31

F.Y.B.A.
SEMESTER - II
History Paper-I
History of Modern India :
Society & Economy
SUBJECT CODE : UBA 2.28
 © UNIVERSITY OF MUMBAI

Prof. Suhas Pednekar

Vice-Chancellor,
University of Mumbai,

Prof. Ravindra D. Kulkarni Prof. Prakash Mahanwar

Pro Vice-Chancellor, Director,
University of Mumbai, IDOL, University of Mumbai,

Course and Programme : Anil R. Bankar

Co-ordinator Associate Professor of History and
Head Faculty of Arts,
IDOL, University of Mumbai

Editor : Avkash Jadhav

Head, Dept. of History,
St. Xaviers College, Mumbai
Course Writer
Dr. D'mello Dr. R. Cheema
Head, Dept.of History Dept. of History
St. Joseph College, G.N. Khalsa College, Mumbai
Virar, Dist. Palghar
Dr.AjayKumar Lokhande Dr. Pradeep Waghmare
Dept. of History, Dept. of History, Ramnarian Ruia College,
K.V. Pendharkar College, Matunga, L.N.Road, Mumbai - 400019
Dombivli
Dr. Kiran Sawant Anil R. Bankar
Dept. of History, IDOL, Universityof Mumbai,
R.D. National College, Mumbai-400 098
Bandra, Mumbai
Vivek Choube Manisha Saindane
Dept. of History, Dept. of History,
Nagindas Khandwala College, G.N. Khalsa College, Mumbai
Mumbai

March 2021, Print - 1

Published by : Director,
Institute of Distance and Open Learning ,
University of Mumbai,
Vidyanagari, Mumbai - 400 098.

DTP Composed : Ashwini Arts

Vile Parle (E), Mumbai - 400 099.

Printed by :
 CONTENTS
Unit No. Title Page No.

SEMESTER II
1. Socio-Religious Reform
Movements : Reforms & Revival Part - I 01
2. Socio - Religious Reform Movements :
Reforms & Revival Part - II 22
3. Development of Education & It's Impact 40
4. Development of Press 51
5. Transport and Communication 62
6. Impact of the British Rule on Indian Economy :
Revenue Settlements, Commercilization of Agriculture 69
7. Drain theory and Deindustrialization 81
8. Women 98
9. Dalit 117
10. Peasants and Tribals 139


 I

HISTORY OF MODERN INDIA : SOCIETY & ECONOMY

(Revised Syllabus under Semester System)
SEMESTER - II SYLLABUS
Module I: Socio Religious Reform Movements: Reforms and
Revival
a) Brahmo Samaj, Arya Samaj and Ramakrishna Mission
b) Satyashodhak Samaj, Aligarh movement and Singh Sabha
Movement.
c) Impact of Reform Movements
Module II: Education, Press and Transport
a) Introduction of Western Education and its Impact
b) Development of Press
c) Transport and Communications
Module III: Impact of the British Rule on Indian Economy.
a) Revenue Settlements, Commercialisation of Agriculture
b) Drain Theory
c) Deindustrialisation and Growth of Large Scale Industry
Module IV: Nationalism and Social Groups: interfaces.
a) Women
b) Dalits
c) Peasants and Tribals
References:
 Aloysius G., Nationalism Without Nation in India, OUP, New
Delhi, 1998.
 Bandyopadhyay Sekhar, From Plassey to Partition, A
History of Modern India, Orient Longman, New Delhi, 2004.
 Bhattachaterjee Arun, History of Modern India (1707 – 1947),
Ashish Publishing House, New Delhi 1976.
 Chakravarti Aroop, The History of India (1857 – 2000),
Pearson, New Delhi 2012.
 Chandra Bipan et al., India’s Struggle for Independence,
Penguin, New Delhi,
 Chandra Bipan, A. Tripathi, Barun De, Freedom struggle,
National Book Trust, India, 1972.
 Chandra Bipan, Rise and Growth of Economic Nationalism
in India, Delhi, 1966.
 II
 Chattergy Partho, The Nation and its Fragments, OUP, New
Delhi, 1933
 Chopra P.N.,Puri B.N, Das M.N,Pradhan A.C, A
Comprehensive History of Modern India, Sterling
Publishers 2003.
 Desai A.R., Social Background of Indian Nationalism, 5th
Edition,Popular Prakashan, Bombay, 1976.
 Ganachari Arvind, Nationalism and Social Reform in a
Colonial Situation, Kalpaz Publication, New Delhi, 2005.
 Grover B.L, Grover S., A New Look at Modern Indian
History (1707 – present day), S. Chand and Company, New
Delhi 2001.
 Keswani K.B., History of Modern India (1800 – 1964),
Himalaya Publishing House, Bombay 1996.
 Majumdar R.C., Comprehensive History of India, Vol.3 (Part
III), People’s Publishing House.
 Mehrotra S.R., Emergence of Indian National Congress,
Vikas Publication, Delhi, 1971.
 Nanda S.P., History of Modern India (1707 – Present Time),
Dominant Pub, New Delhi 2012.
 Pannikar K.N. (ed). National and Left Movement in India,
Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd... New Delhi. 1980.
 Pawar Jaisinghrao, Aadhunik Hindustanacha Itihas, Vidya
Publications, Nagpur.
 Ray Rajat, Industrialization of India: Growth and Conflict
in the Private Corporate Sector, 1914-47, OUP, Delhi,
1982.
 Sarkar Sumit, Aadhunik Bharat, Rajkamal Publication, New
Delhi, 2009.
 Sarkar Sumit, Modern India 1885-1947, Macmillan, Madras,
1996.
 Seal Anil, The Emergence of Indian Nationalism:
Competition and Collaboration in the Later Nineteenth
Century, Cambridge University Press, 1971.
 Shukla Ramlakhan, Aadhunik Bharat ka Itihas, Hindi
Madhyam Karyalay Nideshalay, Delhi.


 1

Unit - 1
SOCIO - RELIGIOUS REFORM
MOVEMENTS : REFORMS AND REVIVAL
Part - I
A) Brahmo Samaj, Arya Samaj and Ramakrishna Misson.

Unit Structure :

1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 The Brahmo Samaj
1.2.1 Raja Rammohan Roy
1.2.2 Atmiya Sabha
1.2.3 Brahmo Samaj
1.2.4 - Principles of Brahmo Samaj
1.2.5 - Religious Reforms
1. Spread of monotheism
2. Oppositon to idol worship
1.2.6 Social work
1. Abolition of Sati practice
2. Oppositon to Polygamy.
3. Oppositon to the Caste system
4. Suppported the farmers
5. Freedom of Press
1.2.7 Educational work
1. Promotion of Western Education
2. Support for Women’s Education
3. Literary Work
1.3 Arya Samaj
1.3.1 Background
1.3.2 Early life of Dayanand Saraswati
1.3.3 Back to the Vedas
1.3.4 Establishment of the Arya Samaj
1.3.5 Principles of the Arya Samaj
1.3.6 Religious Work
1. Against idolatry
2. Monotheism
 2

3. Shuddhi Movemnt
4. Opposition to Priestly class
5. Opposition to Karmakand
1.3.7 Social work
1. Opposition to caste system
2. Preached equality
3. Opppsiton to child marriage
4. Encouragement to widow remarriage
5. Swadeshi Movement
6. National Awakening
7 Orphanages
1.3.8 Educational Work
1. Dayanand Anglo - Vedic College
2. Gurukulas
3. Encouraged education of women
1. 4 The Ramakrishna Mission
1.4.1 Ramakrishna Paramhansa
1.4.2 Swami Vivekanand
1.4.3 Parliament of world Religions
1.4.4 Establishment of Ramakrishna Mission
1.4.5 Teaching of the Mission
1.4.6 Achievements of the Mission
1. Social service on spiritual Basis
2. Social Reforms
3. Reformed Hinduism
4. Aroused Patriotism
1.5 Summary
1.6 Questions
1.7 Additional Reading

1. 0 OBJECTIVES

After the completion of this unit the student will be able to

1. Perceive the historical background of the socio - religious reform
movements.
2. Explain the life and career of Raja Rammohan Roy and the
Brahmo Samaj.
3. Know the life and career of Swami Dayanand Saraswati and the
work carried out by the Arya Samaj.
4. Understand the work of Swami Vivekanand in and outside India.
 3

1. 1 INTRODUCTION
The events following the Battle of Plassey (1757) and
culminating in the Revolt of 1857 had stirred India to its depths. The
British dominance brought about drastic changes in the various
aspects of people’s life and attitude. The destruction of Indian
polity, the transformation of its economy and the attacks upon its
social system and culture, threatened to convert to the position of
an economic colony and cultural province of the West. Against this
political dependence and intellectual slavery, there arose a protest
which gathered momentum with the passage of time.
The basic ideas and institutions of India were the targets of
the Western challenge. As it became practically impossible for the
Indians to dislodge the British power from the country, they turned
their attention to the social, religious and cultural aspects of the
Western domination. Thus during the first decades of the
nineteenth century, Western impact had started the process of selt-
criticism and reform of religion. During the second half of the
Century, the process acquired greater momentum. The impact of
Western religion, Christianity and rationalism aroused both the
Hindus and Muslims to set their houses in order. They began
torealise that their original religions were defiled due to blind
tradition, acquiescence to evil customs, meaningless rituals,
irrational practices and cruel superstitions. Both Hinduism and
Islam sought to rid themselves of this evils in order that the stream
of spiritual life should flow clear and strong, bearing the individual
and society towards the goal of freedom and happiness.
The various socio-religious reform movements which took
place in India during the British rule were the expression of the
rising national consciousness and spread of the liberal ideas of the
West among the Indian people. These movements increasingly
tended to have a national scope and programme of reconstruction
in the social and religious sphere. Reform of revival necessiated
rejection of elements which were considered incompatible with the
orginal faith. All of the socio-religious reformers were of the opinion
that their political failure and resulting misfortune were due to the
moral decline and social degeneration which was the consequence
of the neglect of true religion.
Check your progress :
1) Trace the historical background of Socio - Religious Reform
movements.
 4

1.2 THE BRAHMO SAMAJ:

The first step in the march from the medieval to the modern
age in India was taken by Raja Rammohan Roy, who is regarded
as the “ Father of Modern India”. He was a remarkable man, who
would have distinguished himself in any age. His achievements
seem the more remarkable when one consider that he was born an
brought up in the last quarter of the eighteenth century which was
one of the darkest periods in Indian history, not only politically and
economically but morally and spiritually. Rammohan Roy was the
first person to rouse the consciousness of his fellow countrymen.
He founded the Brahmo Samaj, which was the Theistic Society.
With this organization Rammohan Roy initiated the socio – religious
reform movement in India. He not only attempted to rationalize the
Hindu religion but promoted western education, published
newspapers and fought for the freedom of the press, agitated for
political and administrative reforms and attacked social evils and
strived hard for their eradication.

1.2.1 Raja Rammohan Roy (1772 – 1833) :

Raja Rammohan Roy was born in an orthodox Brahmin
family in the district of Hoogli in Bengal. After finishing his primary
education Rammohan Roy went to Patna to study Persian and
Arabic through which he understood the essence of the Quran and
Sufi Philosophy. Then he went to Banaras and studied Sanskrit,
literature, law, philosophy, specially the Vedas and Upanishads.
After returning home due to differences with his father on faith
matters he left home, went to Tibet and studied Buddhism. In his
early youth Rammohan Roy was said to have had a great dislike for
the English, but after a favourable experience in the service of the
East India Company, and close contact with worthy Englishmen
like Mr. Digby, he began to alter his opinion. As a man of affairs, he
gradually saw that as the British rule had come to stay it was right
to make terms with it and to utilize the contact with the West for the
good of the Indian people.
 5

1.2.2 Atmiya Sabha :

Raja Rammohan Roy had high regards for Hinduism. He felt
that Hindus have not understood their religion correctly. However
he was against Hindu idolatry, retuals, evil practice of sati, child
marriage and many more existing customs and traditions. He
believed in the equality between man and woman. The supporters
of this kind of thinking came together and formed an association
called as “Atmiya Sabha” ( Society of Friends) in the year 1814 at
Kolkata.

1.2.3 Establishment of the Brahmo Samaj :

Raja Rammohan Roy established the Brahmo Samaj on 20th
August 1828 at Calcutta. Brahmo literally means ‘one who worships
Brahman’ and Samaj means ‘Community of people’. Through this
organization he sought to unite the various communities on the
basis of all religions and make them to realize that they are all the
children of one God. The membership of the Samaj was open to all,
irrespective of religion, caste or creed.

Raja Rammhan Roy and his followers used to attend prayers

in the Christian Church. Some disciples of Raja Rammohan Roy
wanted to have their own place of worship. Finally they hired a
building from Ram Kamal Basu and opened a prayer hall called
‘Brahmo Sabha’ on August 20, 1828 at Kolkata and publicly
inaugurated it on 23rd January 1830 which was later renamed as
Brahmo Samaj.

1.2.4 Principles of Brahmo Samaj :

1. There is only one God, the creator and sustainer of the world,
who is infinite in power, wisdom, love and holiness.
2. The human soul is immortal, capable of eternal progress and
responsible to God for its doings.
3. No created objects (including human beings) are to be
worshipped as God. God manifests himself directly in the
human soul and so no prophets and scriptures are mediators
between God an the soul.
4. Truth is the only religion of Brahmo. Neither Vedas nor any
other scriptures are infalliable. All religious teaching and books
are to be honoured to the extent that they are in harmony with
divine revelation to the soul.
5. God is to be worshipped daily by loving him and doing his will.
6. All human beings are equal before God. Thus there is no
division based upon caste, colour, race or sex.
7. There is no place for idol workship, animal sacrifice, offering
and ritualism.
 6

Check Your Progress :

1) Review the establishment and principals of Brahmo Samaj.

1.2.5 Religious Reforms:

After acquiring sufficient knowledge about different religious
beliefs Raja Rammohan Roy started spreading his religious views.

Following are some of the important religious reforms carried

out by Raja Rammohan Roy.

1. Spread of monotheism
After making comparative study of Islam, Christianity and
Upanishad, Raja Ram advocated monotheism i.e. belief in the
existence of one God. He preached that God is one and believed in
Universal Brotherhood of all irrespective of Caste, creed, religion
etc.

2. Opposition to idol workship

Rammohan opposed idol worship as God did not have any
form. He was a the opinion that the best means of achieving bliss
was through pure spiritual contemplation and worship of the
Supreme Being. According to him the best worship is in which there
is tolerance, love, benevolence and no scope for hatred. All were
free to take part in the activities of Brahmo Samaj. This promoted
religious tolerance among the people.

1.2.6 Social work :

Rammohan Roy was greatly dissatisfied with the existing evil
practices in Indian society. In the name of religion every wrong
doing got a religious sanction. He wanted to eradicate the social
evils in the society, which had come in the name of religion.
Following are some of the social works initiated by Raja
Rammohan Roy.

1. Abolition of sati practice :

Raja Rammohan Roy wanted to improve the condition of the
Indian women. He raised his voice against the inhuman practice of
sati. In 1818 he witnessed the burning of his own sister – in law,
Alakamanjari (wife of his elder brother Jagmohan Roy) whom he
failed to convince not to commit sati. Striken with pity and remorse
he took the vow never to rest till the in-human practice of sati was
 7

abolished. The movement against sati gained widespread approval

from various quarters. Rammohan Roy’s constant struggle against
the evil practice of sati finally succeeded when the East Indian
Company’s Government under Lord William Bentinck declared the
practice of sati as illegal and punishable by law in 1929.

2. Opposition to Polygamy :
Raja Rammohan Roy opposed polygamy and sale of girls for
marriage. He condemned the prevailing practice of kulinism in
Bengal where lower caste girls were married to high caste men for
whom marriage was just a business to marry number of women.
Since the husband deserted the wife after marriage in search of
another woman to marry, the young brides were at the mercy of
their father or brother. Raja Rammohan Roy pointed out that the
Hindu scriptures had permitted the second marriage of men under
certain special circumstances only. Thus he was against the
practice of polygamy.

3. Opposition to the Caste System

Raja Rammohan Roy was very much against the Caste
discrimination and untouchability. He supported the cause of inter –
caste marriage and inter caste dining. He wanted that the people
belonging to all caste should come closer to each other. Through all
this he confronted the orthodox people of the Society.

4. Supported the farmers

Though he was a very rich land lord, he was also very much
against the rich for their following policy of ruthless exploitation of
workers and peasants. He wanted the government to make sure
that the land lords did not arbitrarily increase the rent from their
tenants. He wished that agriculturalists and land owners have
cordial relations. He pleaded strongly with the British Government
for legal protection of tenancy rights of the farmers.
 8

5. Freedom of Press
There was not much awakening regarding the press. All
news was published in English only. Rammohan Roy published a
news paper in Persian called ‘Miratulakhbar’ (The Mirror of News)
and a Bengali weekly called ‘Samvad Kaumudi’ (The Moon of
Intelligence). The Indians had to get prior permission from the
British to publish any news. He believed that free press was one of
the best safeguards of liberty. He along with others petitioned the
British Governmet in 1823 in which he strongly pleaded for the
freedom of press. He reasoned out that it was both in the interest of
the rulers and the ruled that freedom of press should be honoured.
As a result of his efforts Sir Charles Metcalfe the acting Governor
General in 1835 freed the press from any regulations.

1.2.7 Educational Works

Some of the educational works of Roy are as follows.

1. Promotion of Western Education :

Raja Rammohan Roy was equally interested in education,
especially Western education. He was one of the many Indians who
took an active part in the establishment of the Hindu College at
Calcutta in 1817 for the spread of English education. He also
founded the Anglo – Hindu School for encouraging English
education. He persuaded the government to promote not the old
Sanskrit system of learning but a more liberal and enlightened
Western education. In March 1835 Lord William Bentinck issued
the famous education decree upholding Western Education which
marked the fulfillment of his dreams.

2. Support for women’s education :

In traditional Indian society there was a ban on female
education. Women were not encouraged to receive education.
Rammohan was a strong supporter of women’s education.

3. Literarcy work :
Between 1815 and 1820 Rammohan Roy completed 14
major works in Bengali and 10 in English. Since all the Hindu
religious books were in Sanskrit away from the common man, he
translated them into English, Bengali and Hindi and called this
Abridged Version Vedandasaar. In 1820 he published “The
Precepts of Jesus, the Guide to Peace and Happiness”. He was
also the maker of Bengali prose. Before that Begali literature was
all in verse. He also wrote the first Bengali grammar.

For about half a century the Brahmo Samaj vitalized

Hinduism and encouraged secular thinking. It played a significant
role in the renaissance movement in Bengal in particular and in
India in general. The Brahmo Samaj was a pioneer of the
nationalist movement. It inaugurated a new era for the Indian
 9

people by proclaiming the principals of individual freedom, national

unity and the democratization of all social institutions and social
relations. It inspired a number of paralled movements.

Check your progress :

1) What are the achievement of the Brahmo Samaj?

1.3 THE ARYA SAMAJ

1.3.1 Background :
The Arya Samaj was founded by Swami Dayanand
Saraswati. It was more conservative and aggressive than the
Brahmo Samaj. The Brahmo Samaj and the Prathana Samaj were
largely products ofideas associated with the West and represented
Indian response to Western rationalism. They were inspired by
Western learning and Western religions. Whereas the reform
movement initated by Swami Dayanand Saraswati was inspired by
India’s past and derived its basic principles from India’s ancient
scriptures and religion, especially those of Vedic Age.

1.3.2 Early life of Dayanand Saraswati (1824 – 1883) :

Swami Dayanand Saraswati was an important Hindu
scholar, reformer and founder of the Arya Samaj. He was born on
12th February 1824 at Tankara in the princely state of Morvi, in
Gujarat. He was a rebel against his father’s authority from the
beginning, questioning about the traditional beliefs of Hinduism and
inquiring about God. He did not like the polytheistic practices and
idol worship. On Maha Shivratri when he kept fast and stayed
awake at night see whether Lord Shiva would appear to accept the
offerings made to his idol. While his family slept, he saw a mouse
eating the offerings. He found it impossible to reconcile the idea of
an omnipotent, living God with the idol. He was utterly surprised
and wondered how a God who cannot protect even his own
offerings would protect humanity. He argued with his father that
they should not be worshipping such a helpless God. This incident
shattered his faith in idol worship and thereafter he refused to
participate in the religious rites for the rest of his life.
 10

The death of his loving younger sister at the age of fourteen

and later his grand uncle made him to realize the meaning of life
and death. In order to escape from marriage and find out the
realities of life he ran away from the house in the year 1846. He
joined a troupe of mendicants and took the vow of brahmachari ( a
celibate). He renounced the world and took the name Shuddha
Chaitanya. He was initated into Sanyas by Purnanand Saraswati
with all prescribed ceremonies and was given the name Dayanand
and the title Saraswati, one of the ten sub orders of
Sankaracharyas Sanyasis. He was allowed to use the honorific
Swami (master) before his name. For about fifteen years he led the
life of wandering ascetic in search of knowledge, which could
remove all his doubts. Finally he came to Mathura, became the
disciple of a blind sage Virjanand under whom he studied the
Vedas.

After finishing his study of the Vedas, Virjanand asked him to

spread the knowledge of the Vedas in society as his gurudakshina.
Dayanand Saraswati undertook a tour of the entire country, made
fiery speeches condmning the caste system, idolatry and child
marriage. He also started challenging religious scholars and priests
with his new found knowledge of the Vedas. People came in large
numbers to listen to him. Even the kings invited him to deliver
lecture.

1.3.3 Back to the Vedas :

Dayanand was neither influenced by Western education nor
by the monotheistic religions like Christianity or Islam. For him
Vedas were only the source of truth and supreme knowledge. In his
book “Satyartha Prakash” (Ligh of Truth) he laid down his
interpretation of the Vedas.

Swami Dayanand considered that the Vedic religion was true

religion and Vedic society was free from all social evils. There was
 11

neither caste system nor untouchability and women had equal

status in the society. He was convinced about Vedic religion and
therefore he gave a call “Back to the Vedas” for the growth of
spiritual and ethical life. To spread the knowledge of Vedas, to
reform Hinduism and to eradicate the social evils he founded Arya
Samaj.

Check your progess

1) Explain the life of Swami Dayanand Saraswati.

1.3.4 Establishment of the Arya Samaj :

Dayanand Saraswati was a crusader for the cause of Vedic
Hinduism. He considered the Vedas the ultimate reality. To liberate
the Vedas from the custody of the Brahmins and to open them to all
other castes he founded Arya Samaj in Mumbai on 10th April, 1875.
Arya Samaj was a Hindu reform movement, meaning “Society of
the Nobles”. In order to fulfill the mission of his life he spent the rest
of his life in establishing Arya Samaj branches at different places.
Through Arya Samaj he laid the foundation for an egalitarian
society. Arya Samaj condemned idol worship, animal sacrifice,
ancestor worship, priest craft, caste system, untouchability, child
marriage, polytheism, sati practice and discrimination against
women on the grounds that all these lacked Vedic sanction.

1.3.5 Principles of the Arya Samaj :

The members of the Arya Samaj were guided by “Ten
Principles”. They are as follows :

1) God is the primary source of all true knowledge.

2) God is all truth, all knowledge, almighty, immortal, creater of
universe, alone is worthy of worship.
3) The Vedas are the books of true knowledge.
4) An Arya should always be ready to accept truth and renounce
untruth.
5) All actions must be performed after analyzing right and wrong.
6) The principle aim of this Samaj is to promote the world’s well
being, material, spiritual and social.
7) All persons should be treated with love and justice.
8) Ignorance should be dispelled and knowledge increased.
 12

9) Everybody should consider his own good along with others.

10)Social well being of mankind should be placed above the
individual’s well being.

Check your progess

1) What were the principles of the Arya Samaj?

1.3.6 Religious Work :

Swami Dayanand Saraswati was aware of the Chaotic
conditions prevailing in Hinduism. In order to reform Hinduism he
advocated revival of the Vedic religion. Some of the religious
reforms of Swami Dayanand are as follows :

1) Against idolatry :
Arya Samaj fought with the orthodox Brahmin Community
and established that there was no evidence in the Vedas to worship
the idol as God. He explained God who is omnipresent, cannot be
confined under the lock or so called Temples which have become
nothing more than “Religious shops” for the pundits. Thus Swami
Dayanand attacked polytheistic and idolatry beliefs of the Hindus.
He opposed animal and human sacrifices and denouncd rituals and
ceremonies. In 1886 he published a booket in Sanskrit entitled
“Bhagvad Khandanam”. He wanted to free Hinduism from the
clutches of the priests.

2) Monotheism :
He strongly believed in the existence of one God as found in
the Vedas. For him Vishnu, Rudra and Agni did not indicate
different Gods but reffered to the same God and revealed his
different aspects. He propagated that only Vedic religion was true
and asked his followers to follow the Vedas.

3) Shuddhi Movement :
One of the aims of Arya Samaj was to face the challenges of
Islam and Christianity. Many Hindus were converted to these
religions. Through the ceremony of purification he brought back
thousands of converted Hindus to the fold of Hinduism.

4) Opposition to Priestly Class :

Arya Samaj opposed idolatry, rituals and priesthood as
Prevailed in the caste system and opposed popular Hinduism as
 13

preached by orthodox Hindu priest class for their vested interest.

He strongly believed that neither the priestly class was required to
mediate between man and God nor are they the custodians of
Hindu religion. He was against the ignorance and selfish nature of
the priestly class who exploited the common man for their own
good.

5) Opposition to Karmakand :
Swami Dayanand preached that there was no idolatry,
incarnation, pilgrimage, outwardly practices etc., in Vedic religion.
He rejected every belief and custom that could not pass the test of
reason. Therefore he asked the people to give up everything that
was not sanctioned by the Vedas.

Check your progess

1) Describe the religious work of the Arya Samaj.

1.3.7 Social Work :

Swami Dayanand was not just a religious reformer, but a
social reformer as well. Problems like child marriage, idolatry etc.,
existed in the society. Arya Samaj tried to eradicate such evil
practices and also promoted social welfare. Some of the social
work of Swami Dayanand are as follows :

1) Opposition to Caste System :

Swami Dayanand rejected the traditional view that the four
Varna’s were hereditary. He did not believe in the cast system. He
believed and proved that in the Vedas there was no untouchability.
He believed that a person is great or small not by birth but by his
own deeds. He started movement against untouchability and
encouraged intercaste marriage.
 14

2) Preached equality :
Swami Dayanand propagated that all people are born equal
and no one is Brahmin, Vaishya, Kshatriya or Sudra by birth, but
these are according to the profession one chooses and each of
these Varnas are complimentary to each other and none is superior
or inferior to the other. He treated all the members of Arya Samaj
equally and made no difference of caste or creed.

3) Opposition to Child Marriage :

Child marriage was very common prior to independence.
Swami Dayanand propagated against this practice for Hindu
Society. Even now it is prevalent in certain regions. Swami
Dayanand advocated for the abolition of the custom of child
marriage. Arya Samaj fixed the marriage age for boys and girls at
25 and 16 respectively.

4) Encouragement to widow remarriage :

Swami Dayanand encouraged widow remarriage. He
pleaded and aksed the people to stop the barbaric and orthodox
“Sati-Pratha”. To free the widows from the hardship of forced
widowhood Swami Dayanand advocated widow remarriage. He
suggested ‘niyoga’ method for the widow.

5) Swadeshi Movement :
He was a very strong believer of Swadeshi and urged the
people to use the things manufactured in India only. He also gave a
call to boycott foreign made goods. He was a strong votary of
democracy and self government.

6) National Awakening :
Swami Dayanand infused a thought amongst the people that
the British rule in India has not contributed anything towards the
emancipation of our courtry’s welfare. Rather British rule benefited
more to the British than anyone else. So Arya Samaj brought about
national awakening among the people. It also provided great
thinkers and leaders like Lala Lajpat Rai, Swami Shradhanand,
Bipin Chandra Pal, Munshi Ramanand and many others to the
national movement. This national awakening helped the people to
get them organized and fight for freedom.

7) Orphanges :
Arya Samaj opened its first orphanage in Firozepore, Punjab
followed by a chain of orphanages al over the country. Arya Samaj
also opened homes for the widows and destitute women to
accommodate and to train them in some useful profession and to
get them married to suitable partners.
 15

Check your progess

1) State the social work of the Arya Samaj.

1.3.8 Educational work :

Swami Dayanand Saraswati considered education as the
most effective weapon of social and religious reforms. In order to
spread education especially, Vedic knowledge Arya Samaj
established various Gurukulas. The following are some of the
educational works of Swami Dayanand Saraswati and his Arya
Samaj.

1. Dayanad Anglo - Vedic College

In memory of Swami Dayanand his followers established
number of schools, colleges and hostels all over the country. Due
to the efforts of Lala Hansraj the first Dayanand Anglo - Vedic
College at Lahore was opened on 1st July 1886. It offered western
and scientific education under the protective guidance of Indian
culture. The main purpose of this college was to encourage, impore
and enforce the study of Hindu literature, classical Sanskrit and of
the Vedas.

