $tcp0
#Create a TCP Sink agent (a traffic sink) for TCP and
attach it to node n3
set sink0 [new Agent/TCPSink]
$ns attach-agent $n3 $sink0
#Connect the traffic sources with the traffic sink
$ns connect $tcp0 $sink0

# Create a CBR traffic source and attach it to tcp0

set cbr0 [new Application/Traffic/CBR]
$cbr0 set packetSize_ 500
$cbr0 set interval_ 0.01
$cbr0 attach-agent $tcp0

#Schedule events for the CBR agents

$ns at 0.5 "$cbr0 start"
$ns at 4.5 "$cbr0 stop"

#Call the finish procedure after 5 seconds of simulation

time
$ns at 5.0 "finish"

#Run the simulation

$ns run

Steps for execution:

 Open gedit and type program. Program name should have the extension “. tcl ”
[root@localhost ~] gedit topo1.tcl
 Save the program.
 Open gedit and type awk program. Program name should have the extension “. awk ”
[root@localhost ~] gedit topo1.awk
 Save the program.
 Run the simulation program [root@localhost~] ns topo1.tcl
 Here “ns” indicates network simulator. We get the topology shown in the snapshot.
 Now press the play button in the simulation window and the simulation will begin.

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 Snapshot 1

Snapshot 2

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 Program No. 2: Implement three nodes point – to – point network with duplex
links between them. Set the queue size, vary the bandwidth and find the number
of packets dropped in NS2.
Theory:
 Create a simulator object.
 We open a file for writing that is going to be used for the trace data.
 We now attach the agent to the nodes.
 Now we attach the application to run on top of these nodes
 We now connect the agent and the application for its working
 Set the simulation time
 The next step is to add a 'finish' procedure that closes the trace file and starts nam.

Set Protocol: UDP

Set Traffic type: CBR
Source 0
(10 Mbps, 300ms, 10)* (1Mbps, 300ms, 5)*
n0 n2 n3

Set Traffic type: null

(10 Mbps, 300ms, 10)*

n1
Source 1
Set Protocol: UDP
Set Traffic type: CBR Legend * (Bandwidth, Delay, Queue Limit)

Figure 2 Sample Network for program 2

Program:
set ns [ new Simulator ]
set tf [ open lab1.tr w ]
$ns trace-all $tf
set nf [ open lab1.nam w ]
$ns namtrace-all $nf
# The below code is used to create the nodes.
set n0 [$ns node]
set n1 [$ns node]
set n2 [$ns node]
set n3 [$ns node]
#This is used to give color to the packets.
$ns color 1 "red"
$ns color 2 "blue"
$n0 label "Source/udp0"
$n1 label "Source/udp1"
$n2 label "Router"

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 $n3 label "Destination/Null"
#Vary the below Bandwidth and see the number of packets
dropped.
$ns duplex-link $n0 $n2 10Mb 300ms DropTail
$ns duplex-link $n1 $n2 10Mb 300ms DropTail
$ns duplex-link $n2 $n3 1Mb 300ms DropTail
#The below code is used to set the queue size b/w the
nodes
$ns set queue-limit $n0 $n2 10
$ns set queue-limit $n1 $n2 10
$ns set queue-limit $n2 $n3 5
#The below code is used to attach an UDP agent to n0,
UDP agent to n1 and null agent to n3.
set udp0 [new Agent/UDP]
$ns attach-agent $n0 $udp0
set cbr0 [new Application/Traffic/CBR]
$cbr0 attach-agent $udp0
set null [new Agent/Null]
$ns attach-agent $n3 $null
set udp1 [new Agent/UDP]
$ns attach-agent $n1 $udp1
set cbr1 [new Application/Traffic/CBR]
$cbr1 attach-agent $udp1
#The below code sets the udp0 packets to red and udp1
packets to blue color
$udp0 set class_ 1
$udp1 set class_ 2
#The below code is used to connect the agents.
$ns connect $udp0 $null
$ns connect $udp1 $null
#The below code is used to set the packet size to 500
$cbr1 set packetSize_ 500Mb
#The below code is used to set the interval of the packets,
i.e., Data rate of the packets.
#if the data rate is high then packets drops are high.
$cbr1 set interval_ 0.005
proc finish { } {
global ns nf tf
$ns flush-trace
exec nam lab1.nam &
close $tf
close $nf
exit 0
}
$ns at 0.1 "$cbr0 start"
$ns at 0.1 "$cbr1 start"
$ns at 10.0 "finish"
$ns run

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 AWK file:
(Open a new editor using gedit command and write awk file and save with “.awk” extension)

BEGIN{
#include<stdio.
h>
count=0;
}
{
if($1=="d") #d stands for the packets
drops.
count++
}
EN
D{
printf("The Total no of Packets Dropped due to Congestion :%d\n\n", count)
}

Steps for execution:

 Open gedit and type program. Program name should have the extension “. tcl ”
[root@localhost ~] gedit lab1.tcl
 Save the program.
 Open gedit and type awk program. Program name should have the extension “. awk ”
[root@localhost ~] gedit lab1.awk
 Save the program.
 Run the simulation program [root@localhost~] ns lab1.tcl
 Here “ns” indicates network simulator. We get the topology shown in the snapshot.
 Now press the play button in the simulation window and the simulation will begin.
 After simulation is completed run awk file to see the output,
[root@localhost~] awk –f lab1.awk lab1.tr
 To see the trace file contents open the file as , [root@localhost~] gedit lab1.tr
Output:
The Total no of packets Dropped due to congestion: 456

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 Snapshot 1:

Snapshot 2

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 Program No. 3 Implement an Ethernet LAN using n nodes and set multiple traffic
nodes and plot congestion window for different source / destination using NS2
Simulator.

Program:

Source 1:
Set Protocol: TCP
Set Traffic Type: FTP

N1
Destination 1:
Set Traffic Type: Sink

N0 N5 N7
(1Mbps, 20ms)
(2Mbps, 10ms)* LAN
N2

Source 2:
Set Protocol: TCP N4 N6 N8
Set Traffic Type: FTP
Destination 2:
Set Traffic Type: Sink

set ns [new Simulator]

set nf [open lab3.nam w]
$ns namtrace-all $nf
set nd [open lab3.tr w]
$ns trace-all $nd
$ns color 1 Blue
$ns color 2 Red
proc finish { } {
global ns nf nd
$ns flush-trace
close $nf
close $nd
exec nam lab3.nam &
exit 0
}
set n0 [$ns node]
set n1 [$ns node]
set n2 [$ns node]
set n3 [$ns node]
set n4 [$ns node]
set n5 [$ns node]
set n6 [$ns node]
set n7 [$ns node]
set n8 [$ns node]

Dept. of ISE, GAT 29 Computer Networks Lab

 $n7 shape box
$n7 color Blue
$n8 shape hexagon
$n8 color Red
$ns duplex-link $n1 $n0 2Mb 10ms DropTail
$ns duplex-link $n2 $n0 2Mb 10ms DropTail
$ns duplex-link $n0 $n3 1Mb 20ms DropTail
$ns make-lan "$n3 $n4 $n5 $n6 $n7 $n8" 512Kb 40ms LL
Queue/DropTail Mac/802_3
$ns duplex-link-op $n1 $n0 orient right-down
$ns duplex-link-op $n2 $n0 orient right-up
$ns duplex-link-op $n0 $n3 orient right
$ns queue-limit $n0 $n3 20
set tcp1 [new Agent/TCP/Vegas]
$ns attach-agent $n1 $tcp1
set sink1 [new Agent/TCPSink]
$ns attach-agent $n7 $sink1
$ns connect $tcp1 $sink1
$tcp1 set class_ 1
$tcp1 set packetSize_ 55
set ftp1 [new Application/FTP]
$ftp1 attach-agent $tcp1
set tfile [open cwnd.tr w]
$tcp1 attach $tfile
$tcp1 trace cwnd_
set tcp2 [new Agent/TCP/Reno]
$ns attach-agent $n2 $tcp2
set sink2 [new Agent/TCPSink]
$ns attach-agent $n8 $sink2
$ns connect $tcp2 $sink2
$tcp2 set class_ 2
$tcp2 set packetSize_ 55
set ftp2 [new Application/FTP]
$ftp2 attach-agent $tcp2
set tfile2 [open cwnd2.tr w]
$tcp2 attach $tfile2
$tcp2 trace cwnd_
$ns at 0.5 "$ftp1 start"
$ns at 1.0 "$ftp2 start"
$ns at 5.0 "$ftp2 stop"
$ns at 5.0 "$ftp1 stop"
$ns at 5.5 "finish"
$ns run

AWK File:
BEGIN {
}
{
if($6=="cwnd_") {

Dept. of ISE, GAT 30 Computer Networks Lab

 printf("%f\t%f\n",$1,$7);
}
}
END {
}

Output Commands:

[root@localhost ~]# ns lab3.tcl

[root@localhost ~]# awk -f lab3.awk file1.tr>tcp1
[root@localhost ~]# awk -f lab3.awk file2.tr>tcp2
[root@localhost ~]# xgraph -x “time” -y “convalue” tcp1 tcp2

Snapshot 1:

Snapshot 2:

Snapshot 3:

Dept. of ISE, GAT 31 Computer Networks Lab

Dept. of ISE, GAT 32 Computer Networks Lab
 Program No. 4: Write a NS2 script to implement the operation of Stop and Wait
Protocol.
Program:
set ns [new Simulator]
$ns color 1 Blue
# set nam output file
set nf [open out.nam w]
$ns namtrace-all $nf

# destructor
proc finish {} {
global ns nf
$ns flush-trace
close $nf
exec nam out.nam &
exit 0
}

# create two new nodes and create labels for them

set n0 [$ns node]
set n1 [$ns node]
$ns at 0.0 "$n0 label \" Sender \" "
$ns at 0.0 "$n1 label \"Receiver\" "

# set up a new duplex link

$ns duplex-link $n0 $n1 1Mb 200ms DropTail
$ns duplex-link-op $n0 $n1 orient right

# create a new TCP agent

set tcp [new Agent/TCP]
# attach the agent to first node
$ns attach-agent $n0 $tcp
$tcp set fid_ 1
$tcp set window_ 1
$tcp set maxcwnd_ 1
$ns add-agent-trace $tcp tcp
$ns monitor-agent-trace $tcp
set tcpsink [new Agent/TCPSink]
$ns attach-agent $n1 $tcpsink

$ns connect $tcp $tcpsink

set ftp [new Application/FTP]
$ftp attach-agent $tcp

$ns at 0.5 "$ftp start"

$ns at 3.0 "$ns detach-agent $n0 $tcp ; $ns detach-agent $n1
$tcpsink "
$ns at 1.0 "$ns trace-annotate \"send packet 1\""
$ns at 1.4 "$ns trace-annotate \"recieve ack 1\""

Dept. of ISE, GAT 33 Computer Networks Lab

 $ns at 2.0 "$ns trace-annotate \"send packet 2\""
$ns at 2.5 "$ns trace-annotate \"receive ack 2\""
$ns at 3.2 "$ns trace-annotate \"send packet 3\""
$ns at 3.5 "$ns trace-annotate \"receive ack 3\""
$ns at 3.8 "$ns trace-annotate \"send packet 4\""
$ns at 4.0 "finish"
$ns run

Snapshot 1

Snapshot 2

Dept. of ISE, GAT 34 Computer Networks Lab

 Program No. 5: Implement simple ESS and with transmitting nodes in wire-less LAN
by simulation and determine the performance with respect to transmission of packets
using NS2 Simulator.

Destination 1:
Source 2: Set Traffic Type: Sink
Set Protocol: TCP
Set Traffic Type: FTP n2

n1

Destination 1:
Set Traffic Type: Sink
n0

Source 1:
Set Protocol: TCP
Set Traffic Type: FTP

Figure 5: Sample Network for Program 5

Program:
set ns [new Simulator]
set val(chan) Channel/WirelessChannel;
set val(prop) Propagation/TwoRayGround;
set val(netif) Phy/WirelessPhy;
set val(mac) Mac/802_11;
set val(ifq) Queue/DropTail/PriQueue;
set val(ll) LL;
set val(ant) Antenna/OmniAntenna;
set val(ifqlen) 50;
set val(nn) 2;
set val(rp) DSDV;
set val(x) 1000.0;
set val(y) 1000.0;
# channel type
# radio-propagation model
# network interface type
# MAC type
# interface queue type
# link layer type
# antenna model
# max packet in ifq
# number of mobilenodes
# routing protocol
set tf [open lab4.tr w]
$ns trace-all $tf
set topo [new Topography]
$topo load_flatgrid 1000 1000
set nf [open lab4.nam w]

Dept. of ISE, GAT 35 Computer Networks Lab

 $ns namtrace-all-wireless $nf 1000 1000
$ns node-config -adhocRouting $val(rp) \
-llType $val(ll) \
-macType $val(mac) \
-ifqType $val(ifq) \
-ifqLen $val(ifqlen) \
-antType $val(ant) \
-propType $val(prop) \
-phyType $val(netif) \
-channelType $val(chan) \
-topoInstance $topo \
-agentTrace ON \
-routerTrace ON \
-macTrace ON
create-god $val(nn)
set n0 [$ns node]
set n1 [$ns node]
set n2 [$ns node]
$n0 label "tcp0"
$n1 label "sink1/tcp1"
$n2 label "sink2"
$n0 set X_ 250
$n0 set Y_ 250
$n0 set Z_ 0
$n1 set X_ 300
$n1 set Y_ 300
$n1 set Z_ 0
$n2 set X_ 600
$n2 set Y_ 600
$n2 set Z_ 0
$ns at 0.1 "$n0 setdest 250 250 15"
$ns at 0.1 "$n1 setdest 300 300 25"
$ns at 0.1 "$n2 setdest 600 600 25"
set tcp0 [new Agent/TCP]
$ns attach-agent $n0 $tcp0
set ftp0 [new Application/FTP]
$ftp0 attach-agent $tcp0
set sink1 [new Agent/TCPSink]
$ns attach-agent $n1 $sink1
$ns connect $tcp0 $sink1
set tcp1 [new Agent/TCP]
$ns attach-agent $n1 $tcp1
set ftp1 [new Application/FTP]
$ftp1 attach-agent $tcp1
set sink2 [new Agent/TCPSink]
$ns attach-agent $n2 $sink2
$ns connect $tcp1 $sink2
$ns at 5 "$ftp0 start"
$ns at 5 "$ftp1 start"

Dept. of ISE, GAT 36 Computer Networks Lab

 #The below code is used to provide the node movements.
$ns at 100 "$n1 setdest 550 550 15"
$ns at 190 "$n1 setdest 70 70 15"
proc finish {} {
global ns nf tf
$ns flush-trace
exec nam lab4.nam &
close $tf
exit 0
}
$ns at 250 "finish"
$ns run

AWK FILE:

BEGIN {
#include<stdio.h>
count1=count2=pack1=pack2= time1=time2=0
}
{
if($1 == "r"&&$3 == "_1_"&&$4 == "AGT")
{
count1++
pack1=pack1+$8
time1=$2
}
if($1=="r"&&$3=="_2_"&&$4=="AGT")
{
count2++
pack2 = pack2+$8
time2=$2
}
}
END{
printf("The Throughput from n0 to n1: %f Mbps\n",((count1 * pack1 *8)/(time1*1000000)));
printf("The Throughput from n1 to n2: %f Mbps", ((count2 * pack2 * 8) /(time2*1000000)));
}
Output Commands:
[root@localhost ~]# ns prg4.tcl
[root@localhost ~]# awk –f prg4.awk lab4.tr
Output:
The Throughput from n0 to n1: 5444Mbps
The Throughput from n1 to n2: 345Mbps

Dept. of ISE, GAT 37 Computer Networks Lab

 Snapshot 1:

Snapshot 2:

Snapshot 3:

Dept. of ISE, GAT 38 Computer Networks Lab

 Sample Java Program to find the IP ADDRESS

AIM: To write a java program to find the IP address of the system.

ALGORITHM:
1. Start
2. Declare a variable ‘ip’ as a static InetAddress.
3. Using the function getLocalHost() to find the address of the system.
4. Get the name of the system by using the getHostName() function.
5. By specifying the system name,find out the IP address of the system using
the function getByName().
6. Stop.

SOURCE CODE:
import java.io.*;
import java.net.*;
class address
{
public InetAddress ip;
public static void main(String args[])throws UnknownHostException
{
InetAddress ip=InetAddress.getLocalHost();
System.out.println("\n IP address is :"+ip);
String s1=ip.getHostName();
System.out.println("system number is:"+s1);
InetAddress ip1=InetAddress.getByName("system 10");
System.out.println("\n name of other system is :"+ip1);
}
}

Output:

IP address is: LAB1-89/192.168.6.189

system number is: LAB1-89

Sample Java Program to display Fibonacci Series

class FibonacciExample1
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
int n1=0,n2=1,n3,i,count=10;
System.out.print(n1+" "+n2);//printing 0 and 1
for(i=2;i<count;++i)//loop starts from 2 because 0 and 1 are already printed
{
n3=n1+n2;

Dept. of ISE, GAT 39 Computer Networks Lab

 System.out.print(" "+n3);
n1=n2;
n2=n3;
}
}
}

Output:

0112358

Dept. of ISE, GAT 40 Computer Networks Lab

 Program No. 6: Write a Java program for error detecting code using CRC-CCITT (16- bits).

The idea behind CRC calculation is to look at the data as one large binary number.
This number is divided by generator and the remainder of the calculation is called the CRC.
All of the CRC formulas you will encounter are based on modulo-2 binary division
where we ignore carry bits and in effect the subtraction will be equal to an exclusive or
operation. Though some differences exist in the specifics across different CRC formulas, the
basic mathematical process is always the same:
 The message bits are appended with k-1 zero bits; this augmented message is the
dividend
 A predetermined k-bit binary sequence, called the generator polynomial, is the divisor
 The checksum is the c-bit remainder that results from the division operation
Table 1 lists some of the most commonly used generator polynomials for 16- and 32-bit
CRCs. Remember that the width of the divisor is always one bit wider than the remainder.
So, for example, you’d use a 17-bit generator polynomial whenever a 16-bit checksum is
required.

CRC-CCITT CRC-16 CRC-32

Checksum
16 bits 16 bits 32 bits
Width

Generator x32+x26+x23+x22 +x16+x12+x11+x10

x16+x12+x5+1 x16+x15+x2+1
Polynomial +x8+x7+x5+x4+x2+x+1

Generator
1000100000010 110000000000001 10000010011000001000111011011
Polynomial
0001 01 0111
in bits
Table 1. International Standard CRC Polynomials

Error detection with CRC

Consider a message represented by the polynomial M(x)
Consider a generating polynomial G(x).
This is used to generate a CRC = C(x) to be appended to M(x).
Note this G(x) is prime.