2. Gurukula
Arya Samaj founded number of Gurukulas to encourage
ancient Aryan type of education. The most famous Gurukula at
Kangri, near Hardwar was established by Lala Munshi Ram. Pupils
were admitted at the age of eight years and had to remain for
sixteen years to complete their studies. They had to take the vow of
poverty (simple living), chastity and obedience. Pupils were not
allowed to visit their homes during this long period of training
except under exceptional circumstances. Kangri Gurukula
developed into a famous centre of Vedic studies.

3. Encouraged education of women

In his various lectures, he supported womem’s education.
He argued that even during the period of Vedas women were
treated equally and were educated. He advocated same type of
education for women as for men. He recommended military science
for women. Arya Samaj established large number of girls schools
and college at Punjab.
 16

The Arya Samaj represented a form of the national

awakening of the Indian people. Restricted to a narrow Hindu basis
and with a negative attitude to Islam, it, in course of time, led the
Muslims to mobilize on a corresponding communal basis. It played
a progressive role in the earlier stages when the national
awakening was just sprouting. The Arya Samaj had to aspects, one
progressive and the other reactionary. When it attacked religious
superstitions and the priestly dominance of the Brahimins, when it
denounced polytheism and when further it adopted the programme
of mass education of the elimination of sub-castes, of the equality
of man and woman, it played a progressive role. But when it
declared the Vedas infallible and a treasure house of all knowledge
of the cosmos, past, present and future, when it stood for the
division of the society into four castes though based on merit, it was
playing an anti-progressive role. However, the Arya Samaj played a
progressive role in the earlier stages of Indian Nationalism. But
when the national awakening broadened and deepened, when the
national movement reached greater and greater secular heights, it
became a hindrance to the growth of Indian nationalism by
contributing, though unconsciously to the creation of a belligerent
religio - communal atmosphere.

Check Your Progress :

Q. Explain the educational work of the Arya Samaj.

1.4 THE RAMAKRISHNA MISSION

The Ramakrishna mission brought about a synthesis of the

two great channels, which inspired the Socio - Religious Reform
Movement, namely the Ancient Indian and the Modern Western.
The inspiration was provided by Ramakrishna Paramhansa, but the
Ramkrishna mission was founded by Swami Vivekanand.

1.4.1 Ramakrishna Paramhansa (1836 - 1886) :

Ramkrishna was born in a highly Orthodox Brahmin family in
a small village in the Hoogly district of Bengal. He was deeply
interested in spiritual pursuits. He was a priest in the Kali temple at
Dakshineshwar in Calcutta. He did not have any formal education,
 17

either Eastern or Western, but he led an intense spiritual life in

splendid isolation. He had a deep faith in the hidden truths of all
religions and tested his belief by performing spiritual excercises in
accordance with the practices and usages not only of different
Hindu sects but also Islam and Christianity. He believed in the
service of God through the service of humanity.

1.4.2 Swami Vivekananda (1863 - 1902)

Swami Vivekananda was the most famous among the
disciples of Ramkrishna. Swami Vivekananda was a great
philosopher, nationalist and reformer. He was an extremely
intelligent and exceptionally brilliant student who studied the works
of the great European thinkers like Kant, Desecrates, Hume, Hegel,
Darwin, Comte and others. He was also attracted to the ideals of
the Brahmo Samaj which provided him with an incentive to develop
his progressive outlook on social and religious reforms. But the
Brahmo Samaj could not satisfy the innermost restlessness of his
soul. His meeting with Swami Ramkrishna in 1883 proved to be a
turning point in his life. Ramakrishna proved to be an ultimate
source of inspiration for Swami Vivekananda an inseparable
sprirtual tie of preceptor and disciple was permanently established
between the two.

After the death of Ramakrishna in August 1886, Swami

Vivekananda decided to devote his entire life to work for the ideals
and principles of his great teacher. His learning, eloquence, intense
sprituality and a magnetic personality attracted a number of
admirers and followers. Along with his followers, Swami
Vivekananda organized a monastery at Beranagore in 1887. They
vowed to live and work like ascetics through their monastery. In
1898 the Belier Mutt was founded. A number of monasteries were
eslablished at different places. The monks had to lead a highly
disciplined life of service and dedication.
 18

1.4.3 Parliament of World Religions

In 1893 Swami Vivekananda attended the famous
‘Parliament of World Religion’s at Chicago, U.S.A. It was held to
commemorate the 400th anniversary of the discovery of America by
Columbus. The parliament meeting was an awa-inspiring affair.
About 10,000 persons attended, each one an authority of his own
religion and philosophy, Swami Vivekanand hesitated when his turn
came, but only for a while. Then he got up and started with the
words: “Sisters and Brothers of America”. There was an applause
and this encouraged the Swami to speak boldly referring to
Hinduism as “the Mother of World Religions.” Later on, he read a
paper giving a lucid account of Hinduism. In another speech he
declared: “I came here to seek aid for my impoverished people.”

The Swami captured the imagination of the Americans. The

press went wild with enthusiasm, referring to him by such terms as
“The greatest figure in the Pariament of World Religions.” Mrs.
Annie Besant, who heard him, declared that he “enraptured the
huge multitude.”

He was now in demand everywhere. He went on lecture

campaigns during the Succeeding years. In 1896, he founded the
Vedanta Society of New York. His books on Yoga aroused great
interest in America and Europe. He went to Paris, London and
other cities. Some Universities offered him professorships in
Philosophy and Religion. Several Christian Churchmen cultivated
his friendship. During his journey, he met an Irish lady Miss
Margaret Noble, who become his disciple and came to India as
Sister Nivedita i.e. dedicated. She played an important role in the
Ramakrishna Mission.

1.4.4 Establishment of Ramakrishna Mission

After his return from abroad, Swami Vivekananda
established the Ramakrishna Mission on 5th May 1897, which was
to be more than a mere religious organization. Its main aims and
objectives were :

1) To propogate the teachings of Ramakrishna Paramahansa.

2) To spread the meaning of Vedantic spiritualism far and wide.
3) To strive for a synthesis and harmony among various faiths.
4) To regard the service of man as the service of God.
 19

Check Your Progress

Q. Write a note on Swami Vivekananda & Ramakrishna

Paramahansa.

1.4.5 Teachings of the Mission

Through his speeches and writings, Vivekananda brought
out the essence of Hindu culture and religion. In a remarkable feat,
he instilled among the Indian masses a feeling of pride about
Indian’s brilliant past. He urged the people not to be superstitious
and fanatical about religion. In his messages, he emphasized on
the meeting of the East and the West. The negative campaign of
the Christain missionaries was not to his liking. Through the
Ramakrishna Mission, Vivekananda tried his best to revive the
greatness of Hinduism.

The Mission stood for social service, eradication of

untouchability, emancipation of women, purification and
preservation of Indian culture, Character building and arousing
nationalism.

1.4.6 Achievements of the Mission :

1. Social Service on Spriritual Basis

Social service was to be done not as a philanthropic
measure, but on a sprirtual basis. The Ramakrishna Mission wa
easily able to organize institutions for the sick, the destitute, the
aged to run school, colleges, dispensaries, hostels to disseminate
spiritual literature; and to serve society in numerous ways.

2. Social Reforms
Vivekananda was fearless and spoke openly against
untouchability and miserable condition of women. He worked with
great vigour and dedication for the uplift of the people of India. In
his perception, serving the downtrodden was the greatest service to
mankind.

3. Reformed Hinduism
Vivekananda believed that Indian spirituality and philosophy
was the best in the world. He even said that the Vedanta was
destined to be the religion of mankind. He believed that the study of
Vedanta would make a Christian a better Christian and a Hindu a
 20

better Hindu. But at the same time, he was very critical towards
Hinduism and wanted to reform Hinduism by removing all the
impurities from it such as superstitions and ritualism.

4. Aroused Patriotism
Vivekananda nurtured India’s nascent nationalism. He
instilled confidence among his fellow countrymen, regarded
weakness as sin and motivated them for the worship of Shakti. He
insisted on the abandonment of worship of all vain Gods and
Goddesses and initated the people into the worship of Mother India
for the country’s regeneration. His call to the youth of the Country
was, “Arise, awake and stop not till the goal is reached.” He
strongly criticized the tendency of blindly aping the West.

Thus we note that the Ramakrishna Mission had both

national and international aims and outlook; and it combined the
best elements of Ancient India and Western Thought.

Check Your Progress

Q. Explain the teachings and achievements of the Ramakrishna

Mission.

1.5 SUMMARY

The nineteenth century in India was the century of

unprecedented intellectual ferment in the field of social and
religious reforms. It was the century of intraspection, reassessment,
reinterpretation and regeneration of ancient thought and culture in
the light of Western thought and culture. There emerged a number
of reform movements in Hinduism. All these contributed in various
ways to the furthering of Indian Renaissance. Of these, the Brahmo
Samaj, the Arya Samaj and the Ramakrishna Mission played major
role in redepending the principles and practices of Hinduism.

1.6 QUESTIONS
1. Examine the role of Raja Rammohan Roy towards the socio -
religious reform movements in the 19th century.
 21

2. Highlight the contribution of Swami Dayananda Saraswati and

the Arya Samaj towards the socio - religious reform movements
during the 19th century.
3. Give an account of the life and achievements of Swami
Vivekananda.

1.7 ADDITIONAL READING

1. Chopra, P.N., Puri B.N. and Das M.N. A Social, Economic and
Cultural History of India, Vol.III (Modern India), Macmillan and
Co, New Delhi, 1974.
2. Desai, A.R, Social Background of Indian Nationalism, Popular
Prakashan, fifth edition, Bombay, 1976.
3. Ghose, Sankar, The Renaissance to Militant Nationalism in
India, Allied Publishers, Bombay, 1971
4. Heimsath, Charles, Indian Nationalism and Hindu Social
Reform, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1964
5. Jones, K.W., The New Cambridge History of India: Socio -
religious reform Movements in British India, Cambridge
University Press, Cambridege, 1989.
6. Karunakaran, K.P, Religion and Political Awakening in India,
Meenakshi Prakashan, Meerut, 1969.
7. Majumdar, R.C. (Ed), History and culture of the Indian People,
Vol. X, British Paramountry and Indian Renaissance, Part II,
Bhartiya Vidya Bhavan, 1963-65.
8. Sen Amiya (Ed.) Social and Religious reform, Oxford University
Press, New Delhi, 2003.


 22

Unit - 2
SOCIO - RELIGIOUS REFORM
MOVEMENTS:
REFORMS AND REVIVAL-Part - II
B) Satyashodhak Samaj, Aligarh Movement and Singh Sabha
Movement
C) Impact of Reform Movements
Unit Structure

2.0 Objectives
2.1 Satyashodhak Samaj
2.1.1 Background
2.1.2 Early life of Jotiba Phule
2.1.3 Establishment of Satyashodhak Samaj
2.1.4 Aims and objectives of Satyashodhak Samaj
2.1.5 Principles of Satyashodhak Samaj
2.1.6 Social Work
1. Upliftment of women
2. Upliftment of untouchables
3. Farmers’ upliftment
4. Mill workers’ welfare
5. Campaign against liquor
6. Famine relief measures
2.1.7 Educational work
1. Promotion to female education
2. Promotion to education for the lower castes
3. Free and compulsory education
4. Establishment of other schools
5. Specific syllabus
2.2 Aligarh Movement
11.2.1 Background
11.2.2 Sir Syed Ahmed Khan
11.2.3 Sir Syed as Reformer
11.2.4 Sir Syed as an Educationalist
11.2.5 Loyal to the British rule
2.3 Singh Sabha Movement
 23

2.3.1 Background
2.3.2 Establishment of Singh Sabha
2.3.3 Objectives of the Singh Sabha
2.3.4 Activities of the Singh Sabha
2.4 Impact of Reform Movements
1. Changed attitude towards religious evils
2. Attempt to remove social evils
3. Spread of modern Education
4. Contribution to the Press
5. Contribution to Literature
6. Emancipation of Women
7. Political awakening became easier
8. Awareness of equality
9. The need of unity
2.5 Summary
2.6 Questions
2.7 Additional Reading

2.0 OBJECTIVES

After the completion of this unit the student will be able to

1. Review the work of the Satyashodhak Samaj as a non-
Brahmanical Movement.
2. Perceive the role of Sir Syed Ahmed khan in the Aligarh
Movement.
3. Explain the achievements of the Singh Sabha Movement.
4. Analyse the impact of socio - religious reform movements in
India in 19th century.

2.1 SATYASHODHAK SAMAJ

2.1.1 Background :
The struggle for social equality by the so-called depressed
classes in Maharashtra was initially led by Jotiba Phule. He was a
great activist, thinker, social reformer, writer, philosopher,
theologian, scholar and revolutionary from Maharashtra. All his life
he carried on a vigorous campaign against the supremacy of the
Brahmins. He was a radical reformer, whose entire life was
dedicated to his twin goals of education of women and uplift of the
lower castes. He also stove for the betterment of the peasants and
workers. He wrote profusely against the evil customs and practices
of Hindus and also against the Brahmins, who claimed to be
arbiters in these matters. In 1873 he founded the ‘Satyashodhak
Samaj’.
 24

2.1.2 Early life of Jotiba Phule (1827 - 1890)

Mahatma Jotiba Phule was born on 11th April 1827 in a Mali
family in the village of Katgun, in Satara district. Jotiba’s family was
knows as gorhys, supplied flowers to the Peshwas, therefore, they
came to be called as “Phule” After completing his primary school
educaton, he started helping his father and married Savitribai at the
age of twelve as it was the custom. Later with the efforts of two of
his neighbours, one Muslim teacher and a Christian gentleman he
joined Scottish Missions High School at Pune. Under the influence
of Christian missionaries he realized the importance of education,
social reform and universal humanism. He was influenced by
Thomas Paine’s thoughts in his book ‘Rights of Man’. He was also
greatly inspired by the lives of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj and
George Washington.

Jyotirao Phule and Savitribai Phule.

Mahatma Phule was a critic of Hindu religion and denounced

chaturvarna system. He opposed the Vedas and refused accept the
role of a Brahmin priest during marriage and religious rituals. He
rejected ‘Manusmriti’ and denouned the Hindu scriptures. He was
of the opinion that religious books were created by the Brahmins to
suit their selfish interest. He wanted to uplift the status of the lower
castes. To achieve his objective he established Satya Shodhak
Samaj.

2.1.3 Establishment of Satyashodhak Samaj

Satya Shodhak Samaj (Society of truth seekers) was the first
non Brahmin movement in India started by Mahatma Phule on
September 24th 1873 at Pune to uplift the lower castes from the
clutches of high caste. The objective of the samaj was to assert the
worth of man irrespective of the caste. The samaj was engaged in
many social, religious and educational reforms. Satyashodhak
Samaj actively promoted the spread of education among the lower
 25

castes and women and condemned the caste system. It had three
great ideals:- a) Equality b) Brotherhood c) Non requirement of
middlemen in religious matters.

All people were free to join Satyashodhak Samaj irrespective

of their caste and creed. Every member had to take a pledge of
loyalty to the British rule. This is because the British Government
had brought modern education to India and had created the
opportunities for the lower castes. There was no room for any
political discussion since British always looked suspiciously at the
Indian organizations. Since Mahatma Phule’s organization was not
political, even British government invited him to address regiment of
the army.

2.1.4 Aims and objectives of the Satya Shodhak Samaj

1. To liberate the Shudras and Anti-shudras from the influence of

Brahmanical scriptures under which the Brahmin priests
exploited them to make them conscious of their human rights
and to free them from mental and religious slavery.
2. That all men are the children of one God,who is thus their
parent.
3. There is no requirement of intermediary such as priest or a
preceptor to approach the mother or father to offer his or her
prayers to god.
 26

2.1.5 Principles of the Satyashodhak Samaj

1. There is only one God omnipresent, formless, creator and truth
and all humans are his children.
2. All have the rights for worship of one God and there is no need
for priestly meditation.
3. A person becomes great not by his birth but by his qualities.
4. Religious books are not written by God. So they are not
authentic.
5. Rebirth, religious fasts, rituals, recitation of God’s name and
religious offerings are all due to man’s ignorance.

Check Your Progress

Q. Discuss the aim, objectives and principles of the Satyashodhak

Samaj.

2.1.6 Social work

Mahatma Phule wanted to reform religious beliefs of the
lower castes and was also interested in their well being. Practices
like child marriage, ban on widow remarriage, untouchabiltiy,
illiteracy, exploitation of the lower castes and women were
prevalent in the society. Mahatma Phule tried to eradicate all such
evils. His social works are as follows.

1. Upliftment of women
In a patriarchal Indian society women suffered a lot. Their
position was subordinate to men. All women were suppressed and
oppressed in the traditional Indian society. Mahatma Phule strongly
condemned the practice of child marriage and promoted widow
remarriage. He established orphanages for widows and looked
after the unwanted children of the widows who otherwise would
have killed them in their infancy.

Mahatma Phule was the champion of equality not only

between man but also equality of man and woman. He was of the
opinion that both men and women were entitled to enjoy equal
rights and it was a sin to discriminate between human beings on
the basis of sex. Therefore he strongly felt the need for female
education and started schools exclusively for girls. By starting three
 27

schools only for girls, he tried to promote female education and

uplift their position in society.

Mahatma Phule advocated widow remarriage and

denounced polygamy and child marriage. Child marriage was
common among Brahmins and other upper castes among the
Hindus. Widow remarriage was strictly prohibited. Satya Shodhak
Samaj helped the widows to remarry. In marriage he refused to
accept the role of a Brahmin priest and had their own system of
marriage. He was against the inhuman practice of ‘Keshavpan’
(Shaving off widow’s hair). In this regard he organized a strike of
the barbers. He had to suffer at the hands of arthodox people fo
promoting widow remarriage, yet he continued his efforts to
promote the same.

Mahatma Phule openly supported widow remarriage and

attacked the practice of female infanticide. Due to the practice of
child marriage child widowhood was also very high. A widower
could remarry and widows were prohibited by the society to
remarry. Young widows very often became victims of forced sex
and unwanted children were born to them without any social
recognition. Many a times out of shame and guilt these widows
either commited suicide or resorted to abortion. Therefore in order
to protect these illegitimate children of widows he established
“Balhatya Pratibandak Griha” (Home for prevention of infanticide) in
the year 1863.

He also started orphanages for abandoned children,

deserted women and child widows. He gave protection to pregnant
widows and assured them that the orphanage would take care of
their children. He even adopted the son of a Brahmin widow
Kashibai and named him Yashwant.

2. Upliftment of untouchables
Like upliftment of women, Mahatma Phule also tried to work
for the upliftment of the untouchables. Mahatma Phule was well
aware of the inhuman practice of untouchability and had personally
experienced the atrocities at the hands of the high caste. Since he
was from a lower caste (Mali), he was insulted and humiliated by
the relatives of his high caste friend when he had joined them in the
marriage procession. This insult became a turning point in his life
and he vowed to eradicate the caste system from the society. He
campaigned vigorously for social equality and abolition of the caste
system. He allowed the untouchables to draw water from his well.
He admitted all including the untouchables in his organization. He
firmly belived that low castes were the original inhabitants of the
country and the Aryans (Brahmins) who created the caste system
were outsiders. All through his life Mahatma Phule worked for the
welfare of the lower castes.
 28

3. Farmers’ upliftment
Mahatma phule also worked vigorously for the upliftment of
the famers. In his book ‘Shetkaryancha Assud’ (Cultivators
whipcord) he highlighted the problems of the farmers. He tried to
free the farmers from the clutches of money lenders. He helped
them to get loans from the government, water for irrigation, as well
as seeds and fertilizers. He also tried to provide education to
farmers children.

4. Mill workers’ welfare

Mahatma Phule was interested in the welfare of the mill
workers. The problems of the mill workers, injustice an exploitation
of the workers were highlighted through the weekly ‘Deenbandhu’
which was edited by Narayan Meghaji Lokhande. Along with
Lokhande, Mahatma phule also address the meetings of the textiles
workers in Mumbai and established textile workers union. He also
presented the problems of the textile workers to the British
Government.
5. Campaign against liquor
Mahatma Phule was very much against the drinking habit of
the people. Through education among the backward classes, he
created awareness among the masses regarding the evils of
drinking. He requested the Pune Municipal council not to issue new
licenses to open liquor shops.
6. Famine relief measures.
In 1877 Maharashtra was severely affected by the famine
which forced the people to leave their villages. Many people left
behind their children as they moved out of their village. To look
after these orphan children Mahatma Phule started Victoria
orphanage on 17th May 1877. These orphan children were given
food and shelter until their parents returned.
Check Your Progress

Q. Describe the Social Work of the Satya Shodhak Samaj.

2.1.7 Educational Work

Mahatma Phule worked tirelessly in the field of education for
the upliftment of lower castes and women. He was the advocator of
low caste and female education. Some of the important educational
works of Phule are as follows.
 29

1. Promotion to female education

Female education was prohibited in the traditional Indian
society. Somehow it was impossible for girls to receive education
as no school admitted them. So education of female became
Mahatma Phule’s priority. In 1848 he started the first school for girls
in Pune. Since no teacher dared to come forward to teach the girls,
Mahatma Phule had to train his wife Savitribai to teach in the
school. Mahatma Phule and his wife had to face strong opposition
from the orthodox people but refused to give up this noble
endeavor.

2. Promotion to education for the lower castes

Like women lower castes were also deprived of education as
it was the monopoly of high castes. Phule believed that the
progress of the country is impossible without educating the lower
castes. Brahmins always considered the lower castes as unfit for
education. In the year 1851, he began his mission by starting a
school for untouchables boys and girls and three schools only for
girls. He personally took keen interest in getting the children
admitted in the schools.

3. Free and compulsory education

Mahatma Phule was aware of the need of primary education
for the masses who were neglected in the Bombay (Mumbai)
Presidency. He criticized the British government for spending a
large portion of revenue on the education of the higher castes
which resulted in social inequality. In the year 1882 he demanded
free and compulsory education for all before the Hunter
Commission. Thus he made the British government aware of the
need of education for the masses.

4. Establishment of other schools

Mahatma Phule also established adult schools and night
schools as well as a training school for the teachers.
5. Specific syllabus
Mahatma Phule framed specific syllabus for the children in
his schools taking into consideration their environment, abilities,
family backgrounds etc.
Mahatma Phule was the first Indian to proclaim in modern
India the dawn of a new age for the common man, the Indian
woman. He was the first Indian to start a school for the
untouchables and a girls’ school in Maharashtra. According to
Dhananjay Keer, Phule believed in honestly working for his
livelihood. He was almost the first public man in modern India to
devote his time to serving the masses. By his emphasis on Truth,
Equality and Humanism, this great son of Maharashtra carved out
for himself, in the company of modern Indian’s great thinkers and
reformers, a permanent place.
 30

Check Your Progress

Q. Describe the educational work of the Satya Shodhak Samaj.

2.2 ALIGARH MOVEMENT

2.2.1 Background of the Aligarh Movement

The Aligarh Movement was started by Sir Syed Ahmed
Khan, which aimed at the welfare of the Muslims through Western
education and support of the British Government. Muslim reaction
to the British conquest of India was different from the Hindu
reaction. The Muslims looked upon the British as their bitter foes
who had usurped their political authority and privileges. On the
other hand the Hindus had welcomed the British rule as deliverance
from the Muslim tyranny. The Muslims kept away from the British
secular education whereas the Hindus made great strides in the
new education and were therefore able to enter government
services in large numbers. The difference between the Hindu and
the Muslims can be realised from the fact that between 1858 and
1878 only 57 Muslims were able to get their degrees while there
were as many as 3,155 Hindu graduates.

Before the British rule was established in India the Muslims

were the rulers. They had all the advantages of a rulling class.
Their mother tongue was the language of the Court and the
administration. They enjoyed influence and high emoluments as
birth rights. Having lost their political power they had now come
down to the level of the Hindus. Having opted themselves out of
education they became poor and backward. They were also ousted
from their lands and administrative posts. Their attitude to politics
and the national movement was different from that of the Hindus.
They kept themselves aloof from politics and the national
movement and they did not participate in any organization any
where. It was against this background that Sir Syed Ahmed Khan
began his movement for Muslim regeneration. It has been aptly
said that he was to the Muslims what Raja Rammohan Roy was to
the Hindus in the early 19th century.

2.2.2 Sir Syed Ahmed Khan (1817 – 1898)

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan was deeply concerned at the
depressed position of the Muslims and raising them from their
 31

backwardness became his lifelong passion. He did much to raise

the Muslim community from their feelings of depression. He
realised that the Muslims could rise only with the acceptance of
English education and through co-operation with the British
authorities.

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan was born on 17th October 1817 in

Delhi in a respectable upper class Muslim family, he received
education in the traditional Muslim style. He was a great scholar,
educationist, reformer and nationalist. Belonging to a noble family
of high position an repute in Mogul days, he later on learned
English and joined the lower ranks of the judicial service of the East
India Company in 1837 and steadily rose till he reached the highest
position so far reached by an Indian Muslim, i.e. membership of the
Governor-General’s Legislative Council. In the Revolt of 1857, he
remained loyal to the British. So he became highly influential but he
used this influence only for the upliftment of his fellowmen.

After his retirement from the service, he devoted himself to

the cause of Muslim socio – religious reformation. He took upon
himself the triple task of religious interpretation, social reform and
spread of education. For this, he chose the city of Aligarh, the
predominantly Muslim area as the centre of his activities.

2.2.3 Sir Syed as Reformer

Much credit is due to Sir Syed for promoting an ‘awakening’
among the Muslims. He wanted to bring about a synthesis between
Muslim culture and Western thought. He appealed to the Muslim to
learn English and adopt some degree of westernization. He
 32

condemned social evils like slavery, superstitions, purdah and

polygamy and wanted the emancipation of women. He started a
magazine called ‘Reform of Morals’ (Tahzib-ul-Akhalag) through
which he tried to propagate his progressive ideas. The orthodox
Muslim elements called him a “traitor to Islam”. Actually Sir Syed
was a great champion of the Muslims and Islam. He wrote a
commentary on the Koran and gave modern interpretations to the
Islamic teachings through Urdu pamphlets. He declared that Islam
was based on Reason and therefore Islam was not opposed to
science and modernity. He declared , “The word of God should be
interpreted by the work of God, which lies before all to see.”

2.2.4 Sir Syed as an Educationist

Sir Syed realised that the sorry plight of the Muslims was
due to their aversion to English education and their hostility to the
British. He appealed to the Muslims to be on good terms with the
British and he appealed to the British to ignore the Muslim role in
the Revolt of 1857 and the Wahabi Movement. His appeals came at
a time when the British were realizing that the challenge to British
rule would not come from the orthodox Muslim aristocracy, which
was decaying, but from the rising Bourgeoisie, which was mostly
Hindu. So the British gave every encouragement to Sir Syed in
order to win over the Muslims. They helped him to fight Muslim
orthodoxy. Sir Syed fought Muslim orthodoxy as Ram Mohan
fought Hindu orthodoxy. In 1864, Sir Syed established an English
School at Ghazipur. In 1865, he started a Society to translate
English works into Urdu.

With the full backing of the bureaucracy, on May 24, 1875

the birth anniversary of Queen Victoria, he founded the
Mohammedan Anglo-Oriented College (MAO) at Aligarh, which
marked the beginning of the Aligarh Movement. Later this college
became the Aligarh Muslim University in 1920. This college
promoted higher education among the Muslims and fostered
among them a modern outlook and a feeling of unity. Along with
Muslim religion, it provided education in humanities and science
through English medium and many of its staff members came from
England. The college received support from the leading Muslims
throughout India and the British showed much interest both officially
and otherwise in its development. Soon Aligarh became the centre
of religious and cultural revival of the Muslim community.

2.2.5 Loyal to the British rule

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan opposed the idea of the Muslims
joining hands with the Indian National Congress. He advised his
community to eschew politics and to devote its energies to
education. He opposed the activities of the Indian National
Congress. He believed that the Indian were not yet ready to govern
themselves and that their interests would be best served by
 33

remaining loyal to the British rule. His loyalty to the British earned
him a Knighthood in 1888. He founded the Indian Patriotic
association with the support of some Hindu and Muslim leaders to
oppose the Congress and tried to dissuade the Muslims from
joining the Congress. He wanted more time for the Indian Muslims
to organize and consolidate their position and thought that this
could be best done by maintaining good relations with the British
rulers.

It has been rightly pointed out that Sir Syed and his Aligarh
movement were responsible for the widening gap between the
Muslims and the Hindus. But looking at the movement from the
point of view of the Muslims the fact remains that he raised the
Muslim community from the slough of despondency in which it had
sunk after the outbreak of 1857. He deserved the highest praise for
his love of the community and the far sighted vision which he
displayed regarding the problems of the Muslims. From 1858 right
up to his death in 1898, he dominated a sizable section of Muslim
public life in India.