Dept. of ISE, GAT 41 Computer Networks Lab

 Steps:
1. Multiply M(x) by highest power in G(x). i.e. Add So much zeros to M(x).
2. Divide the result by G(x). The remainder = C(x).
Special case: This won't work if bitstring =all zeros. We don't allow such an
M(x).But M(x) bitstring = 1 will work, for example. Can divide 1101 into 1000.
3. Transmit: T(x) = M(x) + C(x)
4. Receiver end: Receive T(x). Divide by G(x), should have remainder 0.
Note if G(x) has order n - highest power is xn, then G(x) will cover (n+1) bits and the
remainder will cover n bits. i.e. Add n bits (Zeros) to message.
Division at the Sender site:

Division at the Receiver site for two cases:

Dept. of ISE, GAT 42 Computer Networks Lab

 Some CRC polynomials that are actually used
 CRC-8:

x8+x2+x+1
o Used in: 802.16 (along with error correction).
 CRC-12: x12 + x11 + x3 + x2 + x + 1

 CRC-CCITT (Cyclic Redundancy Check- Consultative Committee for International

Telegraphy and Telephony): x16+x12+x5+1
o Used in: HDLC, SDLC, PPP default
 IBM-CRC-16 (ANSI):
x16+x15+x2+1
 CRC-32 used in IEEE 802.3 Ethernet Standard:
x32+x26+x23+x22 +x16+x12+x11+x10 +x8+x7+x5+x4+x2+x+1

Program:

import java.util.Scanner;
class CRC
{
static String datastream;
static String generator= "10001000000100001";
public static void main(String args[]){
Scanner sc = new Scanner(System.in);
System.out.println("---At the Sender---\n Enter data stream: ");
String datastream = sc.nextLine();
int datalen=datastream.length();
int genlen =generator.length();
int data[] = new int[datalen + genlen - 1];
int codeword[] = new int[datalen + genlen - 1];
int div[] = new int[generator.length()];
for(int i=0;i<datastream.length();i++)
data[i] = Integer.parseInt(datastream.charAt(i)+"");
for(int i=0;i<generator.length();i++)
div[i] = Integer.parseInt(generator.charAt(i)+"");
codeword = calculateCrc(data,div,datalen);
System.out.println("The CRC(Final Codeword) code is: "); //Display CRC-final codeword

Dept. of ISE, GAT 43 Computer Networks Lab

 for(int i=0;i<datastream.length();i++)
codeword[i] = Integer.parseInt(datastream.charAt(i)+"");
for(int i=0;i<data.length;i++)
System.out.print(codeword[i]);
System.out.println("\n");
System.out.println("---At the Receiver---\n Enter Received codeword: ");
//Check for input CRC code
datastream = sc.nextLine();
data = new int[datastream.length() + generator.length() - 1];
for(int i=0;i<datastream.length();i++)
data[i] = Integer.parseInt(datastream.charAt(i)+"");
codeword = calculateCrc(data,div,datalen);
boolean valid = true; //Checking remainder is zero or not
for(int i=0;i<codeword.length;i++)
if(codeword[i]==1){
valid = false;
break;
}
if(valid==true)
System.out.println("Data stream is valid. No error occured");
else
System.out.println("Data stream is invalid. CRC error occured.");
sc.close();
}

public static int[] calculateCrc(int[] divrem,int[] divisor,int len){

//Calculation of CRC
for(int i=0;i<len;i++)
{
if(divrem[i]==1)
for(int j=0;j<divisor.length;j++)
divrem[i+j] ^= divisor[j];
}
return divrem;
}
}

Dept. of ISE, GAT 44 Computer Networks Lab

 Output Sample 1:
---At the Sender---
Enter data stream:
110101
The CRC(Final Codeword) code is:
1101010110011011110110

---At the Receiver---

Enter Received codeword:
1101010110011011110110
Data stream is valid. No error occured
Output Sample 2:
---At the Sender---
Enter data stream:
110101
The CRC(Final Codeword) code is:
1101010110011011110110
---At the Receiver---
Enter Received codeword:
1001111001100101010101
Data stream is invalid. CRC error occured.

Dept. of ISE, GAT 45 Computer Networks Lab

 Program No. 7: Write a Java program to find the shortest path between vertices using
Bellman- Ford algorithm.

Distance Vector Algorithm is a decentralized routing algorithm that requires that each
router simply inform its neighbors of its routing table. For each network path, the receiving
routers pick the neighbor advertising the lowest cost, then add this entry into its routing table
for re-advertisement. To find the shortest path, Distance Vector Algorithm is based on one of
two basic algorithms: The Bellman-Ford and the Dijkstra algorithms. Routers that use this
algorithm have to maintain the distance tables (which is a one- dimension array -- "a vector"),
which tell the dist and shortest path to sending packets to each node in the network. The
information in the distance table is always up date by exchanging information with the
neighboring nodes. The number of data in the table equals to that of all nodes in networks
(excluded itself). The columns of table represent the directly attached neighbors whereas the
rows represent all destinations in the network. Each data contains the path for sending packets
to each destination in the network and distance/or time to transmit on that path (we call this as
"cost"). The measurements in this algorithm are the number of hops, latency, the number of
outgoing packets, etc.
The Bellman–Ford algorithm is an algorithm that computes shortest paths from a
single source v to all of the other vertices in a weighted digraph. It is slower than Dijkstra's
algorithm for the same problem, but more versatile, as it is capable of handling graphs in
which some of the edge weights are negative numbers. Negative edge weights are found in
various applications of graphs, hence the usefulness of this algorithm. If a graph contains a
"negative cycle" (i.e. a cycle whose edges sum to a negative value) that is reachable from the
source, then there is no cheapest path: any path that has a point on the negative cycle can be
made cheaper by one more walk around the negative cycle. In such a case, the Bellman–Ford
algorithm can detect negative cycles and report their existence.

Dept. of ISE, GAT 46 Computer Networks Lab

 Figure (a) A subnet. (b) Input from A, I, H, K, and the new routing table for J.
Implementation Algorithm:
1. send my routing table to all my neighbors whenever my link table changes
2. when I get a routing table from a neighbor on port P with link metric M:
a. add L to each of the neighbor's metrics
b. for each entry (D, P', M') in the updated neighbor's table:
i. if I do not have an entry for D, add (D, P, M') to my routing table
ii. if I have an entry for D with metric M", add (D, P, M') to my routing
table if M' < M"
3. if my routing table has changed, send all the new entries to all my neighbors
Program:
import java.util.Scanner;
public class BellmanFord
{
private int distances[];
private int numberofvertices;
public static final int MAX_VALUE = 999;
public BellmanFord(int numberofvertices)
{
this.numberofvertices = numberofvertices;
distances = new int[numberofvertices + 1];
}
public void BellmanFordEvaluation(int source, int adjacencymatrix[][])
{
for (int node = 1; node <= numberofvertices; node++)
{
distances[node] = MAX_VALUE;
}
distances[source] = 0;
for (int node = 1; node <= numberofvertices - 1; node++)
{
for (int sourcenode = 1; sourcenode <= numberofvertices; sourcenode++)
{

Dept. of ISE, GAT 47 Computer Networks Lab

 for (int destinationnode = 1; destinationnode <= numberofvertices; destinationnode++)
{
if (adjacencymatrix[sourcenode][destinationnode] != MAX_VALUE)
{

if (distances[destinationnode] > distances[sourcenode]

+ adjacencymatrix[sourcenode][destinationnode])
distances[destinationnode] = distances[sourcenode]
+ adjacencymatrix[sourcenode][destinationnode];

}
}
}
}
for (int sourcenode = 1; sourcenode <= numberofvertices; sourcenode++)
{
for (int destinationnode = 1; destinationnode <= numberofvertices; destinationnode++)
{
if (adjacencymatrix[sourcenode][destinationnode] != MAX_VALUE)
{
if (distances[destinationnode] > distances[sourcenode]
+ adjacencymatrix[sourcenode][destinationnode])
System.out.println("The Graph contains negative egde cycle");
}
}
}
for (int vertex = 1; vertex <= numberofvertices; vertex++)
{
System.out.println("distance of source " + source + " to " + vertex + " is " + distances[vertex]);
}
}
public static void main(String... arg)
{
int numberofvertices = 0;
int source;
Scanner scanner = new Scanner(System.in);
System.out.println("Enter the number of vertices");
numberofvertices = scanner.nextInt()
int adjacencymatrix[][] = new int[numberofvertices + 1][numberofvertices + 1];
System.out.println("Enter the adjacency matrix");
for (int sourcenode = 1; sourcenode <= numberofvertices; sourcenode++)
{
for (int destinationnode = 1; destinationnode <= numberofvertices; destinationnode++)
{
adjacencymatrix[sourcenode][destinationnode] = scanner.nextInt();
if (sourcenode == destinationnode)
{
adjacencymatrix[sourcenode][destinationnode] = 0;
continue;