Check Your Progress

Q. Describe the role of Sir Syed Ahmed Khan in the Aligarh
movement.

2.3 THE SINGH SABHA MOVEMENT

2.3.1 Background
In 1877, Swami Dayanand Saraswati, the founder of the
Arya Samaj came to Punjab where he set up a branch of the Arya
Samaj at Lahore. Shuddhi-purification movement, was an important
part of its activities and it gained many Hindu a Sikh adherents.
Very soon the orthodox Sikhs realised that Swamiji’s belief in the
infallibility of the Vedas was absolute and uncompromising. To him
the Granth of the Sikhs was a book of secondary importance and
the Sikh Gurus were men of little learning. He denounced Nanak as
“Dambhi” (hyporite). The Swami was contemptuous of the Sikh
neologians because of their ignorance of Sanskrit.

In these circumstances the Sikhs turned their back on the

Swami an his Arya Samaj. At about the same time winds of change
began to blow in the Punjab. The Christian Mission, the Brahmo
 34

Samaj and the Theosophists began their work in Punjab. The

literary and educational movement gathered momentum. The
Hindus and the Muslims started their own colleges and schools
only the Sikhs lagged behind.

2.3.2 Establishment of the Singh Sabha

The Singh Sabha was a prominent socio-religious movement
in Punjab. The first Singh Sabha was founded at Amritsar on 1st
October, 1873. Sir Khem Singh Bedi, Thakur Singh Sandhawalia,
Kanwar Bikram Singh of Kapurthala and Gyani Gian Singh were
some of the prominent people who helped in founding the Singh
Sabha. Sandhawalia was the President and Gyani Gian Singh was
the secretary of the first Singh Sabha.

2.3.3 Objectives of the Singh Sabha

The main objectives of the Singh Sabha were as follows :

1. To bring about Western enlightenment through new learning.

2. To counter act the activities of the Christian Missionaries as well
as of the Hindu revivalists like the Arya Samaj.
3. To propagate the true Sikh religion and restore Sikhism to its
pristine glory.
4. To edit, publish and circulate historical and religious books.
5. To propagate current knowledge using Punjabi as the medium
and to start magazines and newspapers in Punjabi.
6. To reform and bring back into the Sikh fold the apostates.
7. To interest the high placed Englishmen in and ensure their
association with the education programme of the Sabha
8. To avoid criticism of other religions and discussion of political
matters.

Check Your Progress

Q. Discuss the objective of the Singh Sabha.

2.3.4 Activities of the Singh Sabha

The Singh Sabha used to meet every two weeks, hold
anniversary celebrations and special meetings on festival days or in
response to specific challenges by other religious groups. It
 35

represented the leaders of the Sikh community. The members of

the landed gentry, the aristocracy and also various types of temple
servants like the Pujaris, the Granthis, the administrator of the
Gurudwaras and the descendants of the Gurus joined the Singh
Sabha.

In 1879 another Singh Sabha was formed at Lahore. It was

led by a group of educated and energetic men of middle class. The
Governor of Punjab, Sir Robert Egerton, became its patron and he
also induced the Viceroy, Lord Landsdowne, to extent his support.
The Lahore Singh Sabha opened branches in many towns, sent
missionaries to villages and began publishing journals in Punjabi. In
1883, the Lahore and Amritsar Singh Sabhas were merged but
their merger proved a failure. The Lahore group was radical and
was opposed to the institution of “Gurudom”. They clashed on the
right of the untouchables among the Sikhs to worship in the
Gurudwaras. The conservatives supported the priest and
dissociated themselves from the movements.

The rapid expansion of the Arya Samaj and the anti-Sikh

bias of many of its leaders was a challenge to the Singh Sabha
movement. It also brought about the final rapture between the Arya
Samaj and some of its Sikh supporters. The two Singh Sabhas
once again came together to establish the Khalsa College at
Amritsar in March 1892.

The Singh Sabha witnessed the modern development and

emergence of new cultural and political aspirations. The most
important aspect of the Singh Sabha movement was educational
and literary. Hundreds of Khalsa Schools were established all
across Punjab. The teaching of Gurumukhi and the Sikh scriptures
were compulsory in these khalsa schools. The impetus given to
education in its turn stimulated the publication of books, magazines
 36

and newspapers. “The Khalsa Akhbar”, a weekly and “Khalsa

Samachar”, a daily were founded in 1899. Vir Singh started the
Khalsa Tract Society and published literature on different aspects of
Sikh history and religion. A number of books, both in English and
Gurumukhi, were published. Gyani Gyan Singh’s “Panth Prakash”
and “Tavarikh Guru Khalsa” in Gurumukhi and M.A. Mecauliffe’s
work on the life and teachings of the Gurus, in English were some
of the important books published.

The Singh Sabha movement not only checked the relapse of

the Sikhs into Hinduism but retaliated by carrying proselytesing
activities into the Hindu society. A large number of Northen and
Western Punjab and Sind Sikhs became Sahajadhari Sikhs and
later they were baptised to become the Khalsa. Although the Singh
Sabha movement petered out in the 1920’s it left a legacy of
chronically defensive attitude towards Hinduism.

Check Your Progress

Q. Explain the activities of the Singh Sabha Movement.

2.4 IMPACT OF REFORM MOVEMENTS

1.Changed attitude towards religious evils

The reform movements drew the attention of the people
towards the evils from which different religious communities in India
were suffering. To some extent these helped in removing
ignorance, illiteracy and superstitions. It created among all religious
communities a sene of pride for their past culturel heritage and thus
saved them from the inferiority complex from which these societies
were suffering. The work done by the reformers significantly
contributed in the spirit in which freedom struggle was fought.

2. Attempt to remove social evils

It was due to the movements of social reformers that people
of India thought of removing their social evils both with the help of
government and independent of that. Female education received
encouragement and sati system was banned. Evils of cast system
were highlighted and the system of polygamy received great set
back. Several bad religious practices and evils were ended and
 37

religion was purified to some extent. A new outlook started

developing in the society.

3. Spread of Modern Education

Whether through English medium or through Vernacular
medium, the Reform movements gave top priority to the spread of
modern education. Most of the reformers were basically teachers
and sometime or the other, had tought in schools or colleges. Some
of them had even prepared textbooks, while many of them had
started schools and colleges. The modern education libraries and
reading rooms. Different reform movements started imparted by
them was scientific, rational, logical, objective, liberal, useful and
open to all. Because of these efforts, the educational monopoly of
certain classes was broken. The spread of modern education
introduced the educated Indians to Western thoughts and culture. It
opened new fields of knowledge in science and literature and this
had a profound influence in shaping the ideas of educated Indians.

4. Contribution to the Press

Since Press was the only medium of mass communication,
practically every social reformer and every reform institute started
their own newspapers. These paper appeared in English as well as
in vernaculars. Some reformers fought for the freedom of Press.
Some newspapers were devoted to the cause of women, some to
workers, while some were dedicated to the eradication of
untouchability.

5. Contribution ot Literature
To spread their thoughts and ideas the reformers largely
depened upon literature. They used forms like biographies, satires,
stories, novles and plays to highlight different social evils.
Sometimes the book written in one language was translated into
other languages. Some reformers translated the Vedas and
Upanishads into Indian languages so that people could read and
interpret them. European books on various subjects were translated
into Indian languages.

6. Emancipation of Women
Today women are working shoulder-to-shouler with men and
are shining in every field of life, and have even excelled men in
some fields. But, this transformation is not a sudden one. It is the
result of sustained efforts by several reformers and reform
movements. It also took great efforts to educate women and create
self-confidence among them.

7. Political awakening became easier

Thanks to the work done by the social reformers, the task of
political awakening and political leadership became considerably
easier. National Movement in India on all India basis could be
 38

possible only due to socio-religious movements. The Indians began

to feel the need of having increased share in the administration of
their own country. They wanted to have broad based franchise
system and Indianising of whole administrative system.

8. Awareness of equality
The reformers demanded that all the people of India should
be treated with respect and thus promoted equality of man. They
highlighted in-equalities in society Indian and foreigner as well as
among the Indians themselves. They wanted that these should be
removed from the society. This very much appealed those who
were worst suffered in Indian society.

9. The need of unity

It was due to the efforts of the reformers that different
communities living in India at least started realising the need of
coming closer to each other, though the atmosphere was spoiled
due to induction of politics in social reforms. The reforms started on
the principle of brotherhood of man and made all realise that they
were partners in sufferings only. They also tried to assert that being
the creation of the same God they were just one and that God did
not make a distinction between man and man. Accordingly to them
all men were good unless they were made evil. There should be no
illwill and all must work in a spirit of forgiveness.

Thus the socio-religious reformers in India during 19th

century really did so useful work for the society and for this the
reformers had to face many odds and toil hard.

Check Your Progress

Q. Enumerate the impact of the reform movements on Indian

society.

2.5 SUMMARY

The social and religious mevements in India in the

nineteenth were interlinked. These movements were
complementary as well as supplementary. By and large, all the
reformers of the nineteenth century emphasised religious and
social reformers The main streams of the new movements may be
 39

summed up as purging of society of superstitions reaping the fruit

of science and restoration of the ancient glory of the society.

Promotion of a national outlook was an apparent aim of the

various reform movements. Besides, these movements
endeavoured to achieve individual liberty and social equality. The
various reform movements represented an attempt of the Indian
people to demoratize social institutions and remodel old religious
outlook inline with the new social requirements.

2.6 QUESTIONS

1. Review the work of Satyashodhak Samaj as a non-Brahmanical

movement.
2. Analyse the role played by the Aligarh Movement in the
progress of the Muslim society with special reference to Sir
Syed Ahmed Khan.
3. Discuss the aims and objectives as well as activities of the
Singh Sabha Movement.
4. Enumerate the impact of the reform movements on Indian
society.

2.7 ADDITIONAL READING

1. Ghose, Sankar, The Renaissance to Militant Nationalism in

India, Allied Publishers, Bombay, 1971.
2. Heimsath, Charles, Indian Nationalism and Hindu Social
Reform, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1964.
3. Jones, K.W., The New Cambridge History of India: Socio-
religious reform movements in British India, Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge, 1989.
4. Karunakarn, K.P; Religion and Political Awakening in India,
Meenakshi Prakashan, Meerut, 1969.
5. Keer Dhananjay, Mahatma Jyotirao Phule” Father of our Social
reform, Popular Prakashan, Bombay, 1964.
6. Khushvant, Singh, History of the Sikhs, VoI.II
7. Majumdar, R.C (Ed.), History and culture of the Indian People,
Vol.x, British Paramountcy and Indian Renaissance, Part II,
Bhartiya Vidya Bhavan, 1963-65.
8. Phadke, Y.D., Social Refomers of Maharashtra, MIC, Bombay,
1975.
9. Sen, Amiya (Ed.) Social and Religious Reform, OUP, New
Delhi, 2003.

 40

Unit - 3
DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION & IT'S
IMPACT.
Unit Structure:

3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 British Efforts to Introduce Western Education: 1765-1813
3.3 Charter Act, 1813:
3.4 Macaulay’s Minute, 1835
3.5 Wood’s Despatch of 1854
3.6 Spread of Western Education after 1857
3.7 The Hunter Commission, 1882
3.8 Indian Universities Act of 1904
3.9 Government of India Resolution of 1913
3.10 Saddler Commission, 1917
3.11 Hartog Committee, 1919
3.12 Wardha Scheme of Education
3.13 The Sargeant Scheme of Education of 1943
3.14 Effect of English Education
3.15. Conclusion
3.16. Further reading
3.17. Broad Questions

3.0. OBJECTIVES:
1. To acquaint students with the changes in educational system
from pre-British period to British period.
2. To highlight on the British efforts of bringing western education
in India.
3. To discuss the introduction of modern educational system of
India.
4. To analyze the impact of British rule in the struggle for India’s
independence.
 41

3.1. INTRODUCTION:

Before the advent of the English both the Hindus & the
Muslims had their separate educational institutions. Education was
based on religion. The Hindu educational system was based on
caste system and lower castes were denied education. Gurukul and
Pathshala were centers of education. Muslim children were given
education in Makhtab and Madrassa. Education was denied to
women in both the communities with an exception of few upper
caste women.

The courses were based on old texts. Printed books were

not available. The knowledge of outside world was not known.

3.2. BRITISH EFFORTS TO INTRODUCE WESTERN

EDUCATION: 1765-1813

In the beginning the Company refused to recognize her

responsibility of imparting education to the Indians as it considered
itself to be a commercial enterprise. Initially, the Christian
missionaries spread-out the English knowledge & literature among
the people by establishing schools at different places.

In 1781, Governor General Warren Hastings established

Calcutta madrassa with the aim of educating the sons of Muslim
nawabsso that they could be appointed on high posts. In 1791,
Jonathan Duncan established Banaras Sanskrit College for the
Hindus. Its main aim was to train the Hindu subordinates for the
European judges who had to deal with cases of the Hindu law. In
1784, William Jones, a judge at Calcutta supreme court founded
the BengalAsiatic society which did a pioneering work in the field of
education.

3.3. CHARTER ACT, 1813:

Under the charter, Act 1813, a provision was made that

annually one lakh rupees would be spent on education. But during
the next ten years not a single rupee was spent on it. As the
Charter was silent on what should be the medium of instruction,
English or Indian languages, and also whether western or Indian
literature to be taught.
 42

3.4. MACAULAY’S MINUTE, 1835:

During the period of Lord William Bentinck, a controversy

sprang up over the medium of instruction. Hence a General
Committee of Public Instructions was set up under Lord Macaulay
to investigate on the matter & submit its report. The few members
in the Committee under Dr. Wilson supported the Indian system of
learning through the medium of Indian languages. While, the Law
Member, Lord Macaulay opposed this view & advocated the use of
English as medium of instruction. The first group was known as
Orientalists & the second as Anglicists. Finally, Lord Macaulay,
being the Chairman of the Committee took the decision in favour of
Anglicists. He submitted his famous “Minutes” in 1835. By this
English was introduced as medium of instruction.

As a result of Govt. patronage a number of schools &

colleges were opened in Bengal, Bombay, Madras. Many Indian
leaders like Raja Ram Mohan Roy also took lead in establishing
schools & insisted on western Education. Calcutta medical college
was established in 1835 & by 1837, there were as many as 48
institutions all over the Country.

3.5. WOOD’S DISPATCH OF 1854:

A Committee was set up in 1854 to recommend

improvements in education, On the basis of committee’s report,
Chairman of Board of control Sir Charles Wood prepared a plan
which was known as Wood’s Dispatch. It came to be considered
as the Manga Carta of English education in India.
 43

Its main recommendations were as follows: -

1. The aim of education was to spread knowledge of arts, science,

philosophy & literature of Europe.
2. Regarding the medium of instruction, it maintained that English
would be the medium of higher studies & vernacular may be the
medium of lower standard.
3. The dispatch also recommended the establishment of University
at Calcutta, Bombay & Madras on the model of the University of
London to conduct examination & to confer the academic
degrees. Each university was to have a Chancellor, Vice-
chancellor & senate.
4. To encourage private efforts in education, the dispatch
recommended the grant-in-aid system.
5. Female education was to be encouraged.
6. It directed the govt to take special interest in institutions for
specific profession like medical & engineering.
7. The recognized institutions were to be periodically visited for
inspections by the Inspectors.
8. Regular scholarships were to be awarded to outstanding
students.

Almost all the proposals of the Wood’s Dispatch were implemented.

In 1857 three universities were established at Calcutta, Madras &
Bombay.

3.6. SPREAD OF WESTERN EDUCATION AFTER

1857:

During the period from 1854-1882 big strides were made in

the field of secondary and higher education. In 1857 the
Universities of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras were started. By
1882, sixty-eight colleges were opened. Besides many schools
were opened throughout the country. All these institutions were
imparting education to almost more than 2 lakh students by 1882.

3.7. THE HUNTER COMMISSION (1882): -

The govt of India wanted to conduct a survey of the entire

field of education & find out how far the principles laid down in the
Wood’s Dispatch were implemented. Hence Lord Ripon appointed
 44

a Commission in 1882 with Sir William Hunter as President. The

Hunter Commission went around the country, conducted elaborate
enquiries & submitted its report in 1883. The Govt of India accepted
most of the recommendations of the Hunter Commission. They are
as follows: -

1) It was decided to transfer the Management of primary education

to the local bodies & municipality.
2) Official encouragement was given to the private institutions for
the establishment of secondary schools & colleges.
3) New regulations regarding scholarships were to be framed.
4) Model text-books were to be prepared.
5) The commission also led emphasis on physical & mental
education of the students.

3.8. INDIAN UNIVERSITIES ACT OF 1904: -

Lord Curzon favoured the govt control over education. In 1901,

he called a conference of the education officers in Shimla & in
1902, he appointed a commission under the chairmanship of Sir
Raleigh. On the recommendations of this Commission the Govt
passed in 1904, the Indian Universities Act. Following were its main
provisions: -

1) The powers of the universities were enlarged. Now they got

powers to appoint Professors & Lectures & to gather facilities
for taking research work. They were, now, not only examining
bodies but also became teaching bodies.

2) The governing bodies of these Universities were reorganized.

The Senate of each university was to have not less than 50 &
not more than 100 members. Each member was to hold office
only for 5 years. The number of elected fellows for the
 45

Universities of Calcutta, Bombay & Madras was fixed at 20,

which was subsequently reduced to 15.
3) The Syndicate was recognized as a legal body. It was also
made representative of the teachers.
4) The control of the University over affiliated colleges was to be
strengthened through strict rule & condition for affiliation &
periodical inspection.
5) The Govt was empowered to accept, modify or add to the
regulations framed by the Universities.
6) The Governor-General-in-Council was empowered to define
the territorial limits of the Universities.

The purpose of these recommendations was to ensure strict govt

control over universities.

3.9. GOVERNMENT OF INDIA RESOLUTION OF 1913:

In 1910, Gokhale presented a resolution in the Legislative

Assembly that primary education should be declared free and
compulsory. Though this resolution could not be carried out yet it
drew government’s attention towards this side. In 1913, the
government, clarified its own educational policy through a
resolution. This resolution had the following provisions: -

1. Lower primary schools should be expanded.

2. Upper primary schools should be opened at suitable places.
3. Private aided schools should be replaced by Municipal Board
schools.
4. Makhtabs and Pathshalas should be given grant-in-aid.
5. Stress should be given on female education.
6. Teachers training should be promoted and proper salaries
should be given to teachers.
7. University education should be expanded.
8. A proposal was also made to establish teaching and residential
universities.

However, due to the outbreak of first world war in 1914, these

proposals could not be implemented. Nevertheless, new
universities were set up at Banaras in 1916 and at Patna in 1917.
 46

3.10. SADDLER COMMISSION, 1917: -

The government of India appointed a commission under the

chairmanship of Dr. Saddler in 1917. Following were its
recommendations: -
1. The intermediate classes should be separated from the
university and the admission to the university should be made
after the intermediate stage.
2. Secondary and intermediate education was to be controlled by
the board of secondary education.
3. The degree course after intermediate should be of three years’
duration.
4. The commission recommended lesser government control over
the universities.
5. Teaching universities should be established.
6. Attention should be paid to vocational and professional training.
7. Special attention should be paid to female education.
Subsequently universities were established at Aligarh,
Dacca, Lucknow, Delhi, Nagpur and Agra.

3.11. HARTOG COMMITTEE, 1919: -

The reforms of 1919 caused resentment among the people.

The non-cooperation movement had shaken the whole nation. The
students boycotted schools and colleges. When at last, peace
returned in 1928, a committee known as the Hartog Committee was
constituted. It made the following recommendations: -

1. More attention should be paid to the primary education and an

attempt should be made to make it compulsory after creating
the right atmosphere.
2. Schools below the required standard should be abolished.
3. To avoid wasteful expenditure effective control on junior classes
should be maintained.
4. The syllabus in the schools should be quite comprehensive.
5. Arrangements should be made for the training of the teachers
and attempt should be made to give them better salaries.
6. A committee should be set up in Delhi to coordinate the
educational activities in different schools.
 47

3.12. WARDHA SCHEME OF EDUCATION:

The provincial autonomy was introduced by government of

India in 1935 and elections were held in 1937. Congress came to
power in 7 provinces. Gandhiji criticized the existing educational
system. It was both costly and non-vocational. To consider the
problem of education Gandhiji appointed a committee in 1937, who
submitted their report which came to be called ‘Wardha Scheme’.
Its main features were as follows: -

1. Craft should be made the main subject in all educational

institutions. It should be used to ensure child’s mental and
intellectual development as well.
2. There should be free and compulsory education for children
between 7-14 age group.
3. The child’s mother tongue should form the medium of
instruction.
4. Depending upon the circumstances every child should be
trained in a useful trade.

3.13. THE SARGEANT SCHEME OF EDUCATION OF

1943:

Sir John Sargeant the educational advisor to the government

of India prepared a scheme in 1943. This scheme came to be
known after his name, as the Sargeant scheme. Following were its
recommendations: -
1. There should be a pre-primary stage of education for which
Nursery schools should be opened.
2. Universal free education should be compulsory for students
between 6-14 years’ age group.
3. Basic education should consist of two stages, Junior stage of 5
years & Senior stage of 3 years.
4. Arrangement should be made for Adult education as well.
5. Vocational & professional colleges should be opened.
6. Intermediate stage should be included in High Schools.
7. Degree course should be of three years’ duration.
8. A ‘National Youth Movement’ to inculcate among students a
sense of service to the country should be started.
 48

3.14. EFFECT OF ENGLISH EDUCATION:

1. Emergence of Indian Intelligentsia:

Indian intelligentsia, key to enter Modern World, considered

modern education the best remedy for social, political and
economic evils of the country. The intellectual ferment was
strongest in West Bengal, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu.
Intellectuals and their organizations had purely an economic and
social thrust. They were aware of the real issues hampering the
progress of Indian society. They also got alarmed at the erosion of
Indian Culture and divide and rule policies of the British.

2. National movement gained momentum:

The destructive character of British imperialism lit the fire
and gave birth to national movement. Economic loot, political
subjugation, assertion of superiority over the Indians on the ground
of race, constant insulting and arrogant behavior towards all
Indians, exclusion of Indians from all places of authority and
responsibility and denial of their capacity for self-governance united
Indians against British rule. They tried to bring social awakening
and awareness amongst masses about their rights.

3. Beginning of Social Reforms:

Modern education highlighted the weaknesses, rigidity and

harshness of society towards the weaker sections of the society. It
had attracted the attention of the intelligentsia and reformers
towards social evils, which had developed in the system. This gave
birth to many socio- religious reform movements, such as Brahmo
Samaj, Arya Samaj, Satyashodhak Samaj, Ramakrishna Mission
etc.

4. Spread awareness amongst people:

Social reformers fought against many social evils caused by

ignorance, superstitions or irrationality like Sati, Polygamy, child
marriage, and inhumane treatment to women, untouchability and
many superstitions prevalent at that time. They criticized the futility
of rituals and superstitions created by some selfish people to
entangle the ignorant and poor masses. Emphasis was laid on
education and science.
 49

5. Emphasis on education and science –

Reformers organized people and made them aware of social

evils like Brahmo Samaj, founded by Raja Ram Mohan Roy in
1928, inspired the people of Bengal, UP, Punjab, Madras and other
provinces, to form similar organizations and interpret religion
rationally.

6. Pride of Indian Culture:

The educated leaders of India advised people to remain

firmly rooted to the Indian Culture. They tried to revive their own
rich ancient culture and prevent the masses from being influenced
by the glamour and materialism of western culture. They talked
about the greatness of Hindu Vedic culture and about Vedas as the
source of all knowledge and truth. Swami Vivekananda founded the
Rama Krishna Mission tried to reveal to the world Indian Philosophy
and culture.

7. Opened the doors of education for all sections:

The new education system opened the doors of education

for all sections of Indian society to get educated irrespective of
caste or creed. Earlier Muslims were more dependent on the use of
sword. Only few could get the opportunity to study in Madrasas. But
with the introduction of English education, Muslims as well as lower
caste Hindus got opportunity to receive education.

8. Disassociated people from traditional way of learning:

While welcomed by different sections of society, the new

system of education had some adverse effects also. It had
disassociated Indian people from their traditional way of learning
and living, their classical roots and indigenous knowledge. Along
with it faded Indian values, philosophies and traditions.

9. Costly nature of modern education:

Though British rulers opened the doors of education to all,

they were not concerned much about mass education. The costly
nature of education tended to make it a monopoly of the richer
classes and city dwellers. Initially, it was an impoverished group of
Brahmin and caste Hindus in search of livelihood, who in desire to
live with dignity and honour opted for modern education. Except for
a few, masses could not avail its advantages despite the relentless
 50

efforts of missionaries with an aim to convert poor people into

Christianity. English gaining importance as the language of elite
section of society alienated the masses from them.

3.15. CONCLUSION:

The British rulers imparted western education in arts &

sciences through the medium of English to the Indian people only
to serve their own imperial needs Nevertheless this liberal
education became instrumental not only in our intellectual
development but also in awakening our nationalist feelings &
promoting the sense of unity among the Indian people. It was the
western education that firmly rooted in our minds the ideals of
freedom & nationalism & roused the desire to overthrow the yoke of
the foreign rule & to gain freedom & the self-rule. To sum up, the
English education proved much helpful in our religions, social &
political progress.

3.16. FURTHER READING

1. Sayanekar, Shyam, History of Modern India (1857-1947), Sheth

Publications, 2016.
2. Grover B.L., Grover S., A New Look at Modern Indian History, S.
Chand and Company, New Delhi, 2001.
3. Kundra & Bawa, History of India, Neelam Publishers, Delhi,
1995.
4. Eugene D’Souza, History of Modern India, Manan Prakashan,
2016.

3.17. BROAD QUESTIONS:

Q.1. Discuss the development of education during 20th century.

Q.2. Describe the British efforts to introduce western education in

India.

Q.3. Explain the effects of western education on Indian people.


 51

Unit - 4
DEVELOPMENT OF PRESS
Unit Structure :

4.1 Introduction
4.2 Origin of the Press in India : In pre-revolt period
4.3 Growth of Vernacular Press
4.4 The development of Press in post-revolt period
4.5 Repressive measures of British Government
4.5.1 The Vernacular Press Act of 1878.
4.5.2 The Newspaper )Incitement to offences) Act, 1908
4.5.3 The Indian Press Act, 1910
4.6 Conclusion
4.7 Suggested Reading
4.8 Question pattern

4.1 INTRODUCTION

Press has become one of the pillars of democratic values

and it is the guardian angel of democracy in Modern times. Press
influence the public opinion related to socio-economic, political etc.
arena and it leads to inculcating Modern idea.

Press also plays a role of catalyst in great social, political,

cultural movements. Press was glorified as the ‘Fourth Estate’ by
Edmond Burke.

4.2 ORIGIN OF THE PRESS IN INDIA : IN PRE-

REVOLT PERIOD

The invention of printing press John Gutenberg in 1454 is a

turning point in the history if Mankind. It leads to the dissemination
of information to masses quickly and facilitating the development of
ideas through debates, writings, counterviews in subsequent years.
The technique of printing became popular in Italy in 1465 followed
by France in 1470, Spain 1483, Portugal in 1495, Russia in 1555
and Austria in 1640. Newspapers became popular during 18th
century.

The Printing Press was first introduced in India by the

Portuguese Jesuits in 1557 to print Christian Literature.
 52

James August Hickay an Englishman started the first

Newspapers, The Bengal Gazette on 29th January 1780. William
Bolds a dismissed Dutch employee of the East India Company
thought of starting newspapers in 1776. A copy of the paper was
pested on the doors of the Council House at Calcutta in September
1776. It was addressed to the public and he tried to expose the
servants of the company but he was deported to England by the
company.

Hickay was fearless in criticizing the establishment led by

Warren Hastings. It resulted in to closure of the Press in 1782.

Peter Reed founded “Calcutta Gazette” and “Oriental

Advertiser” in 1784. He was able to get patronage from the
Government. In Madras Richard Johnston founded the “Madras
Courier” in 1785. The Bombay Gazette was published in 1791. The
Government desired that Editors should send proof sheets of the
paper to the Secretary for the inspection of the Government.
Government used the tactics of pressure. Thus being the non-
critical of the Government policies these newspapers were given by
the patronage by the Government. It carried the Parliamentary
debates, news about the continents official orders and all the
commercial and social information related to Europeans. They
lacked the attention to the land in which they were published. This.
The press was used by the opponents of the company’s monopoly
and the company Government for furthering their selfish interest.
The British public opinion was tilted towards the opponents of the
company but due to rise of Napoleon the reforms got set back and
Lord Wellesley (1798-1805) was the Governor General of India.

Lord Wellesley wanted to put restrictions on the Press &

bring it under the control of Government. He promulgated rules to
control the Press which required to published the names of Printer
& Editor, a practice which continues to date it resulted in to the
 53

beginning of authenticity and the censorship along with the

introduction of Press in India. Non-compliance of the rules was
heavily penalized. The punishment to the Europeans was
immediate deportation.

Lord Wellesley.
The Newspapers like The Morning Post, the Telegraph, the
Calcutta Courier, the Oriental Star, The Bengal Harakaru and The
Asiatic Minor faced heavy censorship Lord Wellesley himself
started a Government Press and the official Calcutta Gazette was
published in 1803.

The Lord Hastings (1813-1823) abolished to the censorship

in 1818 & Press began feeling free. He maintained a vigilance over
the Press. Lord Hastings wished that Press should not educate the
people of India against the Government.

Lord Hastings.
 54

4.3 GROWTH OF VERNACULAR PRESS

The awakening and Growth of National consciousness

among the Indians gave rise to the Nationalist Press. From 1815
onwards Raja Ram Mohan Roy was involved in to reforming
superstitious and decaying Hindu society in India. Ganga Kishor
Bhattacharya and Haracahdra Roy thought of propagating the
ideas if Rajaram Mohan Roy. They started a paper Vangal Gazette
in Bengali it was countered by Baptist Missionaries by using Press
for spreading a Christianity. The Serampore Missionaries started
Digdarshan in 1818. It was in Vernacular language & contained
historical & other notices as well as some items of political
intelligence. Later on. When it became popular they started
Samachar Darpan . This, the vernacular Press initially was used as
a vehicle of rival religious ideologies. The Samachar Darpan aimed
at popularizing Christianity by criticizing contemporary religious
faiths in India. Ir avoided comments on political news and focused
mainly on social views.

Raja Rammohan Roy started is series of articles in favour of

Vedanta in Bramhanical Magazine founded by Pandit. In 1821 he
started Sambad Kaumudi, in Bengali and Mirat-ul-Akhbar in
Persian in 1822. These Weeklies aimed at inspiring the people the
fight against socio-religious malpractices, to get oriented with
western culture and to inform both public and Government about
the real situation on the country.

In Bombay Fardaonji Murzban started Bombay Samachar in

Gujarati (1822) abd as a daily it is still in existence. Lord Willian
Bentick (1828-1835) administration gave a positive environment to
the growth of Indian Journalism. He know that it was the freedom of
the Press, enjoyed before the enactment of Adam’s Regulations
(1823) which enabled the company administration to interfere with
social matters for the first time in the history. He won the support of
progressive Press and also inspired faith in the conservative Press.
In 1830 there were about 16 language newspapers and periodicals
in Bengal/ 19 more papers were published in next 3 years. The
English Dailies & periodicals also rose to 33 with total subscription
of 2225.
 55

Bang Dutt (in Bengali) was founded in 1830 by progressive

Indians like Dwarkanath Tagore, Prassanakumar Tagore & Raja
Rammohan Roy.

In Bombay the Jam-e-Jamshed (Gujarati) as a daily is still

being published was started in 1831 by P. M. Motiwala.

In Madras Vernacular Press was started in 1840 with Tamil

Patrika. It was followed by James Snehan in 1841, Rajvritti Bodhini
in 1855 and Dinvarthamani in 1855. Vijnana Nikshepam was the
first newspapers in Malayalam published in 1840 from Kottayam.

After the death of Bentinck Sir Charles Metcalf (1835-1836)

became Governor General he also known as Massiah in Indian
Journalism. He was totally in favor of Freedom of Press. In 1835 he
repeated the Adam’s Regulation & set up a new landmark in the
history of Journalism in India.

Rast Goftar and Anglo Gujarati paper was published in 1851.

Dadabhai Naoroji was the Editor of Rast Goftar Akhbar-e-Saudagar
was also founded in same year. The first Hindi Journal Samachar
Sudhavarshana was started in Calcutta in the year 1854.

4.4 THE DEVELOPMENT OF PRESS IN POST-

REVOLT PERIOD

During the Revolt if 1857 the restrictions were re-imposed.

The Vernacular Press was critical to the government policies after
the revolt of 1857. Lord Canning (1856-1862) re-introduced the
features of Adam’s Regulation 1823 in the form of the licensing Act.
According to this Act it was mandatory for the papers to get license
from the government for which conditions were laid down by
Government. Although, it was enacted for one year but it continued
enforce till 1865 by renewing it annually. All the reforms introduced
by Metcalf was undone.

The companies rule came to and end in 1858. The queen’s

proclamation aimed at restoring public confidence. The Canninf
himself allowed repeal of sedition Act resulting in to encouragement
to Press in India. In 1861 the Indian Press witness the start of
newspapers specially. The Times of India after the amalgamation 4
newspapers viz. Bombay Times, The Courier, The Standard, and
the Telegraph, 3 more Anglo Indian papers started viz. Pioneer
(Alllahabad) by George Allen, 1865, The Civil & Military Gazette,
(Lahore), The Statesman (Calcutta) by Robert Knight and evening
newspaper Madras Male by Charles Lawson in 1868 was also
published. The Pioneer was reflecting the British Government
 56

agenda whereas Madras Male highlighted the issues related to

European community.

The Amrit Bazar Patrika founded in 1868 by Hemantkumar

Ghosh & Sisirkumar Ghosh was Anglo Bengali Weekly. It became
severe critic of the government containing accurate news and
effective presentations. The Civil & Military Gazette was distinctly
an organ of British conservative opinion. It attacted many
Englishmen towards Journalism in India. The Hindoo (1878) was
started as fortnightly Journal by G. Subramanian Ayyer & M.
Veerraghav Chariar. It became a English daily in 1889 during the
session of Indian National Congress at Madras. It has a liberal
outlook balance judgement and National constructions. The tribune
was started in 1877 by Sir Dayalsingh Majethia. Sir Surendranath
Banerjee, Bipinchandra Pal & Kalinath Ray were also associated
with it. It was an influential paper in the Punjab with a liberal
nationalist outlook.

4.5 REPRESSIVE MEASURES OF BRITISH

GOVERNMENT

Lord Lytton who was staunch imperialist became viceroy in

1876. The Vernacular Press exposed the Government an its
policies which were detrimental to the Indian people and native
soldiers. Racial discrimination was at its peak after the revolt of
1857. The liberal policy of the British Government was criticized by
conservative Englishmen. The famines were major reason of the
popularity of the Indian Press as it highlighted the issues to the
masses.
 57

4.5.1 The Vernacular Press Act of 1878.

Lytton favoured the conservative view and passed the
Vernacular Press Act,\ in 1878 and suppressed the Freedom of
Press. Lord Lytton, however did a great service. The restrictions
imposed by the Act of 1878 inspired the indigenous journalist to
come together and condemned the act unitedly. It was a post
whemently by the Indian Journalist and declared as draconian
piece of legislation. According to this Act various restrictions were
imposed on indigenous press and Districts Magistrate orders were
final. It was discriminatory in nature as it was only against
Vernacular Press. The vernacular press like Somprakash, The
Daccaprakash, The Samachar faced the punitive action by the
government authorities. Prime Minister Gladstone appointed Lord
Ripon as c\viceroy who repealed all the restrictions upon the press
in 1882. Ultimate result of this struggle was the birth of organized
meetings and Nationalist Movements. It also facilitated the
formation of Indian National Congress in 1885.

The Press contributed heavily in inflaming the protest

against the Anti-Indian policies. Partition of Bengal (1905) by Lord
Curzon became a very sensitive issue, press highlighted it to the
people and there was gross dissatisfaction among the masses.

4.5.2 The Newspaper )Incitement to offences) Act, 1908

Through this act Magistrate were empowered to confiscate
any printed material which contained inflamentry matter even with
slight doubt he could summon the Press and asked for explanation.
If Magistrate was convinced that it was a crime he could direct the
police to attached the Press. Attachment orders could be passed
even without serving a show – cause notice. It was aimed at killing
the nationalist feeling among the Indians. It led to the closure of
Yugantar, Sandhya, Bande Mataram, Pioneer in the field of
nationalist movement.

4.5.3 The Indian Press Act, 1910

The new act was more oppressive than the newspapers act
1908. It compelled the publishers to deposit Rs. 500/- with the
Magistrate as a security. Magistrate was empowered to increase
the amount of security up to 10 times as well as forfeit the security
without assigning any reason. It contained the definition of the term
objectionable and seditious.

The impact of provisions was failed during the First World

War. Around 350 presses & 400 publications were penalized and
an amount of sterling Pound 40,000 was obtained as security from
the newspapers.
 58

4.5.4 The Indian Press Emergency Act, 1931

The Congress started the Civil Disobedience Movement in
1930 & the restrictions were put under the act of 1931. This act
sought to prevent writings which in sighted or encouraged violence.
Apart from amount of security it had a provision of imprisonment up
to 6 months for printing without permission. Many leading
publishers & printers had to suffer due to this act. The liberty of
Calcutta deposited a security of Rs. 6,000/-, The Bombay Chronicle
paid Rs. 3,000/- for an objectionable article by Hornimale.

The repeated interferences of the Indian Newspapers in to

the administrations affairs of the neighboring states resulted in to
the enactment of foreign relations act 1932. This Act put restrictions
on the publication of material related to diplomatic relations of the
government with friendly countries.

The Indian states protection Act, 1934 was passed to check

the growing discontent and mass mobilizations in India.
Newspapers were restricted to criticize the administration of
princely states and spreading disaffection on these states

During the World War II the Defence of India act was passed
in 1939 to restrict further press activity. After the end of the World
War II this act was withdrawn.

During the Freedom Movement prominent leaders also

started newspapers, journals to propagate their nationalistic ideas
and awaken people of India. For eg. Tilak started Kesari (1881) &
Marathi Journal to propagate the ideology & methodology of
Freedom movement. He also started the Maratha (1881) an English
weekly which became an effective weapon to instill revolutionary
extremist sentiments and ideas among the people.
 59

Tilas was sentenced to imprisonment twice for his articles in

Kesari. Bipinchandra Pal founded and English newspaper Bande
Mataram, in 1905 which was later edited bu Shri Aurobindo Ghosh.
It was first published in 1906. The Indian Social Reformer, English
 60

weekly was started in Bombay in 1890 which propagated the idea

of social reform. In 1899 an English Monthly, The Hindustan
Review was founded by Sachhidanand Sinha. It has a liberal
politics & ideological tone. The servants of India society started an
English weekly Servant of India in 1918 Shriniwas Shastri was the
Editor. It was having the liberal analyist & solution of the Indian
problems. It lasted upto 1939. Lal Lajpatrai was instrumental in the
publication of an English nationalist weekly The People from
Lahore.

Gandhiji edited Young India in 1919 which was the

mouthpiece of his political philosophy, programmes & policies. He
also started Harijan (1933-1948) a weekly published in English,
Hindi & Gujarati.

Pandit Motiala Nehru started The Independent and English

daily in 1919 from Allahabad and it highlighted the political activities
and ideas of Indian National Congress. About 4000 printed
newspapers and magazines were published in the country in 1941,
in 17 languages. Three main news agencies namely Reuters, The
Associated Press & The Free Press news serviced existed in the
year 1941. Reuters & Associated Press were subscribed by the
government for transmitting government news. The Free Press
News Service which was an Indian entity transmitted the news from
the nationalist stand point.

4.6 Conclusion

The origin & growth of Press in India depicts the selfish

motives of different missionaries, East India Company & later the
British government. There were two sides to the Press one Pro-
Government papers which neglected any defects in British rule &
the other saw no good points. The Press was used in India for
respective ends and not as scientific, objective and empirical study
of the news.

4.7 SUGGESTED READING

1. A.R.Desai. Social Background of Indian nationalism, Popular

Prakashan, Mumbai, 2005.
2. S.C.Raychoudhary, Social,cultural & economic history of India
(Earliest times to present times) Surjeet publication, Delhi, 2005.
3. Dr. V. S. Nayar, F. A. Menchery, F. Sequeira, Modern India
(1800-1964), Manan Prakashan, Mumbai, 1999.
4. J.C. Aggarwal, Modern Indian History, S. Chand & company
Ltd, New Delhi. 2004.
 61

5. B.L. Grover, Alka Mehta, yash Pal, Adhunik Bharat ka Itihas, Ed

Naveen Mulyankan (Hindi), S. Chand & company Ltd., 2011.
6. Wikipedia.

4.8 QUESTION PATTERN

Q.1. Trace the origin & growth of Press in India up to 1857?

Q.2. Evaluate the role of British authorities & indigenous people in
the development of Press in India?
Q.3. Explain the various Press acts of enacted in India during the
period of your study?
Q.4. Analyze the role of Freedom fighters in the development of
Press in India.
Q.5. Highlight the role played by William Bentinck, Charles Metcalf
and Lord Lytton towards Press in India.
Q.6. Evaluate the role played the Charles Metcalf & Lord Ripon in
safeguarding the interest of Press in India.



 62

Unit - 5
TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION
Unit Structure :

5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Transport Policy under British
5.3 Development of Railways up to1869
5.4 Development of Railways since 1869
5.5 Development Roadways in India
5.6 Development of Inland Water Transport in India
5.7 Post and Telegraph
5.8 Let us sum up
5.9 Suggested reading
5.10 Questions

5.0 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit the student will be able –

1. To understand Pre-British transport system in India.

2. To understand the discriminatory policies of British in introducing
railways.
3. To explain development of railway system in India.
4. To explain the development of Roadways and Inland Water
Transport system in India.
5. To appreciate the introduction of Post and Telegraph facilities in
India.

5.1 INTRODUCTION

The transport and communication play a major role in the

modernization of a particular society. In Indian conditions, the roads
in the modern sense of the term did not exist and if at all it was
constructed by few rulers, the anti-social elements such as - thugs,
pindaris brought bad name to the traffic through these roads.
Riverine transport played a major role in transport and
communication with having limitations of time consuming and risky.
The transport has various forms such as - Railways, Roadways,
 63

and Waterways. Transport and communication facilities played a

major role in bringing together the people of India's and arousing
the feeling of oneness i.e. Nationalism.

5.2 TRANSPORT POLICY UNDER BRITISH

The colonial thought f procuring the raw material from the

colonies and dumping finished products back to the local market of
the host country led to the biased transport policy under the British
rule in India. It was influenced by economic interest, administrative
goals, and pressure from the British capitalist to provide continuous
flow of income and heaven of safe investment and protection from
the internal rebellion and external aggression. Thus, it served the
economic, political and military interest of the Britain in India.

The British model of Rail and Road development in India

was one sided and unfavorable to India interest. But, British model
of transport and communication in India in disguised encouraged
Indian trade, commerce and played a major role in destroying the
age old economic foundations of Indian society. It also became a
sector of mitigating rigid caste system. It also helped in labor
migration resulting into social mobility to serve extent.

5.3 DEVELOPMENT OF RAILWAYS UP TO 1869

The first railway facility for public use was inaugurated in

September, 1845 in Great Britain within few years of its introduction
in Britain, Europe and America. The British capitalist class and
administrators though of introducing it in India as well. British civil
engineer Joseph Locke put forward the proposal of railway from
Calcutta to Delhi 1841. Rowland Macdonald Stephenson is
considered as pioneer of the Railway movement in India.
Availability of various minerals as well as the volume of internal
trade prompted him to encourage business communities towards
railway enterprise in India. He thought of railway line from Calcutta
to Mirzapur, Banaras, Allahabad and beyond.

The volume of trade especially cotton exported form Bombay

city during 1842 - 1843 prompted J. Chapman to propose a railway
line at Bombay which was to pass through. Cotton growing districts
and carry the cotton to the Port. By 1845 number of companies
were formed in England, but Directors of East India Company
oversighted the proposals. The railway companies proposed the
guarantee system which called as guaranteedinterest in their
capital as a pre-requisite for investment in railways in India At first
instance, such demands looked unjust and exploitative towards
Indian.
 64

In 1847, the East India Railway company was offered a

guarantee of 5% interest on their capital for 25 years by the
Government of India. Lord Dalhousie (1848-1856) paid special
attention to the development of railways. He selected the route of
the first railway Howrah to the coal fields near Raniganj and
construction of railway began in September 1820. The first railway
was inaugurated on 16th April 1853, from Bombay to Thane which
carried passenger traffic. Dalhousie issued his "Great Railway
Minute" on 20th April, 1853 which described the military and
commercial advantages of railways and recommended extensive
projects for future. By 1860, 8 railway companies were involved in
work of construction of railway under the state guarantee system.
The Government made free grants of land and paid the guaranteed
rate of interest at 4.5% to 5%. This system resulted into imposing
increased taxes on Indian people. In 1869, the Governor General
John Lawrence put an end to the system by that time 4255 miles if
railway had been constructed with a capital outlay of about Rs.89
crores.

5.4 DEVELOPMENT OF RAILWAYS SINCE 1869

Government of India took upon the construction of new

railways during the period 1869-1879. Due to frequent famines,
foreign wars and financial constraint it discontinued the system of
state construction of railways ad once again the Guarantee system
was revived in 1879 and it continued till 1900. The new guaranteed
rate of interest was usually 3.5%. The Government share of surplus
profit was up to 60%. Under this system the lines constructed were
the property of The Secretary of State for India, who would
terminate the contract at the end of 25 years by repaying to the
companiestheir capital. In 1899-1900 for the first time the net profit
of Rs.11 Lakh was earned except 1908-1909. The period between
1900 and 1914 was period of substantial profit.
 65

In 1901, the Secretary of State appointed Mr. Robertson as

a special officer toenquire into the problems connected with Indian
railways. On his recommendations, railway board with its
Chairman, 2 members and a Secretary became a separate the
department. The board was subordinate the department of
commerce and industry. In 1908, the Mackay Committee on railway
finance prescribed for the future and annual capital expenditure if
12.5 million. The railway mileage increased from 24,752 in 1900 to
34,656 in 1914. At the time of Independence, the undivided country
had more than 40,000 miles by railways.

The Indian Railway esdthr result of European Scientific

Movememnt. It was launched in India with certain economic motive
of the British and it was financial drain in Indian contert. It proved to
be most memorable enterprise of British in India. It also became a
potential instrument for social liberalism and national unity.

5.5 DEVELOPMENT ROADWAYS IN INDIA

The British East India Company appointed in charge of

Military Boards for every province to maintain main roads while
local roads were left for maintenance by the Zamindars. But the
approach of the East India Company was not pro-active. Military
boards were abolished in 1855. Lord Dalhousie introduced Central
Public Works Department and similar provincial departments, and
carried out futuristic road policy. During contemporary period
constructions of railways worked as catalyst to road construction in
the form of bridges and metaled feeder roads giving access to the
railways throughout the year.

Lord Mayo.

Lord Mayo and Lord Lytton played a major role through their
policy of financial decentralization resulting in transferring the
responsibility of road work to provincial Governments. By 1901-
1902 the total length of metaled roads reached 37,000 miles and up
 66

keep of which was divided equally between Government and local

authorities. Unmetaled roads reached 1.36 lacks miles of which 5/7
were maintained by local bodies. The quality of roads was so
inferior that is discouraged the farmers from growing cash crops for
export. Reforms of 199 made roads a provincial subject and they
were divided into two main classes - Provincial and Local. Barring
Municipal roads were under the district boards. The Indian road
development committee was appointed in 1927 to take care if
problems of co-ordination in road development and research. On
the recommendations of this committee a Central Road Fund was
constituted in March 1929 which facilitated the Central Government
to release annual block grants. The purpose of Road Fund was
defeated as it led to a reduction in the state expenditure on road
building and development, especially the inter district and interstate
roads. In 1932 out of 2.53 lacks miles only 75,000 miles of roads
were metaled and motor able.

The Second World War was a turning point for the future of
road construction in India. It highlighted the too much of
dependency on a single type of transportation system. Accordingly
the Nagpur plan was prepared in 1943 for Post-war road
development. It classified roads into four categories viz. National
Highways, Provincial Highways, Major Districts Roads, Minor
Districts Roads or Village Roads. It's overall aim was to evolve an
integrated, balanced and closely connected road system so that no
village in a developed agricultural area remained more than 5 miles
from a main road and in an under developed areas 20 miles from a
main roads. Accordingly The Central Government took the
responsibility for National Highways form 1st April, 1947 and drew
up a five year road development programme with estimated cost of
a Rs. 120 crores. In 1951 there were over 98,000 miles of surfaced
and 1.51 lack miles of unsurfaced road in the country.

5.6 DEVELOPMENT OF INLAND WATER TRANSPORT

IN INDIA

The Inland navigation in India is in existence through ages. It

can be verified through the contemporary literary sources of ancient
and medieval period. There is mention of Ports such as Thatta in
Sindh, Cambay, Calicut, Broach, Surat, Bombay, Madras etc. The
rivers such as Ganga, Jamuna, Brahmaputra were busy due to
water ways and flourished trade centers existed on the banks of
these rivers.

The first steamed vessels 'Diana' was introduced in 1823 for

inland navigation on a regular basis from Kulpi to Calcutta. By 1842
a regular service of water way was in existence between Calcutta
and Agra. The city of Kanpur on the river Ganga was a flourishing
 67

trade center and many vessel used to anchor there. The Western
interest of Railways prevented attention towards the development
of Water ways in India.

The Narrow Business consideration of Government

restricted the measures for the development of Water further Water
Transport itself was responsible for its decline as it did not
modernize its fleet. It was also due to defective construction of
canals which lacked navigational possibilities.

National Planning Committee recommended in 1938, the

appointment if provincial and inter provincial Commission to
regulate control and develop the rivers and waterways in the
country Post-Independence inland navigation began to receive the
attention of the Government,

5.7 POST AND TELEGRAPH

Modern system of Post and Telegraph was also established

by the British East India Company established the first Post office in
Calcutta in 1727. The first Telegraph line from Calcutta to Agra was
opened in 1853. Postal stamps were introduced by Lord Dalhousie.
He introduced reforms in the Postal system and charged an uniform
rate of half an Anna for a later all over the land. Previous to this
reforms postage on a letter depended on the distance it was to
travel which amounted to be equivalent of 4 days wage of skilled
worker. Lord Dalhousie introduced the higher limit of postage not
exceeding half tola.
 68

5.8 LET US SUM UP

Summary -
The Modern system of transport and communication such as
Railways, Roadways, Inland Water Transport, Post and Telegraph
were introduced during the British rule in India. In spite of having
motive to benefit British administration - Civil as well as Military,
and to serve the economic purpose of British and Europeans, the
modern system of transport and communication played a crucial
role in uniting Indian people. It helped Indian scholars, politicians,
professionals, peasants, farmers, labors to mobilize and evolve
their thought process and understanding the exploitative nature of
British regime. It also paved the way for mobilizing Indian masses
for various activities and movements during the freedom struggle.

5.9 SUGGESTED READING

1. G. Kaushal, Economic History of India, 1757-1966, Kalyani

Publishers, Ludhiana, 2002.
2. J.C. Aggarwal, Modern Indian History, S. Chand & Company
Ltd, New Delhi, 2004.
3. A.R. Desai, Social Background of Indian Nationalism, Popular
Prakashan, Mumbai, 2005.
4, P. N. Chopra, B.N. Puri, M.N. Das, A social, cultural and
economic history of India, Vol.III; Modern India, Macmillan India
Limited, Delhi, 1996.
5. Bipan Chandra, Modern India, NCERT, New Delhi, 1985.

5.10 QUESTIONS

Q.1 Trace the development of railways during the period of your

study.
Q.2 Highlight the British approach towards introduction of Modern
system of Transport and Communication.
Q.3 Describe the development of Roadways and Inland Water
Transport system in India.
Q.4 Highlight the introduction of Post and Telegraph services in
India.


 69

Unit - 6
IMPACT OF THE BRITISH RULE ON
INDIAN ECONOMY: REVENUE
SETTLEMENTS, COMMERCIALIZATION
OF AGRICULTURE
Unit Structure :

6.0 Objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Earlier Revenue Settlements by the British
6.3 Permanent settlement of Land revenue
6.4 Benefits to the British Government of Permanent Settlement
6.5 Demerits of Permanent Settlement
6.6 Ryotwari System
6.7 Evaluation of the Ryotwari System
6.8 Mahalwari System
6.9 Commercialization of Agriculture
6.10 Causes of the commercialization of Agriculture
6.11 Impact of the commercialization on agriculture
6.12 Commercial Crops
6.13 Summary
6.14 Questions
6.15 Reference

6.0 OBJECTIVES

After the completion of this unit the student will be able to

 Understand the historical perspective of the rise of economic
nationalism.
 Explain the concept of the economic nationalism.
 Grasp the various revenue settlement methods introduced by
the British regime
 Comprehend the policy of commercialization of the agriculture
 Understand the impact of commercialization on the agriculture
 70

6.1 INTRODUCTION

The British rule had drastic impact on Indian economy. The

commercialization of the agriculture, excessive land revenue
demands, growth of Zamindar class (landlords), rising indebtness
and the impoverishment of the cultivators made Indian economy
stagnant. The extent of poverty increased due to the economic
exploitative policies of the British authority. The various land
revenue systems, the drain of the wealth and deindustrialization of
the Indigenous industries had profound impact on India. The British
rule considerably affected the political, socio and economic
structure of India. The various economic policies adopted by them
resulted in poverty and misery of the masses. The British followed a
policy of the extinction of the self-sufficient village economy in India.
The earlier leadership was keen on the growing economic problems
of the peasants under the British authority. The earlier Indian
leaders were ardent to show the economic exploitation of the
cultivators and workers due to the British imperialism.

6.2 EARLIER REVENUE SETTLEMENTS BY THE

BRITISH

Agriculture was the main source of the livelihood of Indian

people. The land tax or land revenue was one of the chief source of
revenue for the government. The Indian rulers appointed various
officials to make assessment of land and crop and applied various
methods for it. However the British never regarded themselves part
of this country, they tried to exploit people to benefit of England.
Without any responsibility the British rulers exercised complete
authority in land revenue matters. The various land revenue system
introduced by them were according to time and need. Bengal
witnessed the introduction of the land revenue system of the British
authority as it was the first province where they established political
supremacy.

6.3 PERMANENT SETTLEMENT OF LAND REVENUE

The Zamindari system of land revenue prevailed in Bengal in

the last quarter of the 18th century. The Zamindar collected the
taxes from the cultivators and advanced nine tenth to the
government. Warren Hastings decided to manage the land revenue
system directly in 1773. The right to collect revenue was given to
the highest bidders for 5 years. This system did not yield any
outcome. The East India Company’s officials expected new system
of land revenue to raise the revenue. John Shore and Lord
Cornwallis implied this method. According to it the ten year
 71

settlement was formed in 1789. Later on it was declared

permanent.

Lord Cornwallis.

Lord Cornwallis introduced the permanent settlement land

revenue system in 1793. The system was introduced in Bengal and
Bihar. Following are the features of the permanent settlement
system. -

1) The landlords were declared the leader and owner of the lands.
They were to collect land revenue and pay nine-tenth to the
government.
2) The rights of the landlord are depending on the payment or the
revenue which they are used to pay. If the landlords are unable to
pay the revenue of the land then they will be lost their rights to the
land.
3) The settlement was announced to be for ten years earlier
however it was made permanent later on.

6.4 BENEFITS TO THE BRITISH GOVERNMENT OF

PERMANENT SETTLEMENT

Lord Cornwallis Permanent settlement of 1793 created a

number of absentee landlords. The assessment was arbitrary. No
account was taken of the fertility of the soil and area of land. The
Zamindars who were unable to meet their dues leased parts of their
estates to middlemen.

1. The Government became free from the problem of fixation of

revenue every year. The state secured a stable and fixed
income from the people. In case the Zamindars did not pay the
revenue, the land of the Zamindars was sold.
 72

2. It avoided the evils of periodical settlement which at long

intervals produced harassment of cultivator, evasion,
concealment of wealth, a tendency on the part of the peasants
to leave the land uncultivated etc.
3. By making the Zamindars the owners of the land, the settlement
created a class of loyal land lords who formed a stable element
in the state. The permanent settlement secured the political
support of the Zamindars of Bengal who stood loyal during the
great mutiny of 1857.

6.5 DEMERITS OF PERMANENT SETTLEMENT

1) The immediate effect of the settlement was harmful upon the

landlords who failed to collect the revenue from the peasants
and so were unable to pay the fixed revenue at fixed time. As a
result they lost their ownership right over the land. The
cultivators were deprived of their traditional rights of land. The
farmers had to give fifty to sixty percent yield in the form of land
revenue.
2) In course of time, the rents from the land increased with bringing
new areas under cultivation. The Zamindars continued to pay
the revenue fixed by the State and the state also could not claim
its legitimate share in the increase. In the long run, the State
sustained financial losses by fixing the revenue.
3) Most of the landlords did not take any interest in the
improvement of the land. The landlords became indolent and
led luxurious lives staying in the cities. Thus this settlement
created a class of absentee landlords. The cultivators were put
at the mercy of the Zamindars. Their grievances remained
unheard as they had no attachment to the government. The
Zamindar did not take interest to solve their problems and the
government had no concern for the as they were getting fixed
share through the zamindars.
4) The permanent settlement discourage the agrarian production s
most of the share was claimed by the zamindars. It led to the
scarcity of food grain. It was one of the important cause of
famines. The settlement divided the rural society into two
classes namely, the Zamindars and the landless labours.