Dept. of ISE, GAT 48 Computer Networks Lab

 }
if (adjacencymatrix[sourcenode][destinationnode] == 0)
{
adjacencymatrix[sourcenode][destinationnode] = MAX_VALUE;
}
}
}
System.out.println("Enter the source vertex");
source = scanner.nextInt();
BellmanFord bellmanford = new BellmanFord(numberofvertices);
bellmanford.BellmanFordEvaluation(source, adjacencymatrix);
scanner.close();
}
}
Output Sample 1:
Enter the number of vertices
4
Enter the adjacency matrix
0514
5062
1603
4230
Enter the source vertex 1
After (N-1)th Iteration
distance of source 1 to 1 is 0
distance of source 1 to 2 is 5
distance of source 1 to 3 is 1
distance of source 1 to 4 is 4
After Nth Iteration
distance of source 1 to 1 is 0
distance of source 1 to 2 is 5
distance of source 1 to 3 is 1
distance of source 1 to 4 is 4

Output Sample 2:
Enter the number of vertices
6
Enter the adjacency matrix
0 4 1 999 999 999
999 0 999 999 1 2
999 999 0 3 999 999
999 999 999 0 999 999
-6 999 2 4 0 999
999 999 999 5 999 0
Enter the source vertex 1
After (N-1)th Iteration
distance of source 1 to 1 is -5
distance of source 1 to 2 is 0
distance of source 1 to 3 is -3

Dept. of ISE, GAT 49 Computer Networks Lab

 distance of source 1 to 4 is 0
distance of source 1 to 5 is 1
distance of source 1 to 6 is 2
The Graph contains negative edge cycle
The Graph contains negative edge cycle
The Graph contains negative edge cycle
The Graph contains negative edge cycle
The Graph contains negative edge cycle
The Graph contains negative edge cycle
After Nth Iteration
distance of source 1 to 1 is -6
distance of source 1 to 2 is -1
distance of source 1 to 3 is -4
distance of source 1 to 4 is -1
distance of source 1 to 5 is 0
distance of source 1 to 6 is 1

Dept. of ISE, GAT 50 Computer Networks Lab

 Program No. 8: Write a Java program for congestion control using leaky bucket algorithm.

The main concept of the leaky bucket algorithm is that the output data flow remains
constant despite the variant input traffic, such as the water flow in a bucket with a small hole
at the bottom. In case the bucket contains water (or packets) then the output flow follows a
constant rate, while if the bucket is full any additional load will be lost because of spillover.
In a similar way if the bucket is empty the output will be zero.
From network perspective, leaky bucket consists of a finite queue (bucket) where all the
incoming packets are stored in case there is space in the queue, otherwise the packets are
discarded. In order to regulate the output flow, leaky bucket transmits one packet from the
queue in a fixed time (e.g. at every clock tick). In the following figure we can notice the
main rationale of leaky bucket algorithm, for both the two approaches (e.g. leaky bucket with
water (a) and with packets (b)).

Figure: The leaky bucket traffic shaping algorithm

While leaky bucket eliminates completely bursty traffic by regulating the incoming
data flow its main drawback is that it drops packets if the bucket is full. Also, it doesn’t take
into account the idle process of the sender which means that if the host doesn’t transmit data
for some time the bucket becomes empty without permitting the transmission of any packet.

Dept. of ISE, GAT 51 Computer Networks Lab

 The leaky-bucket algorithm:
The algorithm can be conceptually understood as follows:
 Consider a bucket with a hole in the bottom.
 The empty space of the bucket represents an amount of credit available measured in
bytes.
 The size of the bucket is b bytes. This means that if the bucket is empty, b bytes of
credit is available.
 If a packet arrives and its size is less than the available credit, the packet can be
forwarded. Otherwise, it is discarded or queued depending on the application.
 The bucket leaks through the hole in its bottom at a constant rate of r bytes per
second, this indicates credit accumulation
Program:
import java.util.Scanner;
public class LeakyBucket
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
Scanner sc = new Scanner(System.in);
int incoming, outgoing, buck_size, n, time = 1, store = 0;
System.out.println("Enter bucket size, outgoing rate and Number of Packets:");
buck_size = sc.nextInt();
outgoing = sc.nextInt();
n = sc.nextInt();
while (n != 0)
{
System.out.println("Enter the incoming packet size at Time:" + (time++) );
incoming=sc.nextInt();
System.out.println("Incoming packet size is " + incoming);
if (incoming <= (buck_size - store))
{
store += incoming;
System.out.println("Bucket buffer size is " + store + " out of " + buck_size);
}
else
{
int pktdrop = incoming - (buck_size - store);
System.out.println("Dropped " + pktdrop + " no of packets");
System.out.println("Bucket buffer size is 10 out of "+ buck_size);
store = buck_size;
}
store = store - outgoing;
if(store < 0)
{
store=0;
System.out.println("Empty Buffer");
}
System.out.println("After outgoing: "+ store +" packets left out of " + buck_size + " inbuffer\n");

Dept. of ISE, GAT 52 Computer Networks Lab

 n--;
}
sc.close();
}
}
Output 1
Enter bucket size, outgoing rate and Number of Packets:
10 5 3
Enter the incoming packet size at Time: 1
16
Incoming packet size is 16
Dropped 6 no of packets
Bucket buffer size is 10 out of 10
After outgoing: 5 packets left out of 10 in buffer
Enter the incoming packet size at Time: 2
6
Incoming packet size is 6
Dropped 1 no of packets
Bucket buffer size is 10 out of 10
After outgoing: 5 packets left out of 10 in buffer
Enter the incoming packet size at Time: 3
4
Incoming packet size is 4
Bucket buffer size is 9 out of 10
After outgoing: 4 packets left out of 10 in buffer
Output 2
Enter bucket size, outgoing rate and Number of Packets:
824
Enter the incoming packet size at Time:1
6
Incoming packet size is 6
Bucket buffer size is 6 out of 8
After outgoing: 4 packets left out of 8 in buffer
Enter the incoming packet size at Time:2
10
Incoming packet size is 10
Dropped 6 no of packets Bucket
buffer size is 10 out of 8
After outgoing: 6 packets left out of 8 in buffer
Enter the incoming packet size at Time:3 12
Incoming packet size is 12
Dropped 10 no of packets
Bucket buffer size is 10 out of 8
After outgoing: 6 packets left out of 8 in buffer
Enter the incoming packet size at Time:4 12
Incoming packet size is 12
Dropped 10 no of packets
Bucket buffer size is 10 out of 8
After outgoing: 6 packets left out of 8 in buffer

Dept. of ISE, GAT 53 Computer Networks Lab

 Program No. 9: Write a Java program to implement RSA algorithm, to encrypt the
data while sending it and decrypt while receiving
RSA is algorithm used by modern computers to encrypt and decrypt messages. It is an
asymmetric cryptographic algorithm. Asymmetric means that there are two different keys.
This is also called public key cryptography, because one of them can be given to everyone.
The other key must be kept private. It is based on the fact that finding the factors of an integer
is hard (the factoring problem). RSA stands for Ron Rivest, Adi Shamir and Leonard
Adleman, who first publicly described it in 1978. A user of RSA creates and then publishes
the product of two large prime numbers, along with an auxiliary value, as their public key.
The prime factors must be kept secret. Anyone can use the public key to encrypt a message,
but with currently published methods, if the public key is large enough, only someone with
knowledge of the prime factors can feasibly decode the message.
RSA involves a public key and private key. The public key can be known to everyone;
it is used to encrypt messages. Messages encrypted using the public key can only be
decrypted with the private key. The RSA algorithm can be used for both public key
encryption and digital signatures. Its security is based on the difficulty of factoring large
integers. The RSA algorithm's efficiency requires a fast method for performing the modular
exponentiation operation. A less efficient, conventional method includes raising a number
(the input) to a power (the secret or public key of the algorithm, denoted e and d,
respectively) and taking the remainder of the division with N. A straight-forward
implementation performs these two steps of the operation sequentially: first, raise it to the
power and second, apply modulo. Basically RSA is cryptographic algorithm which is meant
to encrypt the data, generally used in network security applications while we are sending the
data from one source to destination. The concept of RSA algorithm starts with a two key
concepts, it uses two keys (asymmetric keys) one is considered as the public key and another
is a private key.
It was developed because using the symmetric encryption algorithm is easy but the
key distribution is difficult, so the concept of two key concept appears to be more efficient.
The whole algorithm depends on the fact that "It is not possible to judge another key when
attacker gets one key" Here in two keys, one key is taken as the public key another as a
private key. Public key is available for everyone to access, so whenever sender want to send
the data to receiver, he uses the public key of receiver (as it is available for use to all) and
encrypts the data using the key, this encrypted data is called cipher text, when receiver
receives the cipher text, he can decrypt the data using his private key. Here even if the

Dept. of ISE, GAT 54 Computer Networks Lab

 attacker knows the encryption algorithm, he can’t do anything until the keys are available.
A very simple example of RSA encryption
1. Select primes p = 11, q = 3.
2. n = p*q = 11*3 = 33
phi = (p-1)(q-1) = 10*2 = 20
3. Choose e=3
Check gcd(e, p-1) = gcd(3, 10) = 1 (i.e. 3 and 10 have no common factors except 1),
and check gcd(e, q-1) = gcd(3, 2) = 1
therefore gcd(e, phi) = gcd(e, (p-1)(q-1)) = gcd(3, 20) = 1
4. Compute d such that ed ≡ 1 (mod phi)
i.e. compute d = e^-1 mod phi = 3^-1 mod 20
i.e. find a value for d such that phi divides (ed-1)
i.e. find d such that 20 divides 3d-1.
Simple testing (d = 1, 2, ...) gives d = 7
Check: ed-1 = 3*7 - 1 = 20, which is divisible by phi.
5. Public key = (n, e) = (33, 3)
Private key = (n, d) = (33, 7).
Now say we want to encrypt the message m = 7,
c = m^e mod n = 7^3 mod 33 = 343 mod 33 = 13.
Hence the ciphertext c = 13.
To check decryption we compute
m' = c^d mod n = 13^7 mod 33 = 7.
Note that we don't have to calculate the full value of 13 to the power 7 here. We can
make use of the fact that a = bc mod n = (b mod n).(c mod n) mod n so we can break down a
potentially large number into its components and combine the results of easier, smaller
calculations to calculate the final value.
One way of calculating m' is as follows: -
m' = 13^7 mod 33 = 13^(3+3+1) mod 33 = 13^3.13^3.13 mod 33
= (13^3 mod 33).(13^3 mod 33).(13 mod 33) mod 33
= (2197 mod 33).(2197 mod 33).(13 mod 33) mod 33
= 19.19.13 mod 33 = 4693 mod 33
= 7.

Key Generation Algorithm

Dept. of ISE, GAT 55 Computer Networks Lab

 1. Generate two large random primes, p and q, of approximately equal size such that
their product n = pq is of the required bit length, e.g. 1024 bits.
2. Compute n = pq and (φ) phi = (p-1)(q-1).
3. Choose an integer e, 1 < e < phi, such that gcd(e, phi) = 1.
4. Compute the secret exponent d, 1 < d < phi, such that
ed ≡ 1 (mod phi).
5. The public key is (n, e) and the private key is (n, d). The values of p, q, and phi
should also be kept secret.
 n is known as the modulus.
 e is known as the public exponent or encryption exponent.
 d is known as the secret exponent or decryption exponent.
Note: It is possible to find a smaller d by using lcm(p-1,q-1) instead of phi, lcm(p-1,q-1) =
phi /gcd(p-1,q-1) ).
Encryption
Sender A does the following: -
1. Obtains the recipient B's public key (n, e).
2. Represents the plaintext message as a positive integer m.
3. Computes the ciphertext c = m^e mod n.
4. Sends the ciphertext c to B.
Decryption
Recipient B does the following: -
1. Uses his private key (n, d) to compute m = c^d mod n.
2. Extracts the plaintext from the integer representative m.
Program:
import java.util.*;
import java.math.*;
class RSA
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
Scanner sc=new Scanner(System.in);
int p,q,n,z,d=0,e,i;
System.out.println("Enter the number to be encrypted and decrypted");
int msg=sc.nextInt();
double c;
BigInteger msgback;
System.out.println("Enter 1st prime number p");
p=sc.nextInt();
System.out.println("Enter 2nd prime number q");

Dept. of ISE, GAT 56 Computer Networks Lab

 q=sc.nextInt();

n=p*q;
z=(p-1)*(q-1);
System.out.println("the value of z = "+z);

for(e=2;e<z;e++)
{
if(gcd(e,z)==1) // e is for public key exponent
{
break;
}
}
System.out.println("the value of e = "+e);
for(i=0;i<=9;i++)
{
int x=1+(i*z);
if(x%e==0) //d is for private key exponent
{
d=x/e;
break;
}
}
System.out.println("the value of d = "+d);
c=(Math.pow(msg,e))%n;
System.out.println("Encrypted message is : -");
System.out.println(c);
//converting int value of n to BigInteger
BigInteger N = BigInteger.valueOf(n);
//converting float value of c to BigInteger
BigInteger C = BigDecimal.valueOf(c).toBigInteger();
msgback = (C.pow(d)).mod(N);
System.out.println("Derypted message is : -");
System.out.println(msgback);
}
static int gcd(int e, int z)
{
if(e==0)
return z;
else
return gcd(z%e,e);
}
}

Dept. of ISE, GAT 57 Computer Networks Lab

 Output 1

Dept. of ISE, GAT 58 Computer Networks Lab

 Program No. 10: Using TCP/IP sockets, write a client – server program to make the
client send the file name and to make the server send back the contents of the
requested file if present.

The term network programming refers to writing programs that execute across multiple
devices (computers), in which the devices are all connected to each other using a network.

The java.net package of the J2SE APIs contains a collection of classes and interfaces that
provide the low-level communication details, allowing you to write programs that focus on
solving the problem at hand.

The java.net package provides support for the two common network protocols −

 TCP − TCP stands for Transmission Control Protocol, which allows for reliable
communication between two applications. TCP is typically used over the Internet
Protocol, which is referred to as TCP/IP.

 UDP − UDP stands for User Datagram Protocol, a connection-less protocol that
allows for packets of data to be transmitted between applications.

Sockets are a protocol independent method of creating a connection between processes.

Sockets can be either
 Connection based or connectionless: Is a connection established before
communication or does each packet describe the destination?
 Packet based or streams based: Are there message boundaries or is it one stream?
 Reliable or unreliable: Can messages be lost, duplicated, reordered, or corrupted?

Socket characteristics
Sockets are characterized by their domain, type and transport protocol. Common domains
are:
 AF_UNIX: address format is UNIX pathname
 AF_INET: address format is host and port number
Common types are:
 virtual circuit: received in order transmitted and reliably
 datagram: arbitrary order, unreliable
Each socket type has one or more protocols. Ex:
 TCP/IP (virtual circuits)
 UDP (datagram)

Dept. of ISE, GAT 59 Computer Networks Lab

 Use of sockets:
 Connection–based sockets communicate client-server: the server waits for a
connection from the client
 Connectionless sockets are peer-to-peer: each process is symmetric.
Socket is an interface which enables the client and the server to communicate and pass
on information from one another. Sockets provide the communication mechanism
between two computers using TCP. A client program creates a socket on its end of the
communication and attempts to connect that socket to a server. When the connection is
made, the server creates a socket object on its end of the communication. The client and
the server can now communicate by writing to and reading from the socket. The
java.net.Socket class represents a socket, and the java.net.ServerSocket class provides a
mechanism for the server program to listen for clients and establish connections with
them.

Fig. 1 The client-server application using TCP

Dept. of ISE, GAT 60 Computer Networks Lab

 As shown in the Fig. 1, the following steps occur when establishing a TCP connection
between two computers using sockets –

 The server instantiates a ServerSocket object, denoting which port number

communication is to occur on.

 The server invokes the accept() method of the ServerSocket class. This method waits
until a client connects to the server on the given port.

 After the server is waiting, a client instantiates a Socket object, specifying the server
name and the port number to connect to.

 The constructor of the Socket class attempts to connect the client to the specified
server and the port number. If communication is established, the client now has a
Socket object capable of communicating with the server.

 On the server side, the accept() method returns a reference to a new socket on the
server that is connected to the client's socket.

Program:
Server SideProgram:
import java.io.*;
import java.net.*;
public class FileServer
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
new FileServer();
}
public FileServer()
{
try
{
ServerSocket serversocket=new ServerSocket(8000);
System.out.println("Server Started....");
System.out.println("-----------------------------------------------");
Socket socket=serversocket.accept();
DataInputStream input=new DataInputStream(socket.getInputStream());
DataOutputStream output=new DataOutputStream(socket.getOutputStream());
String str=input.readUTF();
System.out.println("Requested File Name:"+str);
System.out.println("-----------------------------------------------");
String everything;

Dept. of ISE, GAT 61 Computer Networks Lab

 try
{
InputStream in = new FileInputStream(str);
BufferedReader reader = new BufferedReader(new InputStreamReader(in));
StringBuilder out = new StringBuilder();
String line;
System.out.println("Reading Contents of the File...");
System.out.println("-----------------------------------------------");
while ((line = reader.readLine()) != null)
{
out.append(line+"\n");
}
everything= out.toString();
System.out.println("File Contents sent to client...");
System.out.println("-----------------------------------------------");
}
catch(Exception ex)
{
everything="File Not Found!";
}
output.writeUTF(everything);
}
catch(Exception ex)
{
ex.printStackTrace();
}
}
}

Client Side Program:

import java.io.*;
import java.net.*;
public class FileClient
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
new FileClient();
}
public FileClient()
{
BufferedReader bufReader=new BufferedReader(new InputStreamReader(System.in));
try
{
System.out.println("Enter IP address of the server:");
String saddr = bufReader.readLine();
Socket clientsocket=new Socket(saddr,8000);
System.out.println("Connecting to Server....");
DataInputStream input=new DataInputStream(clientsocket.getInputStream());
DataOutputStream output=new DataOutputStream(clientsocket.getOutputStream());

Dept. of ISE, GAT 62 Computer Networks Lab

 System.out.println("Enter File Name:");
String Name=bufReader.readLine();
output.writeUTF(Name);
String EchoedFile=input.readUTF();
System.out.println("-----------------------------------------------");
System.out.println("Content of a File:\n\n"+EchoedFile);
System.out.println("-----------------------------------------------");
clientsocket.close();
}
catch(IOException ex)
{
ex.printStackTrace();
}
}
}

Note: Create two different files Client.java and Server.java. Follow the steps given:
1. Open a terminal run the server program and provide the filename to send.
2. Open one more terminal run the client program and provide the IP address of the server.
We can give localhost address “127.0.0.1” as it is running on same machine or give the IP
address of the machine.
3. Send any start bit to start sending file.
4. Refer https://www.tutorialspoint.com/java/java_networking.htm for all the parameters,
methods description in socket communication.
Output:
Server Side:
Server Started....
-----------------------------------------------
Requested File Name: abc.txt
-----------------------------------------------
Client Side:
Enter IP address of the server:
localhost
Connecting to Server....
Enter File Name:
abc.txt
-----------------------------------------------
Content of a File:

The content of the file will be displayed.