6.6 RYOTWARI SYSTEM

The Ryotwari settlement was made directly with the

cultivator for a period of years. A direct relationship was created
between the Government and the cultivator. The Ryot enjoyed
status of leaseholder as long as he paid legal dues. The system
increased the security of the cultivator and removed the Zamindar
 73

the middleman. Subsequently, the Ryotwari system was extended

to the Mumbai area.

The Ryotwari system was introduced by Sir Thomas Munro

and Captain Alexander Read in 1820.This system was in operation
for nearly 30 years and had many features of revenue system of
the Mughals. It was instituted in some parts of British India, Where
the land revenue was imposed directly on the ryots (the individual
cultivators who actually worked the land) the system of assessment
was known as Ryotwari. An official report by John Stuart Mill who
was working for the British east India Company in 1857, explained
the Ryotwari land tenure system as follows:

1) Under the Ryotwari System every registered holder of land is

recognized as its owner, and pays direct to Government. He is
at liberty to sublet his property, or to transfer it by gift, sale, or
mortgage.
2) The cultivator cannot be evicted by Government so long as he
pays the fixed assessment, and has the option annually of
increasing or diminishing his holding, or of entirely abandoning
it. In unfavourable seasons remissions of assessment are
granted for entire or partial loss of produce.
3) The assessment rate was fixed and did not vary from year to
year, in those cases where water is drawn from the Government
source of irrigation to convert dry land into wet, or into two-crop
land.
4) The British official’s object was to determine how much of the
assessment due on his holding the Ryot shall pay, and not to
reassess the land. In these cases where no change occurs in
the Ryots holding a fresh Patta or lease is not issued, and such
parties are in no way affected by the Annual Settlement, which
they are not required to attend.
 74

6.7 EVALUATION OF THE RYOTWARI SYSTEM

1) The Ryotwari system did not changed the ownership of the

peasants. It also made them free from the exploitation from the
Zamindars. However, it did not bring positive changes in the life
of cultivators because the large number of landlords had been
replaced by the British government. The land revenue was high
and those who failed to pay it, were deprived the ownership of
land by mean of confiscation of the land.
2) In most of the areas the land revenue fixed was excessive. The
people were left with bare maintenance with available
resources. The government retained the right to enhance land
revenue at any time.
3) The cultivators had to pay revenue even the produce was
partially or completely destroyed by droughts or floods.

6.8 MAHALWARI SYSTEM

Mahalwari system was different from the permanent

settlement and Ryotwari system to certain extent. It was introduced
in Central Province, North-West Frontier, Agra, Punjab, and
Gangetic Valley. Mahalwari system was introduced in 1833 during
the period of William Bentick. In this system, ownership rights were
vested with the peasants. The villages committee was held
responsible for collection of the taxes. In this system revenue
settlement was to be made village by village with consent of
landlords and heads of families who collectively claimed to be
landlords of the village. In this system, the land was divided into
Mahals. Each Mahal comprises one or more villages The villages
committee was held responsible for collection of the taxes.

The system of permanent settlement, Ryotwari and the

Mahalwari were fundamentally different from the traditional land
systems of the country. The British created a new form of private
property in land for their own benefit. This was done to protect the
government’s revenue. The land was made commodity which was
bought and sold easily. The stability and continuity of the Indian
villages were shaken because of this.

6.9 COMMERCIALIZATION OF AGRICULTURE

Introduction of new land revenue policy and

commercialization of the agricultural remained the chief features of
the British policy towards the agricultural sector in India. The British
policy of commercialization was followed in accordance with the
need of British industries and trades. It had no concern with Indian
 75

peasants. The various economic policies followed by the British led

to the rapid transformation of India's economy into a colonial
economy whose nature and structure were determined by needs of
the British economy. One important aspect of British economic
policy was commercialization of agriculture. The commercialization
of agriculture means that the agricultural crops and goods are
produced by the peasants for sale in the market and not for their
own consumption. Commercialization of agriculture in India began
during the British rule. The commercialization of Indian Agriculture
took place not to feed the industries of India as India was far behind
in industrial development as compared to Britain, France, and many
other European countries of eighteenth century.

The commercialization of agriculture had many results. It

was beneficial to the British planters, traders and manufacturers,
who were provided with opportunity to make huge profits by getting
the raw material products at cheaper rate. The commercialization of
Indian agriculture also partly benefited Indian traders and money
lenders who made huge fortunes by working as middlemen for the
British.

6.10 CAUSES OF THE COMMERCIALIZATION OF

AGRICULTURE

1) The land revenue systems initiated by the British demanded

revenue in cash instead of kind. The farmers could not get
enough money by the production of traditional crops like food
grains. In order to pay taxes in cash it became obligatory for
them to cultivate cash crop and get money to pay the higher
taxes.
2) The commercialization of the agriculture was inevitable because
of the British industrial policy in India. The agricultural products
were used by Indian for the livelihood. The food grain were
composed the main part in agricultural production. The Indian
small scale industries utilized agricultural raw material but their
usage was limited. The agricultural production was dominated
by eatables. The British wanted to utilize Indian agricultural
products for their industries. Hence, it became the key factor for
the commercialization of the agriculture. The new crops as
cotton, tobacco, indigo and tea cultivated as these crops were
essential for their industries.
3) The infrastructural developments like railways, shipbuilding and
roads led to the favourable environment for businesses. Many
employment opportunity became available because of this. The
many people lost their traditional work of cultivation due to the
British policy of new land settlements. Those who still engaged
 76

into cultivation tried to get commercial crops to sell it to the

market as it was more in demand.
4) The British tried to create a wealthy class in India which could
help them or remain loyal them in difficult time. They created
landlord or Zamindar class in Bengal and moneylenders in
western India. These rich sawkars started offering loans to the
farmers for cash crop. The traditional crop did not need big
amount but the cash crop needed investment.
5) Another boosting factor for commercialization of agriculture in
India was the gaining of speed of Industrial Revolution in
England. This led to factor in commercialization as more and
more agricultural goods were produced to satisfy the demand
for raw materials by the British industries. The enlargement and
expansion of international trade and the entry of British finance capital
also belted commercialization of agriculture.
6) The world events like opening of Suez Canal and the American
civil war also speeded the commercialization of the agricultural.
Due to the civil war in America, the cotton demand in India
increased around 1850. The farmers tried to encash this
opportunity. Many farmers cultivated cotton instead of food
grains as the civil war disrupted the supplies of cotton from
America and thereby increased demand for Indian cotton.
Further, the British policy of one way free trade also acted as
sufficient encouraging factor for commercialization as the
manufactured items in textile, jute etc could find free entry in
Indian markets.

6.11 IMPACT OF THE COMMERCIALIZATION ON

AGRICULTURE

1) The growing commercialization helped the money lenders to

exploit the cultivator. The peasant was forced to sell his produce
just after the harvest and at whatever price he could get as he
had to meet in time the demands of the government, the
landlord and the money-lender.
2) High revenue demands led to devastation of the Indian
agricultures as it led to poverty and the deterioration of
agriculture in the 19th century. It forced the peasant to fall into
the clutches of the money-lender. As a result the moneylenders
provided them money and made huge profit. It the poor farmers
fail to repay the loans the land was confiscated. The
commercialization proved beneficial only to the British
industrialists, trades and moneylenders. The Indian people were
ruthlessly exploited in this. Because of the reduction in
cultivation area the prices of food grains increased, It also
became chief cause of the famines.
 77

3) A commercialization of the agriculture was one of the cause of

famines in India. The famines occurred in Uttar Pradesh in
1860-61 and cost more than 2 lakh lives. In 1865-66 famines
near twenty lack people died in Orissa, Bengal and Bihar. The
worst famine occurred in 1876-77 in Madras, Mysore,
Hyderabad and western Uttar Pradesh where many people
died. According to Bipin Chandra, these famines were not
natural. They were man made. The natural resources of India
ruthlessly exploited. The growing population could not get
enough food to sustain as a result of commercialization of the
agricultural.
4) Indian money lenders advanced Cash advances to the farmers
to cultivate the commercial crops and if the peasants failed to
pay him back in time, the land of peasants came under
ownership of moneylenders. The misery was further enhanced
became the population of India was increasing every year,
fragmentation of land was taking place because of the
increasing pressure on land and modern techniques of
agricultural production were not introduced in India. The poor
peasant was forced to sell his produce just after harvest at
whatever prices he could get as he had to meet in time the
demands of the government, the landlord, the money lender and
his family members' requirements. This placed him at the
money of the grain merchant, who was in a position to dictate
terms and who purchased his produced at much less than the
market price. Thus, a large share of the benefit of the growing
trade in agricultural products was reaped by the merchant, who
was very often also the village money lender.

5) It affected adversely the poor people of India; it became difficult

for them to get sufficient food. The net result of the
commercialization of Indian agriculture was that most of Indian
farmers failed to produce even that much food crops which
could provide them even two meals a day. Most importantly the
 78

life of the Indian peasant was tied to the highly fluctuating

national and international market. He was no longer a deciding
factor in agricultural practices. Further, by making agricultural
land a tradable commodity, the peasant lost his security feeling.
High land revenue demand forced him to take loan from the
money lender at high interest rates. Failure to pay debt in time
meant loss of land to the money lender at high interest rates. It
led to land alienation and increase in the number of agricultural
labourers whose conditions especially in plantation industry was
pathetic.
6) Most of the Indian people suffered miserably due to the British
policy of commercialization of Indian agriculture. It resulted in
reduced area under cultivation of food crops. The net result of
this change was that Indian failed to produce that much food
crops which could provide two time meals to its population. The
commercialization of agriculture was a new phenomenon in
Indian agriculture scene introduced by the British. The worst
effect of commercialization was the oppression of Indian
peasants at hands of European. This found expression in the
famous Indigo revolt in 1859. Moreover, commercialization of
Indian agriculture got manifested in series of famines which took
a heavy toll of life.

6.12 COMMERCIAL CROPS

The commercialization of India agriculture was initiated in

India by the British through their direct and indirect policies and
activities. A several efforts were made to increase the production of
cotton in India to provide raw and good quality cotton to the cotton-
textile industries of Britain which were growing fast after the
Industrial Revolution in Britain. Therefore, cotton growing area
increase in India and its production increased manifold with gradual
lapse of time. Indigo and more than that, tea and coffee plantation
were encouraged in India because these could get commercial
market abroad. Most of the plantations for commercial crops were
controlled by the English.
 79

Jute was another product that received attention of the

English company because the jute made products got a ready
market in America and Europe. Moreover, crops like cotton, jute,
sugarcane, ground nuts, tobacco etc. which had a high demand in
the market were increasingly cultivated. The beginning of the
plantation crops like Tea, coffee, rubber, indigo etc heralded a new
era in agricultural practices in India. These were essentially meant
for markets and thus commercialization of agriculture took to new
heights with the expansion of the British rule.

6.13 SUMMARY

Agriculture was the main source of the livelihood of Indian

people. The land tax or land revenue was one of the chief source of
revenue for the government. The Indian rulers, prior to the British
rule, used to appoint various officials to make assessment of land
and crop and applied various methods for it. The British never
regarded themselves part of this country. Their loyalty was attached
to the England, their home country. They initiated the policy of
exploiting Indian people for benefit of England. The British rulers
exercised complete authority in land revenue matters without caring
about any administrative responsibility.

6.14 QUESTIONS

 Describe the condition of Indian agriculture under the British

rule.
 Give an account of different revenue settlements introduced by
the British government.
 80

 Make assessment of the permanent settlements system of land

revenue.
 Examine the causes and the effects of commercialization of
Agriculture in India

6.15 REFERENCES

 R.C Dutt, The Economic history of India Under early British

Rule, and Economic History of India in the Victorian Age, Delhi,
1960.
 Bipin Chandra , the Rise and Growth of Economic Nationalism
in India New Delhi, 1984.
 B.N. Ganguli, Indian Economic Thought- Nineteenth Century
Perspectives, New Delhi 1977.


 81

Unit - 7
DRAIN THEORY AND
DEINDUSTRIALIZATION
Unit Structure :

7.0 Objectives
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Drain Theory of Dadabhai Nauroji
7.3 External Drain
7.4 The plunder of Indian wealth
7.5 Remittances to the England from India
7.6 Annual charges in England
7.7 Internal Drain within India by the British Government
7.8 Effects of the drain of wealth
7.9 Deindustrialization and Growth of Large Scale Industry
7.10 Deindustrialization of the Indian industries
7.11 Causes of the decline of Native Industries
7.12 Impact of deindustrialization
7.13 Modern India witnessed the growth of large scale industries
7.14 Textile Mills
7.15 Rise of Cotton Mills
7.16 Plantation industry
7.17 Steel and Iron Industry
7.18 Summary
7.19 Questions
7.20 References

7.0 OBJECTIVES

After the completion of this unit the student will be able to

 Comprehend the Drain theory.
 Grasp the internal and external drain of the Indian economy.
 Explain the important consequence of the drain of Indian
economy.
 Realize the deindustrialization process
 Perceive the growth of new industries in modern India.
 82

7.1 INTRODUCTION

The British exploited Indian resources to develop their trade

and industries at the cost of Indian economy. It resulted in
exploitation of the peasants and depletion of the resources. The
land revenue settlements introduced by them drained the wealth to
England. There was a sudden collapse of the urban handicrafts
industry due to the cheaper imported goods and British imperialistic
measures towards the Indian craft workers. The Indian artisans and
craftsmen were patronized by the native ruling states. Organized
industry in India produced chiefly luxury and semi luxury articles.
Nobles generally purchased these. With the establishment of the
British rule in India, native rulers began to disappear. In the process
of the expansion of the British rule in India, these native states were
annexed to the British Empire. Hence the artisan lost the patronage
earlier they received.

The British rule drastically affected the politicol-socio-

economic structure of India. The result of the various economic
policies adopted by them resulted in poverty and misery of the
masses. The British followed a policy of the extinction of the self-
sufficient village economy in India. The constant flow of wealth from
India to England for which India did not get an adequate economic
return became the chief cause of growing poverty in India.

7.2 DRAIN THEORY OF DADABHAI NAUROJI

The earlier leadership was keen on the growing economic

problems of the peasants under the British authority. They were
ardent to show the economic exploitation of the cultivators and
workers due to the British imperialism. This exploitation was sensed
by Dadabhai Naoroji, R. C. Dutt and many other economists in
India. The constant flow of wealth from India to England for which
India did not get an adequate economic return became the chief
cause of growing poverty in India. Dadabhai Naoroji propounded
the ‘Drain theory’ to expose the exploitation of the India through
British authorities. He used phrases such as the material and moral
drain, the deprivation of resources the bleeding drain etc. The
economic exploitation of India and Adam Smith’s book An Enquiry
into the Nature and Causes of Indian Poverty led to propose Drain
Theory in his book entitled ‘Poverty and Un-British Rule in India’
published in 1901. ‘Drain Theory’ propounded by Dadabhai Naoroji
became the economic basis of Indian nationalism. Dadabhai recited
British officers at every step to convince the British rulers about
exploitation of India.

A various scholars have given account of drain of wealth

from India to England. However their estimate about drain differ
 83

depending on the period under review or the method of calculations

employed. George Wingate estimated the drain 4,222,611 pounds
per year for the period from1834 to1851. William Digby estimated it
somewhere around 500 to 1000 million from 1757 to 1815. In 1897
Dadabhai Naoroji reckoned the drain figure at Rs. 359 crores for
the ten years from 1883-92. Dadabhai described the drain of the
wealth as evil of all evils and the main cause of the Indian poverty.

7.3 EXTERNAL DRAIN

Dadabhai Naoroji traced that India was getting poorer and

poorer every day because of low national income, the low import,
the low standard of living of people, and the low revenue returns of
the government. He was of the opinion that this existing poverty
was the direct result of the British rule in India. Dadabhai attributed
the poverty of India to the heavy drain on the resources of the
country.

Dadabhai and his precursors sensed the external and

internal nature of drain. It was an instrument which exhausted
resources of India and the surplus generated through a complex
process was drained out of the economy through the process of
 84

external trade, the dynamics of which was supplied by the unilateral

transfer of funds in an equally complicated way. According to
Dadabhai, the functioning of this transfer of resources was uniquely
determined by following factors.

1) India was a colony governed by British though their officers.

2) India was burdened with an expensive civil administration and
equally expensive army of occupation.
3) India was a strategic base of operations that had to bear the
burden of empire building not only in India but also beyond her
borders.
4) The public expenditure out of the proceeds of taxation and loans
failed to generate domestic employment in India.

7.4 THE PLUNDER OF INDIAN WEALTH

The basic economic situation in India was radically

transformed after 1757, fallowing the British victory in the battle of
Plassey which laid the foundation of the British power in India. The
drain of wealth from Bengal began in 1757 when the company’s
servants began to carry home immense fortunes extorted from
Indian rulers, Zamindars and common people. They sent home
nearly six million pounds between 1758 and 1765. This amount
was four times bigger than the total land revenue collection from
Bengal. After the battle Plassey, India exported goods mainly silver
bullion to pay tribute to Britain. Britain itself wished to use revenues
from this trade to buy tea and silk from chine. For this silver worth
of 58 lakh rupees had been exported to England from India. The
opium trade became an instrument of profit making. The surplus
had been transferred to England. This had attracted the attention of
Dadabhai’s predecessors whom he quoted in defense of the drain
theory. Dadabhai Naoroji quoted British administrators of a much
earlier period in support of his drain theory. Lord Cornwallis in his
minute of 1790 had specifically referred to the heavy drain of
wealth. According to him the causes of external drain were large
annual investment in Europe and remittances of private fortunes for
many years past, the impact of which was severely felt, at the time
or writing, in the form of scarcity of specie for current transactions
and the consequent depression in India’s agriculture and internal
trade. Dadabhai Naoroji traced that economic drain was carried by
two ways-annual charges in India and annual charges in England.

7.5 REMITTANCES TO THE ENGLAND FROM INDIA

1) Remittances to England by European employees for the support

of families and education of children a feature of colonial system
of government.
 85

2) Remittances of savings by employees of the Company, as most

employees preferred to invest at home
3) Remittances for the purchases of British goods for the
consumption of British employees as well as purchases by them
of British goods in India.
4) Government purchase of stores manufactured in England.

7.6 ANNUAL CHARGES IN ENGLAND

1) The East Indian Company had piled up a public debt to dislodge

Indian rulers from their Principalities. By 1900 the public debt
had risen to £ 224 million. Only part of the debt was raised for
productive purposes i.e., for construction of railways, irrigation
facilities and public works
2) Dividend to the shareholders of the East India Company
3) Civil and Military charges included payments towards pensions
and furloughs of British officers in the civil and military
departments in India, expenses on India Office establishment in
London, payments to the British war office etc. All these charges
were solely due to India’s subjection to foreign rule.
4) The Secretary of State and the Government of India purchased
stores for the Military, Civil and Marine Departments in the
English market. The annual average expenditure on stores
varied from 10% to 12% of the Home charges between 1861-
1920.
5) The opium trade with China played an interesting role in the
external economic drain. The East India Company transferred
its revenue surplus and its corrupt officers their savings and
secret gains via China. All the profits of opium went the same
way of the drain to England.

7.7 INTERNAL DRAIN WITHIN INDIA BY THE BRITISH

GOVERNMENT

The external economic drain was the counter part of the

internal economic drain. The internal transfer was as much of an
economic drain as the external transfer.

1) Resources abstracted from internal production through taxation

took the form of commodities which, in real terms, were the
equivalent of the transfer of income abroad.
2) The internal economic drain was a ‘drain because of one-sided
exports, which did not bring any return in the form of imports.
3) Dadabhai pointed out that Indian public finance lacked the
vitality and utility for Indian economy. As the railway and road
transportation could not bring desired prosperity to India as they
served the imperialistic purposes.
 86

The view of Dadabhai Naoroji was shared by liberal minded

Englishmen in the middle of the nineteenth century who had a
sympathetic understanding of the reality of the Indian economic
situation. The views of Dadabhai Naoroji on public expenditure had
crystallized as early as 1871 in his papers called commerce of India
and Financial Administration.

7.8 EFFECTS OF THE DRAIN OF WEALTH

1) Dadabhai Naoroji was of the opinion that the drain was the
principal and even the sole cause of India’s poverty. He wrote
that the India has been exploited in rude manner. The British
invasion continuous and the economic plunder goes right on. He
pointed out that the drain represented not only the spending
abroad of certain portion of national income but also the further
laws of employment and income that would have been
generated in the country, if the drain would have been spent
internally.
2) It is impossible to accurately measure the amount of drain which
in the form of resources and gold bullion flowed from India into
England during the long British rule over India. With the
available information, it was calculated that one-fourth of all
revenue derived in India came to be annually remitted to
England as Home Charges. According to Dadabhai Naoroji
between 1814 and 1865 about 350 million pounds went to
England by way of drain.
 87

3) The vast amount of resources and capital which flowed from

India into England naturally enabled the people of England to
live a better standard of life. The drain also made possible rising
investments in English agriculture and industry after 1750.
These investments were partly responsible for agricultural
revolution in England in the eighteenth century and as also
industrial revolution which commenced after 1750.

4) This drain took the form of an excess of exports over the

imports for which India got no economic or national return.
According to the nationalist calculations, this chain amounted to
one-half of the government revenues more than the entire land
revenue collection and over one-third of India’s total savings.
5) Retired British officials had the leisure and money to devote
their attention to new inventions, construction of roads, canals
and railways and bring rapid changes in all sectors of economy.
The drain provided the foundation of English economic
prosperity. On the other hand the effects of the drain on Indian
economy and on its people were disastrous. The loot and
plunder and the enormous profits which were taken out of India
year after year meant a continual drain of Indian resources and
a dead loss. These resources and gold which could have been
available for investment in India were siphoned off to England.
6) The nationalist leaders also saw drain as so much loss of capital
rather than toss of wealth. They were aware that the drain was
harmful chiefly because it resulted in the depletion of productive
capital. The drain resulted in Industrial retardation as it
produced shortage of capital. The nationalist leaders, thus, tried
to analyze and show the effects of the drain on income and
wealth, capital, industrial development, land revenue, the terms
of trade and on the poverty of the Indian people. Through the
drain theory, the nationalist writers, especially Dadabhai Naoroji
effectively brought out the highly exploitative nature of British
rule in India.
 88

7) For the early nationalists the drain also took the form of colonial
pattern of finance. The nationalists of the twentieth century were
relying heavily on the main themes of their economic critique of
colonialism. These themes were then to reverberate in Indian
villages, towns and cities. Based on this firm foundation, the
later nationalists went on to stage powerful mass agitations and
mass movements. The drain theory thus laid the seeds for
subsequent nationalism to flower and mature.

7.9 DEINDUSTRIALIZATION AND GROWTH OF

LARGE SCALE INDUSTRY

The British rule had drastic impact on Indian economy. The

commercialization of the agriculture, excessive land revenue
demand, growth of landlords, rising indebtness and the
impoverishment of the cultivators made Indian economy stagnant.
The extent of poverty increased due to the economic exploitation by
the British authority. The various land revenue systems, the drain of
the wealth and deindustrialization had profound impact on India.

7.10 DEINDUSTRIALIZATION OF THE INDIAN

INDUSTRIES

The early decades of the 19th century witnessed a heavy

decline in the production and export of Indian industrial products. H.
H. Wilson points out that the Britain employed the arm of political
injustice to keep down and ultimately a strange competitor which he
could not could not have contended on equal terms. B. D. Basu
mention the list of measures adopted by the British authority to ruin
Indian industries for their benefit-

1) Imposing heavy duty on Indian manufactures in England

2) The export of raw material from India
3) Offering special privileges to British in India
4) Compelling Indian artisans to reveal their trade secrets. Dr. D.R.
Gadgil mentions three principal causes which operated in the
first half of the 19th century in bringing the rapid
deindustrialization in India with the special reference of the
decline of craft industry- The disappearance of native ruling
power, the establishment of an alien rule and the competition of
a more developed machinery.

The policies adopted by the Government were very harmful

for indigenous industries. For example, British goods were allowed
to come to India without any duty or barrier. On the other, hand
Indian exports of manufactured goods had to pay heavy customs
duties. Many such instances of the British policy can be quoted.
 89

The simple consequence of this policy was that Indian industries

suffered. Ultimately many of them closed down. Industrial
Revolution was booming in England and other western countries.
However, simultaneously in the rich India industries began to
decline. In other words process of ‘deindustrialization’ of India
began. The industrial labour was rendered unemployed. It
increased the pressure on land. Land was divided and subdivided
into smallholdings. Agricultural productivity fell down and agriculture
thus became a backward industry. Before the British rule India had
a well-organized industry. With the arrival of the British, Indian
industry began to decline. The process of decline began as early as
the end of 18th century. It became very steep towards the middle of
19th century.

7.11 CAUSES OF THE DECLINE OF NATIVE

INDUSTRIES

1) There was a sudden collapse of the urban handicrafts industry.

It was caused by cheaper imported goods and British imperialist
policy. The Indian artisans and craftsmen were patronized by
the native ruling states. Organized industry in India produced
chiefly luxury and semi luxury articles. Nobles generally
purchased these. With the establishment of the British rule in
India, native rulers began to disappear. In the process of the
expansion of the British rule in India, these native states were
annexed to the British Empire. Hence the artisan lost the
patronage earlier they received. Their courtiers and officials
became jobless. Their disappearance meant the closure of the
main source of demand for the products of these industries.
The craft industry lost its customers for their commodities like
jewelry, utensils and many others. The artisans became jobless
due to the lack of demands for their production. They turned to
the cultivation.
 90

2) The British commercial policy ruined the artisans and craftsmen.

The British pressurizes farmers in India to take cash crops
needed to their industries. Hence the native craftsmen and
artisans could not get raw material for their industry. The British
used many techniques to destroy native industry. They bring
pressure on many artisans to stop their work. The small-scale
industry of India was the pillar of its foreign trade and prosperity.
As soon as the Company established its political supremacy in
Bengal, it began to exploit the artisans of cotton and silk cloth.
As a result, the cloth trade did not remain a source of profit for
the artisans and the cloth industry of Bengal disintegrated. This
 91

kind of exploitative measures were adopted British for their own

benefit at the cost of native industry.
3) The British witnessed the growth of industries with modern
technology in the eighteenth century. This industrial revolution
required raw material for production and marked for finished
goods. England utilized the raw material from India for the
industries and sold the manufactured goods in India. England
imposed heavy duty on the goods to be exported from India. It
patronized the British industry. On the other hand, the
government of India imposed minimum duty on the goods
imported into India so that these could be sold in the Indian
market easily. The industrial production was superior an in
quality and cheaper as the British levied less tax on it. This
made Indian product costlier hence they began to lose market
share fast. Thus, it affected the Indian trade and industry from
both sides and resulted in the ruin of trade and industry.
4) The British rule affected handicrafts in another way also. Urban
artisans and craftsmen were organized in the form of guilds.
The guilds supervised the quality of the products. They also
regulated the trade. With the entry of British traders, these
guilds lost their power. As soon as supervising bodies were
removed, many evils began to appear. These were, for
example, the adulteration of materials, shady and poor
workmanship etc. This at once led to a decline in the artistic and
commercial value of the goods produced.
5) The competition from the European manufacturers was
responsible for the decline of the local industry. The
construction of roads and railways made it possible to distribute
the goods to every corner of the country. Opening of the Suez
Canal reduced the distance between England and India. English
goods in large quantities were sent for sale in India. Among
these goods textiles was the most important item. The quality of
these clothes was definitely poor as compared to Indian clothes.
However, they were cheap. They were within the reach even of
the poor man. Hence, these imported clothes and other
machine made goods came to be demanded in large quantities.
Local handicraft lost their demand.

7.12 IMPACT OF DEINDUSTRIALIZATION

The vast amount of resources and capital which flowed from

India into England naturally enabled the people of England to live a
better standard of life. The drain also made possible rising
investments in English agriculture and industry after 1750. These
investments were partly responsible for agricultural revolution in
England in the eighteenth century and as also industrial revolution
which commenced after 1750. Karl Marx, has cited the impact of
 92

the deindustrialization process. According to him, it was the British

rulers who broke up the Indian handloom and textile handicrafts.
England broken the cotton industry in India and then introduced its
cotton product manufactured in England. Thus was caused by the
disappearance of native rulers who patronized handicrafts, the
establishment of alien rule and the competition of highly developed
technology from of machine industry.