-----------------------------------------------

Dept. of ISE, GAT 63 Computer Networks Lab

CHAPTER 3
ADDITIONAL PROGRAMS (CONTENT BEYOND SYLLABUS)

1. TCP- TWO WAY COMMUNICATION

AIM: To write a java program to implement two-way communication using TCP

(Transmission Control Protocol).

ALGORITHM:

SERVER:
1. Start the Program.
2. Import .net package and other packages.
3. Declare objects for ServerScoket, Socket and printStream to transfer server data.
4. Declare objects for Scoket and DataInputStream to receive client data.
5. Using printStream transfer the data in OutputStream via a port.
6. Run loop to send data from server until an”end or exit” String is transferred.
7. Using the same loop receive data from server and store it in a StringUsing
dataInputStream.
8. print the String to display the server data and exit when an”end or exit” Message is
encountered.

CLIENT:
1. Start the program.
2. Import .net package and other packages.
3. Declare objects for Socket, Socket and PrintStream to transfer54 the client data.
4. Declare objects for Socket and DataInputStream to receive server the data.
5. Using PrintStream transfer the data in OutputStream via a port.
6. Run loop to send data from server until an “end or exit” string is transferred.
7. Using the same loop receive data from server and store it in a String using
DataInputStream.
8. Print the string to display the server data and exit when “send or exit” Message is
encountered.

SOURCE CODE:
CLIENT
import java.io.*;
import java.net.*;
import java.lang.*;
class client1
{
public static void main(String a[])throws IOException
{
Socket s=new Socket("LocalHost",8000);
DataInputStream in=new DataInputStream(s.getInputStream());
DataInputStream inn=new DataInputStream(System.in);
PrintStream dos=new PrintStream(s.getOutputStream());

Dept. of ISE, GAT 64 Computer Networks Lab

 while(true)

{
String str=in.readLine();
System.out.println("message received:"+str);
if(str.equals("end"))
{
s.close();
break;
}
System.out.println("enter the message to send: ");
String str1=inn.readLine();
dos.println(str1);
if(str1.equals("end"))
{
s.close();
break;
} } } }

SERVER
import java.io.*;
import java.net.*;
import java.lang.*;
class server1
{
public static void main(String a[])throws IOException
{
ServerSocket ss=new ServerSocket(8000);
Socket s=ss.accept();
PrintStream dos=new PrintStream(s.getOutputStream());
DataInputStream in=new DataInputStream(System.in);
DataInputStream inn=new DataInputStream(s.getInputStream());
while(true)
{
System.out.println("enter the message to send: ");
String str=in.readLine();
dos.println(str);
if(str.equals("end"))
{
ss.close();
break;
}
String str1=inn.readLine();
System.out.println("message received"+str1);
if(str1.equals("end"))
{
ss.close();
break;
} } } }

Dept. of ISE, GAT 65 Computer Networks Lab

 OUTPUT:

SERVER
enter the message to send: HAI FRIENDS
message received: HELLO
enter the message to send: end

CLIENT
message received: HAI FRIENDS
enter the message to send: HELLO
enter the message to send: end

o UDP- TWO WAY COMMUNICATION

AIM: To write a java program to perform two way message transfer using the user
datagram protocol (UDP).

ALGORITHM:
SERVER:
1. Start the program
2. Import .net and other necessary packages.
3. Declare objects for datagramSocket and DatagramPacket to receive packet
data from server.
4. Receive an object for InetAddress of the LocalHost.
5. Receive the client data using receive() method and store it to a string.
6. Run a loop and store the data in the string until the received message points end.
7. Print the string unless it encounters end.
8. Get user input in the same loop and send data until the user input points end.
9. Convert the user input into bytes and send the byte using DatagramPacket and
DatagramSocket.
10. If end is encountered, exit sending data and program.

CLIENT:
1. Start the program
2. Import .net and other necessary packages.
3. Declare objects for datagramSocket and DatagramPacket to receive packet
data from server.
4. Declare an object for InetAddress of the Local Host.
5. Receive the Server data using receive() method and store it to a st ring.
6. Run a loop and store the data in the string until the received message points
the end.
7 . Print the string unless it encounters end.
8. Get user input in the same loop and send data until the user input points end.
9. Convert the user input into b ytes and send the byte using DatagramPacket and
DatagramSocket.
10. If end is encountered, exit sending data and program.

Dept. of ISE, GAT 66 Computer Networks Lab

 SOURCE CODE:

SENDER
import java.io.*;
import java.net.*;
class sender
{
public static void main(String a[])throws Exception
{
while(true)
{
DatagramSocket ds=new DatagramSocket();
BufferedReader br=new BufferedReader(new InputStreamReader(System.in));
System.out.println("enter the message:");
String message=br.readLine();
byte bl[]=message.getBytes();
InetAddress add=InetAddress.getLocalHost();
DatagramPacket dp=new DatagramPacket(bl,bl.length,add,1234);
ds.send(dp);
if(message.equals("exit"))
System.exit(0);
byte b[]=new byte[255];
DatagramPacket dp1=new DatagramPacket(bl,bl.length);
ds.receive(dp1);String message1=new String(dp1.getData());
System.out.println("received message:" +message1);
}
}
}

RECEIVER
import java.io.*;
import java.net.*;
import java.lang.*;
class receiver
{
public static void main(String a[])throws IOException
{
DatagramSocket ds=new DatagramSocket(1234);
byte b[]=new byte[255];
while(true)
{
DatagramPacket dp=new DatagramPacket(b,b.length);
ds.receive(dp);
String message=new String(dp.getData());
System.out.println("Message Received:"+message);
InetAddress add=dp.getAddress();
int port=dp.getPort();
System.out.println("Enter a line of text to send:");
BufferedReader br=new BufferedReader(new InputStreamReader(System.in));

Dept. of ISE, GAT 67 Computer Networks Lab

 String message1=br.readLine();
byte b1[]=message1.getByte();
DatagramPacket dp1=new DatagramPacket(b1,b1.length,add,port);
ds.send(dp1);
if(message1.equals("exit"))
System.exit(0);
}
}

OUTPUT:
SENDER :
enter the message: GOOD MORNING
received message: HAVE A NICE DAY
enter the message: end

RECEIVER:
Message Received: GOOD MORNING
Enter a line of text to send: HAVE A NICE DAY
Message Received: end

HOW TO SET ENERGY OF NODE

The energy of the mobile node is fixed in ns2 using energy model. The components required
for designing for energy model includes initialEnergy, txPower, rxPower, and idlePower.

set variablename EnergyModel ; #Energy set up

#configure nodes
-energyModel variablename \
-initialEnergy 10 \
-rxPower 0.5 \
-txPower 1.0 \
-idlePower 0.0 \
-sensePower 0.3 \
where,
initial Energy → level of energy node has at the initial stage of the simulation.
rxPower → energy consumed for receiving the packets.
txPower → energy consumed for transmitting the packets.
sensePower → energy consumed for sensing operation.
IdlePower → energy consumed for node the in idle state.

Dept. of ISE, GAT 68 Computer Networks Lab

CHAPTER 4

VIVA QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1) What is a Link?
A link refers to the connectivity between two devices. It includes the type of cables and
protocols used in order for one device to be able to communicate with the other.
2) What are the layers of the OSI reference model?
There are 7 OSI layers: Physical Layer, Data Link Layer, Network Layer, Transport Layer,
Session Layer, Presentation Layer and Application Layer.
3) What is backbone network?
A backbone network is a centralized infrastructure that is designed to distribute different
routes and data to various networks. It also handles management of bandwidth and various
channels.
4) What is a LAN?
LAN is short for Local Area Network. It refers to the connection between computers and
other network devices that are located within a small physical location.
5) What is a node?
A node refers to a point or joint where a connection takes place. It can be computer or device
that is part of a network. Two or more nodes are needed in order to form a network
connection.
6) What are routers?
Routers can connect two or more network segments. These are intelligent network devices
that store information in its routing table such as paths, hops and bottlenecks. With this info,
they are able to determine the best path for data transfer. Routers operate at the OSI Network
Layer.
7) What is point to point link?
It refers to a direct connection between two computers on a network. A point to point
connection does not need any other network devices other than connecting a cable to the NIC
cards of both computers.
8) What is anonymous FTP?
Anonymous FTP is a way of granting user access to files in public servers. Users that are
allowed access to data in these servers do not need to identify themselves, but instead log in
as an anonymous guest.
9) What is subnet mask?
A subnet mask is combined with an IP address in order to identify two parts: the extended
network address and the host address. Like an IP address, a subnet mask is made up of 32
bits.
10) What is the maximum length allowed for a UTP cable?
A single segment of UTP cable has an allowable length of 90 to 100 meters. This limitation
can be overcome by using repeaters and switches.
11) What is data encapsulation?
Data encapsulation is the process of breaking down information into smaller manageable
chunks before it is transmitted across the network. It is also in this process that the source and
destination addresses are attached into the headers, along with parity checks.
12) Describe Network Topology
Network Topology refers to the layout of a computer network. It shows how devices and
cables are physically laid out, as well as how they connect to one another.