1) The migration of the people from the old towns to the new
trading centers was most important impact of the British rule in
India. These trading centers were situated in the cities. Thus
many new cities developed. However, at the same time, many
important towns began to decay. Among these important towns
were Mirzapur. Murshidabad, Malda, Santipore, Tanjore,
Amritsar, Dacca etc. Among the important cities that developed
were Delhi, Bombay, Calcutta, Madras, Bangalore, Nagpur
Karpura and Karachi, Lahore (now in Pakistan) Chittagong
(Bangladesh), Rangoon (Burma) etc. These cities grew in
importance as great commercial towns.
2) The decay of urban handicrafts following the disappearance of
the royal courts brought about a decrease in the population of
the old Indian towns. As the craftsmen lost their occupations,
they turned to agriculture.
3) Introduction of railways in India by the Britishers opened up new
means of transportation. Some of the old towns were
prosperous because they were located on some important trade
routes. For example Mirzapur was an important trading centre
because of its location on the River Ganga. With the
introduction of railways, old routes and old means of
transportation lost their importance. Hence the old towns also
began to lose their significance.
4) The ruin of the Indian art and crafts industry greatly affected the
artisans and craftsmen in India. The unemployed artisans left
with no choice but to work in cultivation. The agricultural sector
exhausted already due to the British commercial policy towards
it. It was not capable enough to accommodate the artisans it.
The hidden unemployment increased due to this.
5) Most of the old towns had become stagnant. These were
vulnerable to diseases. Recurrent eruption of epidemics 1ike
plague and cholera was a common feature. Such epidemics
took a heavy toll of the urban population. These, therefore, also
drove a large population from the urban areas. In this way many
old towns lost their importance. However, simultaneously
commerce and trade encouraged the growth of new cities.
 93

7.13 MODERN INDIA WITNESSED THE GROWTH OF

LARGE SCALE INDUSTRIES

The British rulers developed construction of roads, railways,

post offices, irrigation works, banking, insurance for keeping their
hold on India. Yet it paved the way for the industrialization in
modern India. An important development in the second half of the
nineteenth century was the establishment of large scale machine
base industries in India. The machine age in India began when
cotton textile, jute and coal mining industries were started in the
1850s. Most of the modern industries were owned or controlled by
British capitalist class. Foreign investors were attracted to Indian
industry by the high profit. Labour were cheaper, raw material was
easily available, India and neighbor countries were ready market for
them. The colonial government was willing to provide investor
necessary help.

7.14 TEXTILE MILLS

The textile industry laid down the foundation of the

industrialization of the country. According to Jawaharlal Nehru,
“The history of cotton and of textiles is not only the history of growth
of modern industry in India but in a sense it might be considered
the history of India”. Mumbai (known as Bombay at that time)
became the centre of the textile industry. The mid nineteenth
century marked the emergence of textile industry in Mumbai.

The textile industry influenced every aspect of life in

Mumbai, its migrations, social relation, housing, municipal
administration and above all its economy making Mumbai the
commercial capital of the country. According to R. Chandaverkar, in
1914, “Mumbai received over 87 percent of the value of Indian
capital investment which accounted for nearly half the total value of
private industrial investment centered in the city.” Mumbai had
become the bastion of not only Indian Capital but also provided
employment to lakhs of people in the textile mills and related
industries. In textile industry alone there were 153,000 workers. By
1931 according to an estimate, half the population must have been
economically reliant on this industry alone. Textile mills flourished
in Mumbai even after independence. During 1947 to 1960, Mumbai
witnessed the growth of cotton production due to textile mills.
 94

7.15 RISE OF COTTON MILLS

“Bombay Spinning and Weaving Company” was the first mill

founded in 1854 with the help of 50 leading businessmen in the
city. By 1862 four mills were added and this number grew in course
of time. “The Oriental Spinning and Weaving Company”, floated in
1855 under the leadership of M. N. Petit, Beramji Jijibhai,
Varjivandas Madhavdas, E. Sassoon and two Europeans, started
functioning in 1858. M. N. Petit's entry into the mill industry marked
the transition of his family from trade to industry.

Besides the men of amazing commercial career mentioned

above, the other pioneers of industry in Bombay included, Dinshaw
Petit, Nusser-wanji Petit, Bomaiyi Wadia, Dharamsey Punjabhai,
David Sassoon, Merwanji Pandey, Khatau Makanji,
TapidasVarajdas, James Greaves, George Cotton, Morarji
Gokuldas, Mancherji Banaji, Mulji Jetha, Thackersey Moolji,
Jamshetji Tata and many more. Morarji Gokuldas established a mill
which bears his name even today, in 1870. Thackersey Moolji
floated the ‘Hindustan Spinning and Weaving Company’ in 1873.
This was followed by the mills of David Sassoon in 1874 and of
Khatau Makanji in 1875. In 1875, the Mumbai mills employed
almost 2,50,000 workers in more than 52 mills. The progress of the
industry was particularly rapid from 1875 to 1885. The Greaves
Cotton and Company and the firms of D. M. Petit and the
Thackersey family expanded their textile ventures by establishing
many new mills. The number of mills in the city increased to 70 in
1895. By the end of the 19th Century Mumbai had become, with its
 95

over eighty textile mills, India’s largest textile centre. It was the
largest employer of workers.

World War I brought wealth to Mumbai by the opening up of

Africa and West Asian markets, which all till then had depended on
German textiles and manufactures. The raw cotton exports fetched
another eight crore. In 1919, the textile industry alone accounted for
a huge profit of nineteen crore rupees in addition to the large profits
that accrued due to the heavy increase in import and export trade.
At the time of World War I British Empire received generous
support from Mumbai. Mumbai so far known as the textile capital of
India began to turn into an industrial city. In 1919, as soon as the
British government removed the ban on starting Indian companies
nearly 208 old partnership companies were converted into Limited
Companies, and within two years 272 new companies were
registered.

The textile industry regained its 1927 level of production in

1937, the year when the Congress formed its first ministry in
Mumbai under the provisions of Provincial Autonomy. Import and
export trade rose and the Mumbai Port Trust showed a surplus of
24 lakhs of rupees in 1937. During the period of Second World
War, textile mills of Bombay witnessed the unprecedented growth
which further led to the growth of island city. It provided
employment opportunities to thousands of village men especially
from Konkan. Number of other industries was also established
related with textiles industry. By the end of the Second World War,
Mumbai was truly emerging as the industrial centre of India with
477 metal industries, 210 printing presses, 75 chemical and 94
other industries, while there were still 184 textile mills in operation.
British industrialist enjoyed the close connection with the British
suppliers of machinery, marketing agencies and government
officials. The government also followed conscious policy of
favouring them.
 96

7.16 PLANTATION INDUSTRY

The nineteenth century witnessed the growth of plantation

industry such as indigo, tea and coffee. These industries were
owned by European. Indigo was used as dye in textile manufacture.
Indigo planters oppressed the peasants. The invention of synthetic
dye proved to big blow to this industry. The tea industry developed
in Assam, Bengal and south India after 1950. It was also foreign
owned. The British government gave it all necessary impetus. The
plantation industry had not served the purpose of development for
Indian people. The profit out of these industries went to England.
Most of the technical staff was foreign. Only unskilled jobs were
given to the Indian.

7.17 STEEL AND IRON INDUSTRY

Tata worked in his father's company until he was 29. He

founded a trading company in 1868. He bought a bankrupt oil mill
at chinchpokli in 1869 and converted it to a cotton Mill, which he
renamed Alexandra Mill. He sold the mill two years later for a profit.
He established Tata iron and Steel Company in 1907 at Sakchi.

Around 1920 the pressure of the rising nationalist movement

and the Indian capitalist class, the government of India granted
favourable incentives to the Indian industries. However Indian
owned industries like cement, iron and steel were denied protection
or given inadequate protection. On the other hand, foreign
industries were given desired incentives and protection.

7.18 SUMMARY

The Indian leaders observed that the British rule was the
chief cause of poverty and misery of the Indians. The views of the
 97

early nationalist leaders were politico-economic rather than purely

economic. Dadabhai recited British officers like Lord Cornwallis, J.
S. Mill and many others in his book at every step to convince the
British rulers about exploitation of India. The Britishers were
tempted by the immerse wealth of India. They took to large-scale
plunder of it. They began to carry its capital and wealth to England
on such a large scale. With the spread of education people began
to analyze the causes of poverty in India. They realized that there
was something fundamentally wrong with the politico-economic set
up of the country. Thus the Drain Theory propounded by Dadabhai
Naoroji became the economic basis of Indian nationalism. The
drain of wealth from India to England led to industrialization of
England and deindustrialization of India. The Indian artisans and
craftsmen were patronized by the native ruling states. Organized
industry in India produced chiefly luxury and semi luxury articles.
Nobles generally purchased these. With the establishment of the
British rule in India, native rulers began to disappear. In the process
of the expansion of the British rule in India, these native states were
annexed to the British Empire.

7.19 QUESTIONS

 Discus the contribution of Dadabhai Nouraji on the drain of

wealth from India during the British rule.
 Write a detailed note on drain theory.
 What factors were responsible for the deindustrialization in India
during the British rule
 Trace the growth of large scale industries in Indian under the
British rule.
 Account for the decline of urban handicraft under the British
rule.

7.20 REFERENCES

 Grover B.L. and Grover S., A New Look At Modern Indian

History, S. Chand, Delhi, 2001.
 Dadabhai Nauraoji, Poverty and Un-British Rule in India,
London, swan sonnenschein & co., 1901.
 J.R. Melane, Indian Nationalism and the early Congress,
Princeton, 1977.
 Chandra Bipin, History of Modern India, Oriental Blackswan,
2009.


 98

Unit - 8
WOMEN
Unit Structure :

8.0 Objectives
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Nationalism and Social Groups
8.3 Problems of the Women
8.4 Social Reforms and Women
8.5 Contribution of Social Reformers towards Emancipation of
Women
8.6 Women and Indian National Movement
8.7 Summary
8.8 Additional Readings
8.9 Questions

8.0 OBJECTIVES

After the study of this unit the student will be able to :

 Know the meaning of nationalism and its interface with various
social groups.
 Understand the background of Indian Women’s movement.
 Comprehend the various problems of women facing in
Nineteenth century.
 Perceive the efforts made towards the emancipation of women
by Britishers.
 Understand the reforms carried out in the nineteenth century in
connection with Indian Women.
 Explain the contribution of social reformers towards the
emancipation of women.
 Comprehend the participation of women in the Indian national
movement.

8.1 INTRODUCTION

Although, the 18th century was under the conservative ideas

and practices, the 19th century India experienced several trends of
reform movements, which brought out awakening in the society.
This was the direct result of several factors took place in India and
those factors were as the English education, contact with the
 99

western liberal thinkers, British administration, the work of Christian

Missionaries, the idea of equality, the rule of law, the contribution
made by the Press etc. The English education led Indians to revolt
against ignorance, apathy, lethargy, superstition, fatalism and sloth.
English language played very important role in communicating
western ideas one to another. It worked as a common platform for
people in all sections, segments, cultures and language groups. It
brought to the notice of every one the flaws, short comings and
lapses in Indian religions and social life and motivated them to
follow the liberal concept advocated in the western literature.

The beginning of nineteenth century has been considered as

the beginning of modern times in India, where the people
confronted with the new rulers and their way of life which was new
for them. Lard Moire says that although, the British came to India
as traders and became a political power to exploit India extensively,
they adopted a wider perspective in the passage of time to enable
them to establish peace and order in the society. The British
officers like Mountstuart Elphinstone who came to India were liberal
and they believed in reasons. They opened schools and colleges
where Indian students got opportunity to study the English
literature, thoughts of Francis Bacon, David Hume, Middleton,
George Berkeley, Condorcet, Joseph Butler and many other liberal
litterateurs. Among the British officials, who were responsible to
start the western education in Maharashtra, Mountstuart
Elphinstone’s contribution was much more. Elphinstone established
a system of education in Maharashtra, due to the influence of
people like T. Erskine, Colebrook, John Locke and Jeremy
Bentham. He secured cooperation from the traditional institutions
and educated higher classes in Maharashtra. He improved the
mode of teaching at the native schools, increased number of
schools, supplied with school books, encouraged lower classes to
receive instructions in education, which were affordable to them.
Elphinstone established schools for teaching European sciences
and improved higher branches of education under his jurisdiction.
He provided certain amount to publish books of moral and physical
sciences in native languages. He also provided for teaching English
as a classical language to acquire knowledge and the knowledge of
discoveries took place in European countries. Elphinstone used the
money for education of people, which was used to distribute to
Brahmins under the Peshwas. His efforts led to create awareness
in Maharashtra, The English educated people began to question to
the existing outdated dogmas, principles and revolted against
ignorance, apathy, superstition, lethargy and fatalism, which
fermented thought and created social and religious awakening in
general.
 100

In addition to the English education, the work of Christian

Missionaries provoked the people to create the experience
awareness in social and religious life and lead the life like people in
Europe. The Missionaries criticized Hinduism as back ward religion
began to convert Hindus into Christianity which hurt the educated
Indians, who determined to reform their social and religious life.
The idea of equality was generated as the missionaries admitted all
Indians irrespective of their caste, creed and race in their schools.
They also opened schools for girls which appealed to the learned
Indians and led them to create awareness in their social & religious
life. Missionaries dedicated their services towards the poor, the
physically and mentally challenged people that also provoked the
Indians to start reform movements. The last but not the least, the
contribution of printing press and the work of orientalists to revive
the past glory of India was one of the reasons for beginning the
socio-religious reform movements in Maharashtra as well as in
India in the nineteenth century.

8.2 NATIONALISM AND SOCIAL GROUPS

The English educated middle class turned its attention

towards the religious social and cultural renaissance. Its spirit of
nationalism aroused both the Hindus and the Muslims to set their
houses in order. This middle class began to analyses their own
socio-religious conditions. It led them to convince that their original
and pure religions had been defiled due to blind traditions on
earning less ritual, customs, and superstitious beliefs. Naturally,
they sought reforms in their religions and social life. As a matter of
fact, there was much influence of the socio-religious reform
movement on the educated people in India, who created
renaissance or awakening among the people.

8.3 PROBLEMS OF THE WOMEN

Position of women in Indian society differed period to period

and age to age. Although it was quite satisfactory in the Rig Vedic
 101

period, it considerably transformed in the latter period and made

her subservient. As a matter of fact, the position of women mainly
depends upon the two important elements in the society. The first is
the social philosophy and the second the social institutions
developed in the passage of time. The social philosophy initiates a
particular level of the culture and the general outlook of the society;
these elements help in determining the position of women. In
addition to these, the social institutions have come up as family,
marriage, provisions of Hindu law and the religion, which have
never indicated a liberal outlook towards women. These institutions
created several problems in the life of women. Except in cities, joint
family is in practice everywhere, in which contractual marriages
take place. These marriages have brought to surface problems like
incompatibility of life partner, child marriage, polygamy, and
restriction on widow remarriage, divorce, sati, female slavery and
concubine age.

The practice of sati, which had a religious basis and belief

that women by their self-immolation with the corpse of their
husband attained such high spirit and merit that sins of their
husbands were annihilated and they were raised to heaven to live
in eternal union with the wife. This was the role of religion, which
might have driven a number of women to perform such an ordeal of
burning themselves alive. Wives were considered one’s personal
property, rather than a companion. This was the position of Indian
women during ancient period and continued till modern days.

It is said that the gradual deterioration in the status of the

women began during the Smriti period. In society women could not
have an independent status and became entirely dependent on the
men in socio-economic matters. With the passage of time women
became victims of various social evils such as female infanticide,
seclusion and dowry. They were denied education. These social
evils and the low status of women continued since the ancient
period.

Indian women faced several problems since the ages.

Among them child marriage, female infanticide, illiteracy,
restrictions on widow remarriage, polygamy, concubine, sati and
restriction on divorce were more severe. ‘Purdah’ system which had
entered India with the arrival of Muslims had come to stay and its
grip was further tightened during the British period. The mobility of
women was by and large restricted to the four walls of their
dwellings. An average Indian woman had no access to school,
college and other public places. A fairly large majority of them lived
as deaf and dumb driven cattle. Those belonging to urban elite and
also allowed relative freedom constituted only an iota.
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Check your progress:

1. Explain in brief the problems of women under British period.

8.4 SOCIAL REFORMS AND WOMEN

When the British came to India and they became ruler of the
country, the Britishers passed some of the social legislations like
prohibition of female infanticide or sacrificing infants, sati, slavery
and also passed the widow remarriage Act. But these acts ruffled
the country and the British faced the uprising in 1857. The British
then decided not to interfere in the social life of the people which
was assumed by the Queen’s Proclamation of 1858. However,
there started a social reform movement, which succeeded in
securing some reforms in society and created social awareness
among the people. The efforts made towards the emancipation of
women can be studied as under :

1) Sati system
The practice of sati, which had a religious basis and belief
that women by their self-immolation with the corpse of their
husband attained such high spirit and merit that sins of their
husbands were annihilated and they were raised to heaven to live
in eternal union with the wife. This was the role of religion, which
might have driven a number of women to perform such an ordeal of
burning themselves alive.

Raja Ram Mohan Roy wanted to improve the condition of

the Indian women. He raised his voice against the practice of sati.
He pointed out that most of the sati cases were not voluntary, but
forced. When the orthodox leaders petition to the government,
requesting the withdrawal of the regulations of 1812-13 and 1817,
Ram Mohan Roy and his friend submitted a counter-petition in
August 1818. Ram Mohan Roy wrote a number of articles in
English to show that nowhere in the Hindu Shastras the burning of
widows have been mentioned as a compulsory measure. He also
published articles in his Bengali journal Samvad Kaumudi against
the evil practice of sati. Ram Mohan Roy struggled against sati and
finally succeeded when Lord William Bentinck declared the practice
of sati illegal and published by the law passed in 1829.
 103

2) Child Marriage :
This was one of the problems faced by women. Initially,
there was no minimum marriageable age was fixed. People used to
marry their children at very young age, even at the age of two to
five years, which generated other problems like Sati, polygamy and
concubine age. In order to avoid the chain of problems, reformers
like, B. M. Malbari, R. G. Bhandarkar and M. G. Ranade began to
create awareness among the people. B. M. Malbari, a Parsi
reformer fought against this custom prevailed in the society. That
led the British Government to pass the Act of 1860, which raised
the age of consent for marriage from ten years to twelve years.

Behramji Malbari.

The social workers in Maharashtra challenged the degrading

custom of child marriage and forced the British to pass the Act in
1872 by which the early marriage was abolished, polygamy was
declared a penal offence and sanctioned widow remarriages and
inter caste marriages in the country. Despite this law, the people in
Maharashtra continued with evil system of child marriage in the
society. In 1880, B. M. Malbari, the editor of Indian Spectator had
attracted the attention of people towards the child marriage and
published has notes on enforced widowhood and infant marriages
in 1884. He said that the Government should include the evils of
child marriage in the school syllabus to create awareness at the
early age among the people. Justice Ranade advised the
Government to pass Laws to fix twelve years the minimum age of
girls for marriage and amend the penal code to punish the people
who infringed these laws. Although, some of the prominent
members opposed to this, B. M. Malbari went to England to
pressurize the British Government to get passed these legislations.
Due to the hard efforts of B. M. Malbari, the Age of Consent Act of
1891 was passed. This was a step ahead in the emancipation of
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women. These legislations led all enlightened and English

educated people in Maharashtra to work jointly towards creating
better conditions for women in society.

Pandita Ramabai was one more pioneering personality, who

worked hard towards the emancipation of women. Many orthodox
people in Pune criticized her for her marriage to a non-Brahmin
Bengali man. She was very much critical about the miseries of
women at the hands of men. In order to support women in miseries
Pandita Ramabai established Arya Mahila Samaj with the help of
Prarthana Samaj. She was also supported in her efforts by
Bhandarkar and Justice Ranade. Pandita Ramabai was harassed
by orthodox Brahmins to such extent that she was forced to convert
to Christianity and leave for England and America for some time.
She wrote a book and blamed the orthodox people in Hinduism for
her troubles and sufferings. She established sharda sadan in
Mumbai in 1889 and shifted it to Pune on the request of M. G.
Ranade and Bhandarkar, who supported her in her efforts of
solving problems of destitute women. In 1930, the Government
passed the Sharda Act which made a provision for fine and
imprisonment to a person abating for marriage of the girl below
fourteen years of age.

3) Female Education :
Illiteracy was one more problems faced by Indian women
due to misunderstanding, wrong notions, superstition and general
backwardness of the society. tradionally, it was said that parents
should spend money on girls marriage including dowry and other
heads but not to spend any thing on their education. They should
spend money on the education of boys only. This phenomenon was
changed when the Christian Missionaries came to India and they
established convent schools for education of girl child under the
 105

supervision of nuns. However, this effort was suspected that the

missionary schools would be used to convert girls to Christianity.
As a matter of fact these schools were open for all castes,
communities, religions and groups but the above suspicion did not
let maximum girls to take benefits of those schools.

Due to the spread of English education, some of the English

educated people began to educate their girls. R. C. Majumdar,
therefore says that there was no observance of purda system in the
Mumbai presidency, which led people in the Presidency to educate
their girls. The ‘Students literary and Scientific Society’ was
founded under the banner of Gujarati Dyan Prasarak Mandal which
began to support the cause of female education. The people like
Dadabhai Naoraji, B. M. Malbari, P. C. Banaji and the Camas
started educatina their girls and opened schools for female
education despite opposition from the orthodox section of their
community. The Marathi industrialists like Jagannath Shankar Seth
and Bhau Dagi also contributed to the cause of educating girls in
the Mumbai presidency. Among the social reformers like B. M.
Malbari (who started Seva Sadan in Mumbai), Ranade, Bhandarkar
and Chandawarkar, Mahatma Jyotiba G. Phule and Pandita
Ramabai were prominent in the field of female education. in 1851,
Phule started a private school for girls with the help of his wife,
Savitribai Phule. Some other organizations also began to open
schools for girls in Mumbai & Poona areas and spread the cause of
female education. In 1891 Bipin Chandra, therefore, said that the
Mumbai presidency was ahead in the field of female education. In
the same way, Capt. Lester, the education inspector said that there
was be no hurdle in establishing schools for female education in
Mumbai presidency and its neighboring areas of Poona due to the
lead taken by eminent social reformers like Phule, Gokhale,
Ranade and Agarkar.

4) Widow Remarriage :
This was one more problem faced by women since the ages.
There was no-widow remarriage in the upper caste while the lower
castes tried to imitate the upper caste and faced a chain of
problems like committing sati or remaining widow for the whole life.
Widow was not allowed to participate in any programme or religious
function and she was to spend her life aimlessly in isolation. Many
social reformers was tried to encourage widow remarriages and
helped the Govt. to pass the Hindu widow remarriage Act in 1856.
but the situation did not change much.

During the modern times social reformers like M. G. Ranade,

Vishnu Shastri Pandit, D. K. Karve and Pandita Ramabai actively
participated in encouraging widow remarriages and founded
various societies for the same purpose. In addition to the
foundation of Vidhava Vivaha Uttejak Mandal, the ‘Widow
 106

remarriage Association’ was established in 1893 and the ‘Anath

Balikashram’ was brought up in 1896 near Pune for sheltering
destitute widows. Among all social reformers who worked towards
the cause of widow remarriage, Mahatma Jyotiba Govind Phule
was very much concerned. He supported the widow remarriage and
criticized the other social reformers who married spinters ofter the
death of their wives and not allowed to remarry their relatives like
sisters and daughters, when they lost their husbands in very young
age.

D. K. Karve.

It’s said that in Hinduism marriage was considered

sacrosanct and solemnized in heaven. It, therefore became
irrevocable in any case. Naturally, widow remarriage was not
permitted. That led Hindu women to suffer forever. In order to get
rid of this orthoxy, the western educated people began to oppose it
and advocated the widow remarriage based on the authority of the
Vedas. Although, orthodox inhabitants of Pune submitted two
petitions to the Government to oppose the widow remarriage and
established a society to protect the Hindu Dharma, social reformers
like Vishnu Shastri challenged the orthodox people to debate on the
issue of widow remarriage and published several articles for
creating awareness about the widow remarriage. D. K. Karve took a
step ahead, he himself married a widow Godubai in 1883, who was
his friend’s sister and set an example for other people to follow the
suit. He also set up a ‘Widow Home Association’ based on the
Sharda Sadan founded by Pandita Ramabai. M. G. Ranade and
Bhandarkar helped a lot to the Association for a longtime. This led
to create much awareness in the society which was crystal clear
from the fact that D. K. Karve’s widow Home Association married
twenty five widows in Maharashtra successfully and Indu Prakash
and Social Conference became much more popular in the
movement of social reforms in Maharashtra.
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Check your progress:

1. Explain in brief the social reform movement under British period.

8.5 CONTRIBUTION OF SOCIAL REFORMERS

TOWARDS EMANCIPATION OF WOMEN

Due to the impact of western education and the educated

Indians such as Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Swami Dayananda
Saraswati and other social reformers, an attempt was made to
liberate women from the shackles of ancient social disabilities
through the socio-religious reform movements. Raja Ram Mohan
Roy also opposed to polygamy. He pointed out that the Shastra has
permitted the second marriage of men under certain circumstances.
Ram Mohan Roy was in favour of the education of women. The
Brahmo Samajists sought to bring women into new roles through
schools and prayer meetings. Swami Vivekananda was arguing
that women could become a powerful regenerative force.
Dayananda encouraged female education and condemned all evil
customs. M.G. Rande, Malabari, D.K. Karve tried to educate young
widows and made them teachers in girl‘s schools. R.V.R. Naidu
opposed the devdasi system while Pantulu worked for marriage
reforms. Ishwar Chandra Vidysagar supported the female
education and advocated the widow remarriage. Although, the
widow remarriage Act was passed in 1856, the status of women
was not changed and never received the approval of the society.

8.5.1 Mahatma Phule and Savitribai Phule :

Mahatma Jyotibha Phule never discriminated between men
and women on the basis of sex and wanted to give them equal
rights in all matters. He envisaged a society based on liberty,
 108

equality and fraternity. In order to profess and spread his message

he started Dinbandhu, a weekly journal with the help of Narayan
Meghaji Lokhande, who was his close associate and a trade union
leader. Phule used his whole energy and intellect to emancipate the
women from their age old bondages of tyrannical brahmanical
patriarchy. He tried to create awareness among them against the
unnatural and unreasonable claims of the Hindu people and
professed individual dignity and equality in socio-religious matters.
He was the first man to start school for girls in Maharashtra.

8.5.2 Gopal Ganesh Agarkar

Gopal Ganesh Agarkar was the first editor of Kesari. During
this period he discussed several social problems and offered
solutions for them. For his reformative view he had to resign the
editorship of Kesari. Agarkar started ‘Sudharak’ to propagate social
reforms. He discussed several social problems and offered solution
for them. Agarkar’s thinking was independent Progressive and
powerful.

i. Equality and Education

Agarkar’s thinking was independent and fearless. His
progressive approach towards the women’s questions created a
new awakening. He propagated his views about social reform
fearlessly. He was moved by the status of woman in family and
stressed on the importance of women’s education. He believed that
husband and wife was equally important member of the family. The
ancient religious scriptures denounced woman. He stood against
such views. He suggested several measures for the emancipations
 109

of women. According to him the outdated social practices which are

wrong and injurious in modern days should be reduced to the
ashes. He was determined to use his newspaper to educate the
society. As an editor of the Sudharak, he was ready to fight
orthodoxy. He had to confront feelings, anger and short
sightedness of the orthodox people. The Sudharak believed in the
philosophy of ‘saying whatever is right and doing whatever is
possible’. Many articles in the Sudharak show his concern for
education. He spent most of the life in teaching and propagating
education. According to Agarkar, if men and women are given the
same type of education then men may have to stay of home to look
after the children, wash clothes. But men should not feel it below
their dignity to undertake household works.Agarkar believed in the
universal law of change. Struggle is essential to bring about
change. Agarakar stood for social legislation by the government.
Tilak led the opposition to such legislation. Agarkar being a staunch
social reformer stood for transformation of Hindu religion and
society by adopting the best principles of western civilization. His
mission of life was to convey to the people the essence of the
progressive principles.

ii. Child Marriage

He denounced the system of child marriage. Agarkar
advocated reforms like education of woman and ban on child
marriages, remarriage of widows. According to him child marriage
had harmful impact on the society. These marriages were
physically and psychologically harmful and cannot be justified. It
was improper to marry off children before they were physically
mature. The children out of such marriages are usually weak both
mentally and physically. He maintained that age of marriage for the
young could be raised. With genuine fervour he advocated
restriction on child marriage. The issue of child marriage led to
sharp conflict between Agarkar and Tilak. Agarkar supported
famous social reformer Malabari who struggled to get Bill of Age of
Consent passed. However Tilak opposed the idea of the
government interference in the social reform. Agarkar strongly
supported the Bill. He advocated the bill for the sake of protecting
women’s physical health and mental development. According to
him it was necessary to adopt legal measures to prevent woman
from being treated as the property of men. Tilak and his supporters
did not approve of Agarkar’s views. There are many other
differences as well regarding the other social reforms hence
Agarkar had to resign from kesari’s editorship. He started
independent weekly, Sudharak to propagate the social reforms. It
became the vehicle to spread ideas of the social reforms. In the first
issue he wrote on political and social reforms. According to him due
to the ignorance in the public mind on religious and social issues, it
would not be possible to arouse the people to the political
problems. He was devoted to his ideals and hopeful to achieve the
 110

goal of reformation in the society.

iii. Widow Remarriage

While advocating restriction on child marriage, Agarkar put
emphasis on the need for widow remarriage. The ban on widow
remarriage exited among the higher castes. A widow’s life in
Hindus was miserable. Agarkar advocated that the society should
accept widow remarriage which would give her purpose and dignity
to her life. This would also take care of the problems of forced
abortions. In this matter Agarkar proposed the need for a law as
well as social education.