Dept. of ISE, GAT 69 Computer Networks Lab

 13) What is VPN?
VPN means Virtual Private Network, a technology that allows a secure tunnel to be created
across a network such as the Internet. For example, VPNs allow you to establish a secure
dialup connection to a remote server.
14) Briefly describe NAT.
NAT is Network Address Translation. This is a protocol that provides a way for multiple
computers on a common network to share single connection to the Internet.
15) What is the job of the Network Layer under the OSI reference model?
The Network layer is responsible for data routing, packet switching and control of network
congestion. Routers operate under this layer.
16) How does a network topology affect your decision in setting up a network?
Network topology dictates what media you must use to interconnect devices. It also serves as
basis on what materials, connector and terminations that is applicable for the setup.
17) What is RIP?
RIP, short for Routing Information Protocol is used by routers to send data from one network
to another. It efficiently manages routing data by broadcasting its routing table to all other
routers within the network. It determines the network distance in units of hops.
18) What are different ways of securing a computer network?
There are several ways to do this. Install reliable and updated anti-virus program on all
computers. Make sure firewalls are setup and configured properly. User authentication will
also help a lot. All of these combined would make a highly secured network.
19) What is NIC?
NIC is short for Network Interface Card. This is a peripheral card that is attached to a PC in
order to connect to a network. Every NIC has its own MAC address that identifies the PC on
the network.
20) What is WAN?
WAN stands for Wide Area Network. It is an interconnection of computers and devices that
are geographically dispersed. It connects networks that are located in different regions and
countries.
21) What is the importance of the OSI Physical Layer?
The physical layer does the conversion from data bits to electrical signal, and vice versa. This
is where network devices and cable types are considered and setup.
22) How many layers are there under TCP/IP?
There are four layers: the Network Layer, Internet Layer, Transport Layer and Application
Layer.
23) What are proxy servers and how do they protect computer networks?
Proxy servers primarily prevent external users who identifying the IP addresses of an internal
network. Without knowledge of the correct IP address, even the physical location of the
network cannot be identified. Proxy servers can make a network virtually invisible to external
users.
24) What is the function of the OSI Session Layer?
This layer provides the protocols and means for two devices on the network to communicate
with each other by holding a session. This includes setting up the session, managing
information exchange during the session, and tear-down process upon termination of the
session.
25) What is the importance of implementing a Fault Tolerance System? Are there
limitations?
A fault tolerance system ensures continuous data availability. This is done by eliminating a
single point of failure. However, this type of system would not be able to protect data in some

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 cases, such as in accidental deletions.
26) What does 10Base-T mean?
The 10 refers to the data transfer rate, in this case is 10Mbps. The word Base refers to base
band, as oppose to broad band. T means twisted pair, which is the cable used for that
network.
27) What is a private IP address?
Private IP addresses are assigned for use on intranets. These addresses are used for internal
networks and are not routable on external public networks. These ensures that no conflicts are
present among internal networks while at the same time the same range of private IP
addresses are reusable for multiple intranets since they do not "see" each other.
28) What is NOS?
NOS, or Network Operating System, is specialized software whose main task is to provide
network connectivity to a computer in order for it to be able to communicate with other
computers and connected devices.
29) What is DoS?
DoS, or Denial-of-Service attack, is an attempt to prevent users from being able to access the
internet or any other network services. Such attacks may come in different forms and are
done by a group of perpetuators. One common method of doing this is to overload the system
server so it cannot anymore process legitimate traffic and will be forced to reset.
30) What is OSI and what role does it play in computer networks?
OSI (Open Systems Interconnect) serves as a reference model for data communication. It is
made up of 7 layers, with each layer defining a particular aspect on how network devices
connect and communicate with one another. One layer may deal with the physical media
used, while another layer dictates how data is actually transmitted across the network.
31) What is the purpose of cables being shielded and having twisted pairs?
The main purpose of this is to prevent crosstalk. Crosstalks are electromagnetic interferences
or noise that can affect data being transmitted across cables.
32) What is the advantage of address sharing?
By using address translation instead of routing, address sharing provides an inherent security
benefit. That's because host PCs on the Internet can only see the public IP address of the
external interface on the computer that provides address translation and not the private IP
addresses on the internal network.
33) What are MAC addresses?
MAC, or Media Access Control, uniquely identifies a device on the network. It is also known
as physical address or Ethernet address. A MAC address is made up of 6-byte parts.
34) What is the equivalent layer or layers of the TCP/IP Application layer in terms of
OSI reference model?
The TCP/IP Application layer actually has three counterparts on the OSI model: The Session
layer, Presentation Layer and Application Layer.
35) How can you identify the IP class of a given IP address?
By looking at the first octet of any given IP address, you can identify whether it's Class A, B
or C. If the first octet begins with a 0 bit, that address is Class A. If it begins with bits 10 then
that address is a Class B address. If it begins with 110, then it's a Class C network.
36) What is the main purpose of OSPF?
OSPF, or Open Shortest Path First, is a link-state routing protocol that uses routing tables to
determine the best possible path for data exchange.
37) What are firewalls?
Firewalls serve to protect an internal network from external attacks. These external threats
can be hackers who want to steal data or computer viruses that can wipe out data in an

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 instant. It also prevents other users from external networks from gaining access to the private
network.
38) Describe star topology
Star topology consists of a central hub that connects to nodes. This is one of the easiest to
setup and maintain.
39) What are gateways?
Gateways provide connectivity between two or more network segments. It is usually a
computer that runs the gateway software and provides translation services. This translation is
a key in allowing different systems to communicate on the network.
40) What is the disadvantage of a star topology?
One major disadvantage of star topology is that once the central hub or switch get damaged,
the entire network becomes unusable.
41) What is SLIP?
SLIP, or Serial Line Interface Protocol, is actually an old protocol developed during the early
UNIX days. This is one of the protocols that are used for remote access.
42) Give some examples of private network addresses.
10.0.0.0 with a subnet mask of 255.0.0.0
172.16.0.0 with subnet mask of 255.240.0.0
192.168.0.0 with subnet mask of 255.255.0.0
43) What is tracert?
Tracert is a Windows utility program that can used to trace the route taken by data from the
router to the destination network. It also shows the number of hops taken during the entire
transmission route.
44) What are the functions of a network administrator?
A network administrator has many responsibilities that can be summarize into 3 key
functions: installation of a network, configuration of network settings, and
maintenance/troubleshooting of networks.
45) Describe at one disadvantage of a peer to peer network.
When you are accessing the resources that are shared by one of the workstations on the
network, that workstation takes a performance hit.
46) What is Hybrid Network?
A hybrid network is a network setup that makes use of both client-server and peer-to-peer
architecture.
47) What is DHCP?
DHCP is short for Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol. Its main task is to automatically
assign an IP address to devices across the network. It first checks for the next available
address not yet taken by any device, then assigns this to a network device.
48) What is the main job of the ARP?
The main task of ARP or Address Resolution Protocol is to map a known IP address to a
MAC layer address.
49) What is TCP/IP?
TCP/IP is short for Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol. This is a set of protocol
layers that is designed to make data exchange possible on different types of computer
networks, also known as heterogeneous network.
50) How can you manage a network using a router?
Routers have built in console that lets you configure different settings, like security and data
logging. You can assign restrictions to computers, such as what resources it is allowed
access, or what particular time of the day they can browse the internet. You can even put
restrictions on what websites are not viewable across the entire network.

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 51) What protocol can be applied when you want to transfer files between different
platforms, such between UNIX systems and Windows servers?
Use FTP (File Transfer Protocol) for file transfers between such different servers. This is
possible because FTP is platform independent.
52) What is the use of a default gateway?
Default gateways provide means for the local networks to connect to the external network.
The default gateway for connecting to the external network is usually the address of the
external router port.
53) One way of securing a network is through the use of passwords. What can be
considered as good passwords?
Good passwords are made up of not just letters, but by combining letters and numbers. A
password that combines uppercase and lowercase letters is favorable than one that uses all
upper case or all lower case letters. Passwords must be not words that can easily be guessed
by hackers, such as dates, names, favorites, etc. Longer passwords are also better than short
ones.
54) What is the proper termination rate for UTP cables?
The proper termination for unshielded twisted pair network cable is 100 ohms.
55) What is netstat?
Netstat is a command line utility program. It provides useful information about the current
TCP/IP settings of a connection.
56) What is the number of network IDs in a Class C network?
For a Class C network, the number of usable Network ID bits is 21. The number of possible
network IDs is 2 raised to 21 or 2,097,152. The number of host IDs per network ID is 2 raised
to 8 minus 2, or 254.
57) What happens when you use cables longer than the prescribed length?
Cables that are too long would result in signal loss. This means that data transmission and
reception would be affected, because the signal degrades over length.
58) What common software problems can lead to network defects?
Software related problems can be any or a combination of the following:
- client server problems
- application conflicts
- error in configuration
- protocol mismatch
- security issues
- user policy and rights issues
59) What is ICMP?
ICMP is Internet Control Message Protocol. It provides messaging and communication for
protocols within the TCP/IP stack. This is also the protocol that manages error messages that
are used by network tools such as PING.
60) What is Ping?
Ping is a utility program that allows you to check connectivity between network devices on
the network. You can ping a device by using its IP address or device name, such as a
computer name.
61) What is peer to peer?
Peer to peer are networks that does not reply on a server. All PCs on this network act as
individual workstations.
62) What is DNS?
DNS is Domain Name System. The main function of this network service is to provide host
names to TCP/IP address resolution.