8.5.3 Maharshi Dhondo Keshav Karve

Maharshi Dhondo Keshav Karve was pioneer in promoting
women’s education and the right for widows to remarry. He was
active social reformer. After the death of his first wife he married a
widow rather than unmarried girl. The work of Pandita Ramabai
inspired him to dedicate his life to the cause of female education
and the work of PanditVishnu Shastri inspired him to work for the
uplifting the status of widow. In 1893, Karve founded “Vidhwa
Vivahattejak Mandali”. In 1896, he established “Hindu Widows
Home Association” and started a ‘Mahilashram’ in Hingane. The
aim of the Home was to create among high caste widows an
interest in life by training them to become self-sufficient. The
establishment of a Girls School (Mahila Vidyalaya) which was a
 111

boarding school for non-widow students was the next reform

initiated by Karve. The managing Committee of his Vidyalaya and
Widow’s Home Association decided to open the schools and other
institutions for the education of the women. Later on ‘Widows Home
Association’ was renamed as ‘Hingane Stree Shikshan Sanstha’.
During 1817-18 Karve established another school for girls.

The greatest achievement of Karve is the foundation of the

women’s university in Maharashtra. He presented the idea of
establishing the special institute for women’s education in the
meeting of National Social Conference at Mumbai. He was
supported by many leaders including Annie Besant, Mahatma
Gandhi and Dr. Bhandarkar. The women’s University was founded
in 1916. All the educational institutions founded by karve were
affiliated to the university. In 1919 Sir Vithaldas D. Thackersey an
industrialist in Mumbai provided ample funds for the university.
Henceforth the University came to be known as SNDT (Shrimati
Nathibai Damodar Thakersey) Women’s University. Karve was also
took initiative in establishing girl’s high schools in Maharashtra and
Gujarat. He was awarded ‘Bharat Ratna’, the nation’s highest
honour for his achievements and dedication to the educational
cause in 1958.

8.5.4 Pandita Ramabai

Ramabai was a daughter of Anant Shastri, a well-known
Sanskrit scholar. She got married to Bipin Behari Das, a Brahmo
Samajist. Unfortunately her husband died in 1881. At this time,
Ramabai decided to devote the rest of the life to the upliftment of
women. She was welcomed in Pune by reformers like Ranade,
Bhandarkar, Telang and Agarkar. She has established Arya Mahila
Samaj in 1882at Pune. She visited England and America to create
awareness about the women’s condition. She addressed numerous
meetings to highlight the condition of the women in India. She
published a book, ‘The High Caste Hindu Woman’ to describe the
miserable plight of the Indian Women. In Mumbai, she founded
‘Sharada Sadan’, a home for widows in 1889. This Home aimed at
providing educational facilities for widows and destitute women.
The opening of the Sharda Sadan attracted criticism as well as
praise from the leaders in Pune. Reformers like Ranade and
Agarkar welcomed her activities. However orthodox section was
suspicious of her motives. Tilak opposed to her. The increasing
criticism on Pandita Ramabai changed the reformer’s stand that
had sympathy to her. Ramabai continued her activities on her own
strength. The opposition of the orthodox section led to the
conversion of the Ramabai to the Christianity. In 1919 the British
Monarchy conferred on her the (Kaiser-I-Hind-Award).
 112

8.5.5 Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar

Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar rendered great service to all the
women by his emphasis on equality. The preamble of the
constitution of India promises to secure to all citizens justice. Parts
III and IV of the constitution have provided these objectives which
contain many provisions providing for preferential treatment for
promoting social status of women and children. Because of his
efforts, working women got the full pay maternity benefit. As a
Labour minister in Viceroys Executive Council (1942-1946), he
enacted various laws especially for the betterment of women. He as
a Law Minister submitted a bill which raised the age of consent and
marriage, upheld monogamy, gave women the right of divorce and
treated stridhan as women’s property. However the conservative
opposition to the radical proposals led to the postponement of the
Hindu Code Bill. Dr. Ambedkar resigned in disgust due to attitude of
the conservative members of the Constituent Assembly. Later
sections of the Bill were passed as four distinct Acts. Thus, he
devoted his entire life for the upliftment of all sections of society for
the overall development of our country. Dr. Ambedkar was truly
liberator of the Indian women.

Check your progress :

1) Discuss the efforts made towards the emancipation of women by
Social reformers.
 113

8.6 WOMEN AND INDIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENT

When the history of India’s fight for Independence comes to

be written, the sacrifice made by the women of India will occupy
thefore most place - Mahatma Gandhi Jawaharlal Nehru had
remarked, when most of the men-folk were in prison then a
remarkable thing happened. Our women came forward and took
charge of the struggle. Women had always been there of course
but now there was an avalanche of them, which took not only the
British Government but their own men folk by surprise. The entire
history of the freedom movement is replete with the saga of
bravery, sacrifice and political sagacity of great men and women of
the country. This struggle which gained momentum in the early
20thcentury, threw up stalwarts like Mahatma Gandhi, Lala Lajpat
Rai,Motilal Nehru, Abul Kalam Azad, C. Rajagopalachari, Bal
Gangadhar Tilak, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Jawaharlal Nehru and
Subhash Chander Bose. Their number and stature often gives usan
erroneous impression that it was only a man’s movement. But it is
not so. Many prominent women played a leading role in the
freedom movement. The important place assigned to women in
India dates back to the time of the Vedas and Smritis.
Manudeclared that where women were adored, Gods frequented
that place, During the Vedic age the position of women in society
was very high and they were regarded as equal partners with men
in all respects. Who had not heard of Maitri, Gargi, Sati Annusuya
and Sita? In keeping with this tradition, burden of tears and toils of
the long years of struggle for India’s freedom was borne by the
wives, mothers, and daughters, silently and cheerfully. The
programme of self-imposed poverty and periodical jail going was
possible only because of the willing co-operation of the worker’s
family. In the various resistance movements in the villages, the
illiterate women played this passive but contributory part as
comrades of their men folk.

It has been very often and correctly said that India’s struggle
for independence has also been a struggle for Indian woman’s
socio-economic emancipation. And the sole credit goes to
Mahatma Gandhi, the Father of the Nation, who included woman
uplift as an important part of the Congress constructive programme.
The resurgence of the Indian womenfolk has also been helped by
some foreign born women like Dr. Annie Besant, Neili Sen Gupta,
and Margaret Cousins who zealously worked in India, for country’s
freedom and its socio-economic development.

Apart from the achievement of political independence, the

second best benefit that flowed out of our Freedom Movement has
been the liberation of our women, particularly those hailing from
urban settlements. However, the path shown by them is
continuously being followed by the rural women also. Many of the
 114

enlightened women then, plunged into India’s freedom movement.

And it is very interesting and worthwhile to have a peep in their
glorious service in this regard. References have already been cited
related to the works of Dr. Annie Besant, Madam Cama, Bina Das,
Pritilata Wadedar, Kalpana Dutt, Sarojini Naidu, Neili Sengupta,
and Indira Gandhi etc. However, there is a long and unending listof
the women who enthusiastically participated in this crusade in one
way or the other. But the sufferings and sacrifices of Rajkumari
Amrit Kaur, Kasturba Gandhi, Vijayalakshmi Pandit, Sucheta
Kriplani, Lilavati Munshi, Sister Nivedita, Amma A. V.Kuthimalu,
Kamla Devi Chattopadhya. Chaudharani Sarla Devi, Subhadra
Kumari Chauhan, Kamala Das Gupta, Durgabai Deshmukh,
Basanti Das, Nanibala, Rama Devi, Swaran Kumari, Urmila Devi,
Subbamma Dhuvri, Lakshmibayamma Unnava, Kadambini
Ganguly, Suhasini Ganguly, Santi Das, Avantikabai Gokhale, Hema
Prabha, Meera Behn, Sharda Behn, Aruna Asaf Ali, Behn
Satyawati Devi, Lakshmi Menon, Muthulakshmi Reddi, Lila Roy,
Pandita Ramabai, Violet Alva, Indumati Sinha, Rani Gaidinliu,
Annie Mascrene, etc. etc. are worth remembering.

Under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi, the national

movement became a mass movement since 1920. The
participation of women in the national movement made a steady
progress from the non-cooperation movement to the Quit India
movement in 1942. During these mass movements, the women
shouldered the responsibilities with running their homes, to
contribute to the mite of the freedom struggle as they marched on
the streets, shouted slogans, picketed shops of foreign goods and
liquor, faced police lathi charge and bullets. Due to Gandhiji‘s
appeal the Indian women fought shoulder to shoulder with men in
the freedom Struggle of India, which enhanced their status and
brought to the fore several issues related to women. The national
movement was the first forum where the women participated in
public life, to acquire rights and positions hither to denied to them. It
was Mahatma Gandhi who tapped the potential of women as
political agitators and partners in the process of building up a
nation. The national movement acted in liberating women in drastic
way than the past social reforms. They showed their capability as
Socialist, Communist and Militant revolutionaries. They also fought
under the leadership of Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose for the
liberation from the British rule. The women participated in the
national movement were as; in1889 ten women attended the Indian
National Congress session. In 1890Swarnakumari Ghosal, a
novelist and Kadambiri Ganguly, the first women in the British
Empire to receive BA and the India‘s first lady doctor attended as
delegates. Saraladevi, Muthulakshmi Reddy and Amrit Kaur
followed Gandhi in the movement. Sarojini Naidu, Goshiben Naoriji
and Avantikabai Gokhale were attached to Rashtriya Stree Sangha.
Urmila Devi, Shanti Das and Bimal Protiba Devi in Bengal and Smt.
 115

S. Ambujammal, Krishnabai Rau and Rukmani Lakshmipathy from

south were ahead in the movement. Due to this participation of
women, there started changes taking place in the society and
administration. The first major change was a legislation passed in
1937, the Hindu Women‘s property Act. It applied uniformly to all
Hindus. When a husband died leaving properly, the widow would
be entitled to the same share as the sons in the property. In the
case of joint family property, she would be entitled to the same
interests in the property as her husband had, including the right to
demand partition.

The Indian National Movement began to change the

condition of women in the country. This change enabled women to
demand the trappings of modern life, education, health care,
protective legislations, civil and political rights within the framework
of a social feminist ideology that constructed women more
psychologically different than man. Indian women, who sacrificed
for her husband and family in the past, the same habit of sacrifice
now valorized the women worthy for all rights in the country.

Check Your Progress:

1. Trace the participation of Women in the Indian National
movement.

8.7SUMMARY

Since the ancient period, Indian society had been under out
dated systems, traditions and superstitions. The large section which
suffered a lot was the woman in the society. It is clear that many of
the social reformers took lot of efforts for the upliftment of Indian
society. Mahatma Phule had done pioneering work towards the
social reform movement in India during the second half of the 19th
Century. Most of the social reformers worked towards the
emancipation of Women and because of their efforts many
important issues were addressed and solved by them.

Even then Indian woman contributed a lot towards the

development Indian Society. Among them Cama, Besant, Naidu
were prominent. Besides, these women crusaders, there have been
thousands of women who wholeheartedly participated in Indian
national Movement. Many of them were greatly influenced by
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Mahatma Gandhi and happily underwent all types of sufferings and

repressive measures. It is evidently clear, that Indian women did
not lag behind and it has been a great contribution of Gandhiji that
he, through his programmes and calls, brought about socio-
economic uplift of the Indian women, no mean an achievement.

8.8 ADDITIONAL READINGS

1. Bipan Chandra, History of Modern India, Orient Blackswan,

2009.
2. B.L. Grover and S. Grover, A New Look at Modern Indian
History, S. Chand and Company, New Delhi, 2001.
3. Sumit Sarkar, Modern India 1885-1947, Macmillan, Madras,
1996.
4. Tara Chand, History of the Freedom Movement in India, Vols. 1-
4.

8.9 QUESTIONS

1. Examine the problems of women towards the beginning of

nineteenth century India.
2. Describe the work of British government towards the
emancipation of Women.
3. Discuss the contribution of Mahatma Phule and Savitribai Phule
towards the emancipation of Women in the nineteenth century.
4. Explain the various problems of women’s in the nineteenth
century of Maharashtra and trace the efforts of social reformers
to eradicate it.
5. Examine the contribution of women to the Indian national
movement.


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Unit - 9
DALIT
Unit Structure:
9. 0 Objectives
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Who are the Dalits?
9.3 Pre-Ambedkar Dalit Movement
9.3.1 Mahatma Jotirao Phule
9.3.2 Gopalbaba Valangkar
9.3.3 Kisan Faghu Bansode
9.3.4 Shivram Janaba Kamble
9.3.5 Maharshi Vitthal Ramji Shinde
9.3.6 Narayan Guru
9.3.7 Rajashree Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj
9.4 Dr. Ambedkar and Dalit Movement
9.4.1 Early Life and Education
9.4.2 Social Movement of Dr. Ambedkar
9.4.3 Political work of Dr. Ambedkar
9.4.4 An Architect of the Indian Constitution – Dr. Ambedkar
9.4.5 Economic Thoughts of Dr. Ambedkar
9.4.6 Educational Work of Dr. Ambedkar
9.5 Summary
9.6 Additional Readings
9.7 Questions

9.0 OBJECTIVES

After the study of this unit, the student will be able to :

1. Understand the meaning of the concept of Dalit.
2. Study the contributions of various social reformers in Dalit
movement during Pre-Ambedkar period.
3. Understand the work of Mahatma Jotirao Phule in Dalit
movement.
4. Analyze the various dimensions of Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar’s
work viz. political, social, religious and economic.
5. Understand the role of Dr. Ambedkar as nation builder.
6. Grasp Dr. Ambedkar’s educational work.
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9.1 INTRODUCTION

The advent of the British was welcomed by the liberals of

higher caste educated people for its liberalism and system of
education. The orthodox forces opposed the British out of fear that
the British culture, language and liberalism might corrupt the Indian
customs and traditions. In reality both these forces were benefitted
by the British administrative system. On the contrary the lower
classes such as Dalits, tribals and peasants were more ruthlessly
exploited by the British system of administration which was
exploitative in nature. The public organizations seem to neglect the
prime issues of these oppressed classes. Number of social
reformers worked for the upliftment of marginalized section of
society. They made significant changes in the lives of these
subaltern classes. The main objective of the Dalit Movement was to
establish a society based on the principle of social equality.
Mahatma Jotirao Phule was the first social reformer who started the
Dalit movement in India during the nineteenth Century. Dr. B. R.
Ambedkar gave a revolutionary character to Dalit movement and
prepared the Dalits to launch an agitation for securing their social,
religious and political rights. He waged a war against the inhuman
practices of Hindu religion and emancipated the lowest strata of the
society. He was mainly responsible for the overall development of
Indian society in general and Dalit’s in particular.

9.2 WHO ARE THE DALITS?

The word ‘Dalit’ means ‘suppressed’, ‘crushed’, or ‘broken to

pieces’. It is inclusive of all the oppressed and exploited section of
society. Dalits are a mixed population of numerous caste groups
and speak various languages. There are many different names
proposed for defining these group of people like ‘Panchamas’
(Fifth Varna), ‘Asprushya’ (untouchables), Antyaja etc. Dalits are
traditionally regarded as untouchables. Etymologically the term is
inclusive of meaning such as: downtrodden, disadvantaged,
underprivileged, dispossessed, deprived, handicapped, abused,
humble etc. It does not, however, confine merely to economic
exploitation in term of appropriation of surplus but also relates to
suppression of culture- ways of life and value system- and more
importantly the denial of dignity. During the British period, they were
known as ‘Depressed Classes’. The term SC was first used by the
British in the government of India Act, 1935. The constitution of
India recognizes them as ‘Scheduled Castes’ and ‘Scheduled
Tribes’. M.K. Gandhi used the name ‘Harijan’ to define
untouchables but it was opposed and banned by Govt. of India after
independence. Dr. Ambedkar chose the term ‘broken men’ as
English translation of dalit to refer to the original ancestors of the
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untouchables. Generally the term ‘Dalit’ includes what is called in

administrative parlances: Scheduled Castes (SC), Scheduled
Tribes (ST) and Other Backward Classes (OBC).

Caste is an important element in India and it is still the

foundation of Indian society and it is regarded as the basic structure
of Indian society. The traditional fourfold caste system was based
on Varna system, consists of Brahmin (the priestly caste)
kshatriyas (the warrior caste) and vaishyas (the trading caste) all of
whom are considered twice-born (dvija) and are allowed to read the
holy texts and perform Upanayana ceremony. The fourth groups,
Shurdras (the servile caste) was not allowed to read the holy text
and were required to serve the upper caste people. Below these
four Varnas there were numerous castes which were referred as
untouchables and several restrictions were imposed on them. They
were referred as Dalits in course of time. They were also called
“out-caste” or untouchable groups, whose very shadow was
considered polluting to caste Hindus. They were not allowed to take
education. They were restricted to enter the temples. They were not
supposed to take water from public wells, lakes and lakes etc. They
had to live outside the villages and were prohibited to enter into
villages due to their pollute nature. They were also not allowed to
hold the property. Their condition remained unchanged till the
advent of British rule whereas they were forced to accept the social
servitude by upper castes.

In the context of traditional Hindu society, Dalit status has

often been historically associated with occupations regarded as
ritually impure, such as any involving leatherwork, butchering or
removal of rubbish, animal carcasses and waste. They were denied
several humanitarian rights from ancient period up to the advent of
British rule. Number of restrictions was imposed on them to
establish the cultural hegemony of the priestly class and it was
supported by ancient law books like Smritis and Puranas. Their
exploitation was continued even upto the foundation of British rule
in India. However, due to British legislations, Dalits got several
rights during the beginning of ninettenth Century. Due to western
education and liberal approach, number of social reformer tried to
emancipate the lives of Dalits. Dalit movement (1857-1947) can be
divided into two main periods:

1. Pre-Ambedkar Period
2. Dr. Ambedkar Period
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9.3 PRE-AMBEDKAR DALIT MOVEMENT

During the Pre-Ambedkar period, number of social reformers

worked for the upliftment of marginalized section of society. The
social reformer of pre-Ambedkar period mainly includes Mahatma
Jotirao Phule, Savitribai Phule, Shivram Janba Kamble, Kisan
Faghu Bansode, Vitthal Ramji Shinde, Narayan Guru and
Chhatrapati Rajashree Shahu Maharaj etc. They made significant
changes in the lives of untouchables through their constant efforts
and movement.

9.3.1 Mahatma Jotirao Phule

Mahatma Jotirao Phule occupies a unique position among
the social reformers of Maharashtra in 19th century. He
concentrated his energies against the unjust cast system under
which millions of people had suffered for many centuries. Jotirao
launched a movement in Maharashtra for the liberation and uplifting
the downtrodden. He has founded Satyashodhak Samaj in 1873
which was the manifestation of the Jotirao’s ideals of liberalism and
rationalism. He opposed the custom of worshipping before idols
and denounced the caste system. His main work was to arouse the
exploited and suppressed masses from age old slavery. He was the
first Indian to start a school for the untouchables and girls school in
Maharashtra. According to Dhananjay Keer, he was the first public
man in modern India to devote his time to serving the masses. In
social and religious matters, Phule wanted both men and women to
be given equal rights. He criticized the theory of
Varnashramadharma. He enrolled all the students in his class
irrespective of their caste and creed. He differed from the other
social reformers of his time because of his pro peasant and pro
poor outlook. He led the masses in an organized resistance to end
the inequality in the society. In his relentless struggle for securing
the right of education for women and in particular, for low castes,
his wife Savitribai Phule, worked hand in- hand with him for the
cause of Dalits emancipation. He started two papers, one,
‘Dinbhandhu’ in 1877 to rouse and mould public opinion in favour of
the untouchables and his ideas, which started gaining currency. Dr.
Ambedkar respected him as one of his guru and after his death he
continued the movement of establishing egalitarian society.
 121

9.3.2 Gopalbaba Valangkar

Following the footsteps of Mahatma Phule, Gopalbaba
Valangkar, Shivram Janba Kamble and others devoted themselves
to the task of eradication of untouchability. Gopalbaba Valangkar
was retired from army in 1886 and in order to serve for the
untouchables he has founded the organization named ‘Anarya
Dosh Parihar’ which has addressed many issues of Dalits. Under
the auspices of this organization, he has submitted memorandum
to British Government against their ban on untouchable’s entry into
army in 1894. He has opened many schools and hostels for the
spread of education among them. He has also convened several
conferences of untouchables to voice their grievances and several
resolutions were passed in favour of betterment of Dalits.
Gopalbaba Valangkar, in his treatise ‘Vital Viddhwansan’
condemned the inhuman custom of untouchability.

9.3.3 Kisan Faghu Bansode

Kisan Faghu Bansode was another social reformer who has
started his work since 1900 towards the emancipation of Dalits. In
1907, he has started ‘Chokamela Girls School’ for Dalit girls and
also opened hostels for them. During British period, number of
Dalits left their villages and took jobs of various kinds in cities.
However their exploitation was continued even in cities. Therefore
Kisan Faghu Bansode addressed their problems by uniting them.
He has founded ‘Antyaj Samaj’ for them in 1919 and voiced their
problems. In order to awaken these masses, he wrote several
poems, articles, tamashas and plays and sensitizes them for their
movement. He also started periodical ‘Majoor Patrika’ from 1918 to
 122

1922 and led the movement of untouchable workers in Bombay and

exposed the exploitation of both upper castes and British capitalist
class.

9.3.4 Shivram Janba Kamble

Shivram Janba Kamble, himself an untouchable, became an
important leader of his Dalit community. He organized the first
conference of the untouchables in India. He had worked as editor of
‘Somavanshiya Mitra’, a monthly magazine at Poona. He criticized
the blind faith and cruel practice of Murali through his articles. He
appealed to the British Government in 1910 to improve the
conditions of the depressed classes.

9.3.5 Maharshi Vitthal Ramji Shinde

Maharshi Vitthal Ramji Shinde was another important social
reformer of Maharashtra, who promoted the cause of the Dalits. He
was educated at Oxford and after his return from England he
worked for the upliftment of the depressed classes. He was greatly
influenced by the thoughts of Mahatma Jotirao Phule. He has made
sincere efforts to establish contacts between the social reformers
and the nationalist leaders. He repeatedly tried to put forward the
problem of the untouchables on the agenda of the Congress. He
has established the Indian Depressed Classes Mission in 1906 for
uplifting the untouchables. The objectives of the mission were to
spread education among untouchables, to provide employment for
them and to try to remove social restrictions imposed on them. He
wanted to bring about material and moral uplift of the Dalits. The
mission opened its first school for the untouchables in Mumbai in
1906. The Mission established centers at number of places
including Madras, Mangalore, Indore and opened 23 schools. V. R.
Shinde toured the whole country preaching eradication of
untouchability. From 1907 to 1914 he organized seven conferences
of the depressed classes to raise their voice. He has also
established ‘All India Untouchability League’ to safeguards the
interests of the untouchables. In 1917 he persuaded the leaders of
the Indian National Congress to pass a resolution demanding
eradication of untouchability. After the emergence of Gandhi, V. R.
Shinde was attracted towards his philosophy. He participated in the
famous Temple Entry Agitation at Vaikom in Kerala. He was a true
follower of Mahatma Jotirao Phule’s ideology. He dedicated Himself
to the promotion of the welfare of the Dalits. He opened number of
schools for the education of the depressed classes all over the
Maharashtra. This shows that he was the ardent follower of
Prarthana Samaj and Mahatma Phule.
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Vithal Ramji Shinde.

9.3.6 Narayan Guru

Narayan Guru was born in Kerala in Ezhava caste
(untouchable caste) established the Shree Narayana Dharma
ParipalanaYogam (SNDP) in Kerala and opened it branches
outside also. He openly criticised the congress and Mahatma
Gandhi for their lip sympathy towards the lower castes. He
criticised Gandhiji for his faith in Chaturvarna, which he maintained
is parent of the caste system and untouchability. He pointed out
that the difference in castes is only superficial. He gave a new
slogan “one religion, one caste and one God for mankind”. He also
built temples which are open for all castes.

9.3.7 Rajashree Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj

Rajashree Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj, the King of princely
State of Kolhapur, had a strong desire initially to educate all at no
cost. In 1901, he opened the first Boarding House known as the
Victoria Maratha Boarding for students. Out of his earnest desire,
after 1902, on his direct and indirect support near about 21
Boarding Houses were opened in the Kolhapur State. All these
boarding houses were established for each and every caste in the
Kolhapur State. In the same year that is 1902 he introduced 50
percent Reservation and Liberal Schemes of Grants and
Scholarships to the Backward Classes in the Kolhapur State.
Check your progress :
1) Explain in short the work of Mahatma Phule.
 124

9.4 DR. AMBEDKAR AND DALIT MOVEMENT

Dr. B. R. Ambedkar, affectionately known as Babasaheb

Ambedkar, was one of the most illustrious sons of India. He was a
great scholar who made outstanding contributions as an economist,
sociologist, legal luminary, educationalist, journalist,
parliamentarian and above all, as a social reformer and champion
of human rights. He appeared on the Indian socio-political scene in
early 1920’s and remained in the forefront of all social, economic,
political and religious efforts for upliftment of the lowest stratum of
the Indian society known as Dalits. Babasaheb organized, united
and inspired the Dalits in India to effectively use political means
towards their goal of social equality. He has contributed immensely
for the overall development of our country. Dr. Ambedkar chiefly
responsible for drafting of the Constitution of India where he
enshrined the principles of Liberty, Equality, Fraternity for the every
citizen of India.

Dr. Ambedkar is considered as an emancipator of Dalits. He

tried to solve the problem of Dalits, women, peasants, workers etc.
He wanted to establish equality in all the spheres of life and wanted
to create an egalitarian society. He has undoubtedly been the
central figure in the epistemology of the Dalit universe. He waged a
war against the social evils like caste system, untouchability,
degrading social order for the betterment of human society. He is
mainly responsible for bringing changes in the lives of Dalit’s. He
has contributed immensely for the making of modern India.

9.4.1 Early life and Education

Dr. Ambedkar was born on 14 April 1891 in military
cantonment of Mhow in the Central Provinces (now in Madhya
Pradesh). He was the 14th and last child of Ramji Maloji Sakpal
and Bhimabai. His father Ramji was an army officer stationed at
Mhow in Madhya Pradesh. Ramji retired from the army and shifted
to Dapoli in the Ratnagiri district of Maharashtra from where they
came originally. Bhimrao was enrolled in Government high school
at Satara in 1900. During his school days he had ruthless
experiences of untouchability. Since he was born in an untouchable
caste, he was made to sit separate from other students in a corner
of the classroom. Despite all kinds of humiliations, he continued his
education. The family soon moved to Mumbai and he entered into
the Elphinstone high school in 1904. He has married to Ramabai in
1906.

In 1907, he passed his matriculation examination and this

success provoked celebrations in his community. He was felicitated
by his teacher Krishnaji Arjun Keluskar and he was presented with
a biography of Gautam Buddha. In 1908, he entered Elphinstone
 125

College and obtained a scholarship of twenty five rupees a month

from the ruler of Baroda Sayajirao Gaikwad. Bhimrao passed his
graduation from Elphinstone College, Mumbai in 1913. Sayajirao
had introduced a scheme to send a few outstanding scholars
abroad for advanced studies. The Maharaja granted this
scholarship to Ambedkar for his further studies. In 1913, Ambedkar
went to USA where he studied at the Columbia University, New
York. The freedom and equality, he experienced in America made a
very strong impression on Bhimrao. It was so refreshing for him to
be able to live a normal life, free from the caste prejudice of India.
He studied eighteen hours a day. His main subjects were
Economics and Sociology. He was awarded M.A. and Ph.D. from
Columbia University. Then he left Columbia and went to England,
where he joined the London School of Economics for the
completion of M.Sc and D.Sc. However, he had to leave London
before completing his course because the scholarship granted by
the State of Baroda expired. Bhimrao had to wait three years before
he could return to London to complete his studies.

After returning to India he was given job in the Baroda Civil

service, Where again he experienced the worst features of caste
system in Hinduism. No one at the office where he worked would
hand over files and papers to him, the servant threw them onto his
desk. Nor would they give him water to drink. No respect was given
to him, merely because of his caste. This experience was more
painful for him, since for the past four years he had been living
abroad free from the label of ‘lower caste’. After only eleven days in
his new job, he had to return to Mumbai. He tried to start a small
business there, advising people about investment, but it too failed
once customers became aware of his caste.