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 63) What advantages does fiber optics have over other media?
One major advantage of fiber optics is that is it less susceptible to electrical interference. It
also supports higher bandwidth, meaning more data can be transmitted and received. Signal
degrading is also very minimal over long distances.
64) What is the difference between a hub and a switch?
A hub acts as a multiport repeater. However, as more and more devices connect to it, it would
not be able to efficiently manage the volume of traffic that passes through it. A switch
provides a better alternative that can improve the performance especially when high traffic
volume is expected across all ports.
65) What are the different network protocols that are supported by Windows RRAS
services?
There are three main network protocols supported: NetBEUI, TCP/IP, and IPX.
66) What are the maximum networks and hosts in a class A, B and C network?
For Class A, there are 126 possible networks and 16,777,214 hosts
For Class B, there are 16,384 possible networks and 65,534 hosts
For Class C, there are 2,097,152 possible networks and 254 hosts
67) What is the standard color sequence of a straight-through cable?
orange/white, orange, green/white, blue, blue/white, green, brown/white, brown.
68) What protocols fall under the Application layer of the TCP/IP stack?
The following are the protocols under TCP/IP Application layer: FTP, TFTP, Telnet and
SMTP.
69) You need to connect two computers for file sharing. Is it possible to do this without
using a hub or router?
Yes, you can connect two computers together using only one cable. A crossover type cable
can be use in this scenario. In this setup, the data transmit pin of one cable is connected to the
data receive pin of the other cable, and vice versa.
70) What is ipconfig?
Ipconfig is a utility program that is commonly used to identify the addresses information of a
computer on a network. It can show the physical address as well as the IP address.
71) What is the difference between a straight-through and crossover cable?
A straight-through cable is used to connect computers to a switch, hub or router. A crossover
cable is used to connect two similar devices together, such as a PC to PC or Hub to hub.
72) What is client/server?
Client/server is a type of network wherein one or more computers act as servers. Servers
provide a centralized repository of resources such as printers and files. Clients refers to
workstation that access the server.
73) Describe networking.
Networking refers to the inter connection between computers and peripherals for data
communication. Networking can be done using wired cabling or through wireless link.
74) When you move the NIC cards from one PC to another PC, does the MAC address
gets transferred as well?
Yes, that's because MAC addresses are hard-wired into the NIC circuitry, not the PC. This
also means that a PC can have a different MAC address when the NIC card was replace by
another one.
75) Explain clustering support
Clustering support refers to the ability of a network operating system to connect multiple
servers in a fault-tolerant group. The main purpose of this is the in the event that one server
fails, all processing will continue on with the next server in the cluster.
76) In a network that contains two servers and twenty workstations, where is the best

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 place to install an Anti-virus program?
An anti-virus program must be installed on all servers and workstations to ensure protection.
That's because individual users can access any workstation and introduce a computer virus
when plugging in their removable hard drives or flash drives.
77) Describe Ethernet.
Ethernet is one of the popular networking technologies used these days. It was developed
during the early 1970s and is based on specifications as stated in the IEEE. Ethernet is used in
local area networks.
78) What are some drawbacks of implementing a ring topology?
In case one workstation on the network suffers a malfunction, it can bring down the entire
network. Another drawback is that when there are adjustments and reconfigurations needed to
be performed on a particular part of the network, the entire network has to be temporarily
brought down as well.
79) What is the difference between CSMA/CD and CSMA/CA?
CSMA/CD, or Collision Detect, retransmits data frames whenever a collision occurred.
CSMA/CA, or Collision Avoidance, will first broadcast intent to send prior to data
transmission.
80) What is SMTP?
SMTP is short for Simple Mail Transfer Protocol. This protocol deals with all Internal mail,
and provides the necessary mail delivery services on the TCP/IP protocol stack.
81) What is multicast routing?
Multicast routing is a targeted form of broadcasting that sends message to a selected group of
user, instead of sending it to all users on a subnet.
82) What is the importance of Encryption on a network?
Encryption is the process of translating information into a code that is unreadable by the user.
It is then translated back or decrypted back to its normal readable format using a secret key or
password. Encryption help ensure that information that is intercepted halfway would remain
unreadable because the user has to have the correct password or key for it.
83) How are IP addresses arranged and displayed?
IP addresses are displayed as a series of four decimal numbers that are separated by period or
dots. Another term for this arrangement is the dotted decimal format. An example is
192.168.101.2
84) Explain the importance of authentication.
Authentication is the process of verifying a user's credentials before he can log into the
network. It is normally performed using a username and password. This provides a secure
means of limiting the access from unwanted intruders on the network.
85) What do mean by tunnel mode?
This is a mode of data exchange wherein two communicating computers do not use IPSec
themselves. Instead, the gateway that is connecting their LANs to the transit network creates
a virtual tunnel that uses the IPSec protocol to secure all communication that passes through
it.
86) What are the different technologies involved in establishing WAN links?
Analog connections - using conventional telephone lines; Digital connections - using
digitalgrade telephone lines; switched connections - using multiple sets of links between
sender and receiver to move data.
87) What is one advantage of mesh topology?
In the event that one link fails, there will always be another available. Mesh topology is
actually one of the most fault-tolerant network topology.
88) When troubleshooting computer network problems, what common hardware-

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 related
problems can occur?
A large percentage of a network is made up of hardware. Problems in these areas can range
from malfunctioning hard drives, broken NICs and even hardware startups. Incorrectly
hardware configuration is also one of those culprits to look into.
89) What can be done to fix signal attenuation problems?
A common way of dealing with such a problem is to use repeaters and hub, because it will
help regenerate the signal and therefore prevent signal loss. Checking if cables are properly
terminated is also a must.
90) How does dynamic host configuration protocol aid in network administration?
Instead of having to visit each client computer to configure a static IP address, the network
administrator can apply dynamic host configuration protocol to create a pool of IP addresses
known as scopes that can be dynamically assigned to clients.
91) Explain profile in terms of networking concept?
Profiles are the configuration settings made for each user. A profile may be created that puts a
user in a group, for example.
92) What is sneakernet?
Sneakernet is believed to be the earliest form of networking wherein data is physically
transported using removable media, such as disk, tapes.
93) What is the role of IEEE in computer networking?
IEEE, or the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, is an organization composed of
engineers that issues and manages standards for electrical and electronic devices. This
includes networking devices, network interfaces, cablings and connectors.
94) What protocols fall under the TCP/IP Internet Layer?
There are 4 protocols that are being managed by this layer. These are ICMP, IGMP, IP and
ARP.
95) When it comes to networking, what are rights?
Rights refer to the authorized permission to perform specific actions on the network. Each
user on the network can be assigned individual rights, depending on what must be allowed for
that user.
96) What is one basic requirement for establishing VLANs?
A VLAN requires dedicated equipment on each end of the connection that allows messages
entering the Internet to be encrypted, as well as for authenticating users.
97) What is IPv6?
IPv6, or Internet Protocol version 6, was developed to replace IPv4. At present, IPv4 is being
used to control internet traffic, butis expected to get saturated in the near future. IPv6 was
designed to overcome this limitation.
98) What is RSA algorithm?
RSA is short for Rivest-Shamir-Adleman algorithm. It is the most commonly used public key
encryption algorithm in use today.
99) What is mesh topology?
Mesh topology is a setup wherein each device is connected directly to every other device on
the network. Consequently, it requires that each device have at least two network
connections.
100) What is ns2?
ns is an object-oriented,discrete event simulator targeted at networking research. ns provides
substantial support for simulation of tcp, routing, andmulticast protocols over wired and
wireless (local and satellite) networks. Later ns-2 (version 2) was developed at uc berkeley in
c++ and otcl (object-oriented extension of tcl).

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 101) What is simulation?
The process of designing a model of a real system and conducting experiments with this
model for the purpose of understanding the behaviour of the system and/or evaluating various
strategies for the operation of the system.
102) Explain basic architectur of NS-2.
NS-2 consists of two key languages: C++ and Object-oriented Tool Command Language
(OTcl). While the C++ defines the internal mechanism (i.e., a backend) of the simulation
objects, the OTcl sets up simulation by assembling and configuring the objects as well as
scheduling discrete events. The C++ and the OTcl are linked together using TclCL.
103) What is trace file?
The trace file (trace.tr) is a standard format used by ns2. In ns2, each time a packet moves
from one node to another, or onto a link, or into a buffer, etc., it gets recorded in this trace
file.
104) What is nam file?
A visual aid showing how packets flow along the network.
105) Why awk file is used?
The basic function of awk is to search files for lines (or other units of text) that contain
certain patterns. When a line matches one of the patterns, awk performs specified actions on
that line. awk keeps processing input lines in this way until the end of the input files are
reached.
106) What is xgraph?
It is used for plotting purpose comes together NS2 installation package.
107) What different layers of TCP/IP model, does link, node, agent and traffic source
represent in NS-2?
Link represents Network access layer; Node represents Internet layer; Agent represents
Transport layer; and Traffic Source represents Application layer of TCP/IP model.

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