In 1918, he became a lecturer of political economy at

Sydenham College in Mumbai. There his students recognized him
as a brilliant teacher and scholar but his fellow colleagues treated
him badly due to his low caste. He began to proclaim and publicize
the humiliations suffered by the Dalits and fight for equal rights by
attending and organizing conferences. His own life had taught him
the necessity of the struggle for emancipation. He started a Marathi
 126

newspaper called ‘Mooknayak’ in 1920 to champion the cause of

the Dalits. In 1920, with the financial assistance of Chhatrapati
Shahu Maharaja of Kolhapur, he was able to return to London to
complete his higher studies in Economics at London School of
Economics where he obtained the degrees of M.Sc. and D.Sc. He
was the first Indian to have a Doctorate in Economics from this
world famous institution. Meanwhile He also enrolled to study law at
Gray’s Inn, London and qualified as a Barrister-at-law in 1923. He
also spent some time in reading economics in the University of
Bonn in Germany. This shows that how much importance he has
given to education. He had taken all efforts to complete his higher
education and later on used all his knowledge for the liberation of
Dalits from the social bondage of Hinduism.

9.4.2 Social Movement of Dr. Ambedkar

Dr. B.R. Ambedkar started his Social activity and his movement
for the upliftment of Dalits by submitting Memorandum before the
Southborough Commission in 1917, in which he asked number of
political and social rights for the Dalits. British Government declared
that it will form responsible Government in India in 1917. In order to
give safeguards to minorities to prevent their political rights, British
Government started interviewing various leaders in India. British
Parliament sent a committee chaired by Southborough in order take
the evidences and decide the policy in the matter of franchise. Dr.
Ambedkar submitted written evidence to Southborough
Commission in which he demanded following rights:
1. Untouchables should be given right to vote.
2. They should be given right to contest the election.
3. There should be separate electorate reserved for them.
4. The representatives of untouchables must be elected by
untouchable voters.
5. In an untouchable dominant constituency, they should be
given reserved seats as per their population.

Dr. Ambedkar demanded civil rights for untouchables before

Southborough commission and it was the first organized effort in
modern India to start civil rights movements of Dalits.
In order to create awareness and to sensitize the issues related
with the Dalits, Dr. Ambedkar decided to start separate newspaper
for them. In 1920, he began the publication of the weekly
‘Mooknayak’ (Leader of the Dumb) in Mumbai with the help of
Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj of Kolhapur. Ambedkar used this
journal to awaken and to raise the issues of Dalit’s. His speech at a
Depressed Classes Conference in Mangaon, Kolhapur impressed
the Shahu Maharaja of Kolhapur who described Ambedkar as the
future national leader and the leader of Dalit’s. He has also
 127

attended number of conferences and guided the Dalits for their

social emancipation.

On his return to India from London after completing his

higher education in 1923, Dr. Ambedkar founded ‘Bahishkrit
Hitakarini Sabha’ on 20 July 1924 with the main objective of
spreading education and improving the economic conditions of the
Dalits. With the slogan of ‘Educate, Agitate and Organize’, the
social movement led by him, aimed at Annihilation of Caste and the
Reconstruction of Indian Society on the basis of equality of human
beings. In order to spread education, Sabha established number of
hostels, schools and free libraries. He also addressed their issues
at number of conferences. Through this organization, he has
established himself as the leader of untouchable castes and
launched number of satyagrahas to seek their humanitarian rights.
Dr. Ambedkar became the nominated member of Bombay
Legislative Council in 1926. As a member of the Council, Ambedkar
gave effective expression to the grievances of the rural poor
through his mass movements. He started a fortnightly Marathi
paper ‘Bahishkrit Bharat’ (Ex-communicated India) in April 1927
and he himself was the editor. This newspaper became the
mouthpiece of his social movement. He also established ‘Samaj
Samata Sangh’ in Sept. 1927 and to spread its activities he also
started another newspaper ‘Samata’ (Equality) in 1928. As a
member of Bombay Legislative Council, he introduced number of
bills to end the serfdom of agricultural labourers and peasants like
Abolition of Khoti system and Mahar Watan system etc.

Mahad Chavdar Lake Satyagraha (March 1927)

By 1927, Dr. Ambedkar decided to launch active movements
against the practice of untouchability. The problems of the
downtrodden were centuries old and difficult to overcome. Their
entry into temples was forbidden. They could not draw water from
public wells and lakes. Dr. Ambedkar started raising the voices of
Dalits and transforming their lives. He began to address their
questions publically and began his humanitarian struggle. He
decided to launch his first Satyagraha from Mahad to obtain water
from the public lake as it was not allowed for the untouchables. His
march to the ‘Chavdar Lake’ in Mahad in 1927 was really an
historic event. With the resolution moved by Raobahadur S. K. Bole
and passed by the Bombay legislative Council in 1926, the lake
was thrown open to all untouchables who could not exercise their
rights due to the hostility of the caste Hindus. Hence, it was decided
to convene a conference of the untouchable classes at Mahad
under the leadership of Dr. Ambedkar. He had presided over a
conference on 19 March 1927 at Mahad in Raigad district where he
said: “We can attain self-elevation only if we learn self-help and
regain our self-respect.”
 128

On 20 March 1927, Ambedkar led the peaceful march at

Mahad to establish the rights of the Dalits to taste water from the
Public Chavdar Lake, traditionally prohibited to them. He knelt and
drank water from it. After he set this example, thousands of others
became courageous enough to follow him. They drank water from
the lake and made history. This marked the beginning of civil right
movement in India.

It was historic in the sense that for the first time in the history
of India the untouchables demonstrated to assert their rights not
only to fetch water but also symbolize the event with equal right to
fetch drinking water, a gift of nature with others. This act of Dalits
was not liked by caste-ridden orthodox Hindus. They attacked the
Dalits and beaten them for polluting the water lake and purified
water lake by cow-dung and Milk. Ambedkar advised the British
government that it was the duty of the government to protect the
rights granted to Dalits by law. After few years, due to the efforts of
Ambedkar, Dalit’s got the legal right to drink water from public wells
and lakes. It was really a glorious chapter in the history of Dalit
movement in India.
Burning of Manusmriti (25 December 1927)
Dr. Ambedkar held Manusmriti as responsible for the social
inequality and the oppressive conditions of the Dalits. In order to
liberate Dalit’s from the age old slavery of caste ridden Hindu
society, he decided to burn Manusmriti which was the symbol of
tyranny and injustice. It was supported by Ambedkar’s upper caste
activists too. Manusmriti was burnt publically at Mahad on 25
December 1927 along with thousands of his followers. This event
was symbolically rejecting the rules so specified and the doctrine of
inequality at birth on which the caste system was based. It was a
historic event which denied the unequal social stratification and
demanded for social norms based on modern humanitarian
 129

principles. This ended the thousand years of slavery and freed the
Dalits from the shackles of virtual bondage.
Nashik Kalaram Temple Entry Satyagraha (1930-1935)
The restriction of the Dalits to enter the temples was another
method of perpetuating the social inequality. They had always been
forbidden to enter Hindu temples. Dr. Ambedkar used Satyagraha
against the restriction on the entry of Dalits in the temples to
establish their right to equality in the society and decided to launch
satyagraha from Nashik Kalaram Temple. The Temple had been a
major place of worship for the Hindu devotees of Rama. The
untouchables desired the temple open to them being Hindus, but
the trustees did not agree. In order to establish the right to enter
into temples, Dr. Ambedkar launched the temple entry Satyagraha
on 2 March 1930. It was another landmark in the struggle for
human rights and social justice. They used temple satyagraha to
launch a wider agitation to raise awareness among the Dalits about
their rights and inspire them to achieve their right to equality in the
society. To secure the right of entry, he urged his people to hold a
satyagraha near the gates of temple. Upper caste Hindus were not
ready to open gates for untouchables. The demonstration lasted for
a month. Stones were thrown at Ambedkar and his supporters from
the temple authorities. During the satyagraha, a fatal life attack on
Dr. Ambedkar was made and a fighting of the untouchables and
touchable took place. As a result the trustees closed down the
temple for a year. Many of the people injured due to this attack.
Then also they continued their peaceful agitation under the able
guidance of Dadasaheb Gaikwad.

This Satyagraha was lasted up to 1935 but orthodox Hindus

didn’t open the gates for the Dalits. Finally, Dr. Ambedkar
summoned a conference of untouchables on 13th October 1935 at
Yeola near Nashik. Babasaheb told the conference; “We have not
been able to secure the barest of human rights. I am born a Hindu.
I couldn’t help it, but I solemnly assure you that I will not die as a
Hindu.” In this conference he exhorted the depressed classes to
leave Hinduism and embrace another religion. He also advised his
followers to abandon the Kalaram Temple entry Satyagraha.
Babasaheb summoned number of conferences to spread the
message of his conversion. This has shaken the very foundation of
Hindu religion. However, Hindu people did not change their
approach and attitude towards the Dalits. They continued their
restrictions and evil social practices. Finally, Dr. Ambedkar
embraced Buddhism on 14 October 1956 at Nagpur.
 130

Check your progress :

1) Explain in short the social work of Dr. Ambedkar.

9.4.3 Political work of Dr. Ambedkar

Dr. Ambedkar strived towards the upliftment of downtrodden
section of the society. He gave significant importance to political
rights of the Dalits. He hold number of offices throughout his career
which helped him to attain the various political rights for Dalits. He
sought the right to franchise, representation in the legislature,
participation the administration etc. for the Dalits in various
capacities. Dr. Ambedkar served as a member of the Bombay
Legislative Council since 1926 where he gave effective expression
to the grievances of the rural poor through his mass movements.
On behalf of the Bahishkrit Hitakarni Sabha, Dr. Ambedkar
submitted a memorandum to the Simon Commission in 1928
demanding joint electorates with reservation of seats for depressed
classes in legislatures and opposed the principle of nomination.
Meanwhile, the Indian Freedom Movement had gained momentum
under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi. During this period
Ambedkar was actively involved in labour movement of Bombay
and addressed the problem of Dalit textile workers.

By 1930’s Ambedkar had become one of the most prominent

political figures of the time. He had grown increasingly critical of
mainstream Indian political parties for their perceived lack of
emphasis for the elimination of the caste system. Ambedkar
criticized the Indian National Congress and its leader Gandhiji,
whom he accused of reducing the untouchable community to a
figure of pathos. Ambedkar condemned Gandhiji’s support for the
caste system and perpetuating untouchability. Ambedkar was also
dissatisfied with the failures of British rule and advocated a political
identity for untouchables separate from the Congress.
 131

British Prime Minister Ramsey Macdonald organized the

Round Table Conferences (1930-1932) at London to decide the
future of India, to frame a constitution for India and to discuss the
issues of participatory government in India. British Government
invited all leaders of India from the different corner of the country.
Due to Dr. Ambedkar’s prominence and popular support amongst
the untouchable community, he was invited to attend the Round
Table Conferences to represent untouchable community. Dr.
Ambedkar had attended all the three conferences from 1930 to
1932. There he served on almost all the sub-committees including
Minority sub-Committee, appointed by the conference. Dr.
Ambedkar prepared a draft of the declaration of fundamental rights
safeguarding the cultural, religious and economic rights of the
untouchables. He also prepared a Scheme of Political Safeguards
for the Protection of Depressed classes and asked the separate
electorate for Depressed classes in the Future Constitution of Self
governing India and submitted it to the minorities’ sub-committee.

During the Second Round Table Conference held in 1932,

Mahatma Gandhiji fiercely opposed separate electorate for
untouchables, though he accepted separate electorate for all other
minority groups such as Muslims and Sikhs, saying he feared that
separate electorates for untouchables would divide Hindu society
for future generations. Dr. Ambedkar logically proved before the
conference how Dalits were treated as separate identity by Hindus
as they were denied number of humanitarian rights and therefore
he asked separate electorate for the depressed classes. A separate
electorate would mean that the Dalits would vote for their own
candidates and would elect their own representatives however it
was opposed by Gandhiji.

British government declared Communal Award on 20 August

1932 and they accepted the demand of Dr. Ambedkar of separate
electorate for untouchables. This was not liked by Gandhiji and
started fast unto death at Yervada Central jail, Poona to oppose
separate electorates granted to the untouchables. Dr. Ambedkar
met Gandhi in Yervada jail where discussions were held. Gandhiji’s
fast provoked great public support across India and orthodox Hindu
leaders, Congress politicians and activists organized joint meetings
 132

with Ambedkar and his supporters at Yervada. Fearing a communal

retaliation and killings of untouchables in the event of Gandhiji’s
death, Ambedkar agreed for political settlement under massive
coercion from the supporters of Gandhi.

On 24 September 1932, Ambedkar and Gandhiji reached an

understanding and agreement was reached to. This agreement is
known as the Poona Pact. Dr. Ambedkar was rather compelled to
sign the Poona Pact against his will sacrificing the interests of his
people to save the life of Gandhiji. As per the pact, the Dalits were
given reservation instead of separate electorates. The Pact carved
out a clear and definite position for the downtrodden on the political
scene of the country. Dr. Ambedkar was to later criticize this fast of
Gandhi as a gimmick to deny political rights to the untouchables
and increase the coercion he had faced to give up the demand for
separate electorates. Later on in his lifetime, Dr. Ambedkar
opposed this pact and demanded separate electorates again for the
Dalits.

Dr. Ambedkar founded his first political party in India entitled

‘Independent Labour Party’ on 15 August 1936 to contest elections
as per the provisions of Government of India Act, 1935 and to voice
the grievances of workers and Dalits in India. The aim of the party
was to solve the problems of the workers and peasants. The
established labour organizations were not taking the issues related
to the untouchables in their agenda and programmes. Therefore
Ambedkar decided to establish Labour organization to address the
issues and problems of downtrodden section of the society. Party
won 17 seats in the 1937 Bombay Province Legislative Assembly
elections and Babasaheb Ambedkar was also elected as a
member.

As a member of the Bombay Legislative Assembly (1937-

1939), Dr. Ambedkar gave effective expression to the grievances of
the rural poor through his mass movements. He introduced the
Khoti abolition bill in Assembly. He organized peasants march on
Bombay Assembly and peasants demanded the passing of Dr.
Ambedkar’s Bill for abolition of the Khoti system. He also
introduced Bill to abolish the Mahar Watan in the Assembly. He
also presented a bill in the Assembly aimed at preventing the
malpractices of money-lenders hurting the poor. He organized the
‘Bombay Municipal Workers’ Union in 1937. During this period, Dr.
Ambedkar actively participated in Textile mills strike in Mumbai and
condemned Industrial Dispute Bill of 1938. He spoke on the Bill in
the Bombay Assembly and bitterly opposed it for its attempt to
outlaw the right of workers to strike. He said: “If Congressmen
believe that Swaraj is their birth-right, then the right to strike is the
birth-right of workers.” He has presided number of conferences in
which he raised the issues of peasants and workers. Due to his
 133

work towards the labour and peasants, he was invited to become

the labour minister in the Viceroy’s Executive Council in 1942.

Dr. Ambedkar founded the ‘All India Scheduled Castes

Federation’ at Nagpur in 1942 to gather all untouchables into a
united political party to work in the social and political field. The All
India Depressed Classes Conference was held at Nagpur in July
1942. It formally declared the formation of the All India Scheduled
Castes Federation. It performed poorly in the elections held for the
Constituent Assembly of India in 1946. However, Dr. Ambedkar
was elected to Constituent Assembly from Bengal in November
1946. Party addressed many significant issues pertaining to the
weaker section of the society. After independence, Dr. Ambedkar
wanted to widen the scope of his party and create the strong
opposition party against the Congress by making alliance with other
prominent political leaders. He put forwarded the idea of
establishing ‘Republican Party of India’ to his followers but it did not
materialize due to his pre-mature death. However Party was
founded in October 1957 by his followers.

Check your progress :

1) Explain in short the political work of Dr. Ambedkar.

9.4.4 An Architect of the Constitution – Dr. Ambedkar

The most important thing for which Dr. Ambedkar is known
all throughout India is that he was an architect of the Indian
Constitution. Though he was unpopular with many leaders of the
Indian National Congress and other political parties in post-
independence India, Ambedkar was summoned by the Congress-
led Government to take the post of the first Law Minister of
independent India. He was also made the Chairman of the Drafting
Committee on 29 August 1947. As he was a learned scholar and an
eminent lawyer, he was given this crucial task. He used all his
experience and knowledge in drafting the Constitution. There are
many guarantees and provisions that are provided in the
Constitution of India that ensure the general welfare of the common
people of the country. One of the greatest contributions of Dr.
Ambedkar was in respect of Fundamental Rights and Directive
Principles of State Policy enshrined in the Constitution of India. The
 134

Fundamental Rights provide for equality, freedom and abolition of

Untouchability and remedies to ensure the enforcement of rights.

Dr. Ambedkar held the view that “Only political power cannot
be an answer for the ills of the depressed classes. Their salvation
lies in their social elevation”. He also formulated laws and systems
for women and backward classes in the society. He also tried to
eradicate the socio-economic inequalities that prevailed in the
Indian society from a long time. He had kept the clauses of the
Constitution flexible so that amendments could be made as and
when situations demanded. On 26 November 1949, the
Constitution of India was finally adopted by the Constituent
Assembly in the name of the people of India. In spite of his ill-
health, he completed the work of constitution in prescribed time by
working day and night. His efforts were highly appreciated by all
members of Constituent Assembly including the President, Dr.
Rajendra Prasad. Therefore, in true sense, he is known as an
architect of Indian Constitution.

Indian Constitution has been considered as one of the

greatest constitutions of the world and Dr. Ambedkar was
acknowledged by Colombia University by conferring him the degree
of Doctorate in Law. He prescribed number of articles for the overall
development of country in general and Dalits in particular. The
majority of India’s constitutional provisions are either directly arrived
at furthering the aim of social revolution or attempt to foster this
revolution by establishing conditions necessary for its achievement.
His work in the Constituent Assembly has an acclaimed the
greatest patriotic services in serving his nation.

9.4.5 Economic Thoughts of Dr. Ambedkar

Dr. Ambedkar was an economist by his basic training. His
writing on economics covered a wide range of interrelated issues,
including economic development and planning, the capitalist
system, alternative economics of the caste system and Hindu social
order. He wrote three scholarly books on economics:
 135

(i) Administration and Finance of the East India Company,

(ii) The Evolution of Provincial Finance in British India, and
(iii) The Problem of the Rupee: Its Origin and Its Solution

A distinctive feature of Dr. Ambedkar’s scholarly contribution

is his perceptive analysis of economic dimension of social
maladies, such as, the caste system and untouchability. While
Mahatma Gandhi had defended the caste system on the basis of
division of labour, Ambedkar came out with a hard-hitting critique in
his book ‘Annihilation of Caste’ (1936), pointing out that what was
implicit in the caste system was not merely division of labour but
also a division of labourers. Dr. Ambedkar’s attack on the caste
system was not merely aimed at challenging the hegemony of the
upper castes but had broader connotation of economic growth and
development. He argued that the caste system had reduced the
mobility of labour and capital which in turn, impeded economic
growth and industrial development in India.

As a Labour Minister of the Viceroy’s Executive Council from

1942 to 1946, Dr. Ambedkar was instrumental in bringing about
several legislative measures to protect the rights of labourers and
workers including establishment of employment exchanges,
generally laying the foundations of industrial relations in
Independent India. His ministry also included irrigation and power.
He played an important role in shaping the irrigation policy,
especially the Damodar Valley Project and Hirakud Multipurpose
Project.

In his memorandum submitted to the British Government

titled ‘States and Minorities’ in 1947, Dr. Ambedkar laid down a
strategy for India’s economic development. The strategy placed “an
obligation on the State to plan the economic life of the people on
lines which would lead to highest point of productivity without
closing every avenue to private enterprise and also provide for the
equitable distribution of wealth”. He put forwarded the concept of
State Socialism and nationalization of key industries.
After Independence, even while drafting the Indian
Constitution as the Chairman of Drafting Committee in 1948-49, the
economist in Dr. Ambedkar was very much alive. He strongly
recommended democracy as the ‘governing principle of human
relationship’ but emphasized that principles of equality, liberty and
fraternity which are the cornerstones of democracy should not be
interpreted narrowly in terms of the political rights alone. He
emphasized the social and economic dimensions of democracy and
warmed that political democracy cannot succeed when there is no
social and economic democracy. He gave an expression to the
objective of economic democracy by incorporating the Directive
Principles of State Policy in the Indian Constitution.
 136

Check your progress :

1) Explain in short the economic thoughts of Dr. Ambedkar.

9.4.6 Educational work of Dr. Ambedkar

Dr. Ambedkar considered education as an important tool for
developing self confidence among the Dalits and for promoting their
welfare. He founded Bharatiya Bahishkrit Shikshan Prasarak
Mandal for spreading education among the Dalits. The main
message to Dalits on education was ‘educate, organize and
agitate’. He gave maximum importance to three principles of self-
respect, self-reliance and self-upliftment which for him could be
achieved through education. He has founded ‘Bahishkrit Hitakarini
Sabha’ on 20 July 1924 with the main objective of spreading
education and improving the economic conditions of the depressed
classes. In order to spread education, Sabha established number of
hostels, schools and free libraries. He demanded scholarship to for
the untouchable students to pursue higher education in foreign
universities.

Dr. Ambedkar considered education as an important means

of social change. He has founded ‘People’s Education Society’ in
Mumbai in 1945. He opened number of schools, colleges and
hostels under the auspices of this society throughout Maharashtra.
He started Siddharth College at Mumbai in 1946, Milind College at
Aurangabad in 1950 and Siddharth College of Commerce and
Economics at Mumbai in 1953. He also took initiative to establish
separate university for Marathwada. Thousands of students took
education in these institutions. In this way, Ambedkar did a
tremendous work in the field of education.

Check your progress :

1) Explain in short the educational work of Dr. Ambedkar.
 137

9.5 SUMMARY

Thus, we can say that Ambedkar’s legacy as a socio-political

reformer had a deep effect on modern India. In post-Independence
India, his socio-political thought has acquired respect across the
political spectrum. His initiatives have influenced various spheres of
life and transformed the way India today looks at socio-economic
policies, education and affirmative action through socio-economic
and legal incentives. He is one of the greatest social revolutionary
of India. He obtained political and social rights for the Dalits. The
major achievement of Dr. Ambedkar was that he succeeded in
getting an identity and self-respect for the Dalits. He adopted the
means of constitutional movements and self-reliance among the
weaker section.

Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar played a pivotal role in the

building of democratic movement in India. As a chief architect of
constitution of India, he mobilized democratic revolution in India in
general and Dalits in specific. His reputation as a scholar led to his
appointment as free India’s first law minister, and chairman of the
Drafting committee responsible to draft a constitution. He
passionately believed in the freedom of the individual and criticized
orthodox caste ridden Hindu society. His condemnation of
Hinduism and its foundation of caste system, made him
controversial, although his conversion to Buddhism sparked a
revival in interest in Buddhist philosophy in India and abroad. His
life and mission was devoted for the upliftment of depressed
classes in India. He performed the task of awakening India’s
millions of excluded and oppressed to their human rights. He
contributed immensely towards the economic development of our
country too. In order to pay homage to his greatest service to the
country, he was posthumously awarded ‘Bharat Ratna’ in 1991.

9.6 ADDITIONAL READINGS

1. Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar: Writings and Speeches, Vol. 1-21,

(Edited by Vasant Moon and Hari Narake), Education
Department, Government of Maharashtra, Mumbai.
2. Bipan Chandra, History of Modern India, Orient Blackswan,
2009.
3. B.L. Grover and S. Grover, A New Look at Modern Indian
History, S. Chand and Company, New Delhi, 2001.
4. Dhananjay Keer, Ambedkar: Life and Mission, Popular
Prakashan, Bombay, 1961.
5. Gail Omvedt, ‘Dalits and Democratic Revolution’ - Dr. Ambedkar
& the Dalit Movement in Colonial India, Sage Publication, New
Delhi, 1994.
 138

6. Rosalind O’Hanlon, Caste Conflict And Ideology: Mahatma

Jotirao Phule And Low Caste Protest in Ninetieth Century
Western India, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1985
7. Sumit Sarkar, Modern India 1885-1947, Macmillan, Madras,
1996.
8. Valerian Rodrigues, The Essential Writings of Ambedkar,
Oxford University Press, Delhi, 2002.

9.7 QUESTIONS

1) Explain the work of various social reformers in the upliftment

of Dalits.
2) Discuss the various social movements launched by Dr.
Babasaheb Ambedkar.
3) Give details of political party founded by Dr. Babasaheb
Ambedkar.
4) Explain the role of Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar towards the
upliftment of Dalit.
5) Discuss the various satyagrahas of Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar
for the attainment of humanitarian rights of Dalits.
6) Describe the political work of Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar and
assess its significance.
7) Assess the educational work of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar.



 139

Unit - 10
PEASANTS AND TRIBALS
PEASANTS
Unit Structure:
10. 0 Objectives
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Causes of Peasants Unrests in India
10.3 Deccan Riots of 1875
10.4 Contribution of Reformers towards the Peasant Movement
10.4.1 Mahatma Jotirao Phule
10.4.2 Vitthal Ramji Shinde and Peasants’ Problem
10.4.3 Contribution of Sane Guruji
10.4.4 Senapati Bapat and Mulshi Satyagraha
10.4.5 Dr. B.R. Ambedkar and Peasant Movement
10.5 Indian National Congress and the Peasants
10.6 Tribal Uprisings
10.7 The Uprising of the Ramoshis
10.8 The Uprising of the Kolis
10.9 The Bhill Uprising
10.10 The Revolt of the Gadkari
10.11 The Gond Uprising
10.12 The Tribal Movement in Bengal
10.13 Summary
10.14 Additional Readings
10.15 Questions

10.0 OBJECTIVES

After the study of this unit, the student will be able to :

1. Analyze the study the peasants’ unrest in India.
2. Understand the contribution of various social reformers
towards the peasants’ movement.
3. Study the work of Indian National Congress to address the
peasants’ problem.
4. Understand the study the historical background of tribal
uprisings in India.
5. Study the Ramoshis uprisings in Maharashtra.
 140

6. Analyze the Bhills and Kolis uprisings in Maharashtra.

7. Study the tribal movement in Bengal.

10.1 INTRODUCTION

The advent of the British was welcomed by the liberals of

higher castes educated people for its liberalism and system of
education. The orthodox forces opposed the British out of fear that
the British culture, language and liberalism might corrupt the Indian
customs and traditions. In reality both these forces were benefitted
by the British administrative system. On the contrary the lower
classes such as peasants, tribals and Dalits were more ruthlessly
exploited by the British system of administration which was
exploitative in nature. The public organization seems to neglect the
prime issues of these oppressed classes. The traditional set up of
cultivators was shattered due to the uninterrupted interference of
the British. They could salience the revolt of these people because
it was easy for to crush them as their revolts were isolated.
However the brave fight of the peasants is the golden page in the
history of downtrodden in India. Now their heroic struggle against
the mighty British rule is well recognized by the majority of the
historians.

In India, the agrarian discontent against the British rule was

due to the exploitative agrarian policy of the British rule. The heavy
land tax fixed by the land settlement, fall in agricultural produce,
growing poverty of the agricultural masses and their indebtness
added to the miseries of the peasants. The British neglected the
agricultural industry and their alliance with the moneylenders
created serious unrest in the minds of the peasants. The British
company uprooted the peasant and the tribal of western India who
had opposed vigorously their exploitive economic policies and tried
to throw them out of the country.

The advent of the British rule was welcomed by the liberals

of higher castes educated people for its liberalism and system of
education. On the contrary the lower classes such as peasants,
tribals and Dalits were more ruthlessly exploited by the British
system of administration which was exploitative in nature. The
public organizations seem to neglect the prime issues of these
oppressed classes. Unlike others, tribals’ survival was at stake. The
traditional set up of tribals was shattered due to the uninterrupted
interference of the British. They could silence the revolt of these
people because it was easy for them to crush tribals who were
living aloof life. However the brave fight of the tribals is the golden
page in the history of the subaltern. Now their heroic struggle
against the mighty British rule is well recognized by the majority of
the historians. The revolt normally began when the tribes felt
 141

oppressed and had no other way but to fight. The tribes organized
themselves for an armed resistance. These tribal people though no
match for the modern military might of the British rule, their struggle
against the colonial power, provided inspiration to the other people.
The fight of tribals with the British added a glorious chapter in
history of Modern India.

Indian tribals revolted against Britishers when they tried to

exploit them. The tribal uprising was the resistance against the
Zamindars, moneylenders and the British rule. Tribal were living an
independent and the excluded life. They enjoyed maximum
immunity from the native rulers of India. The greedy British rule
tried to exploit natural resources and that was strongly opposed by
tribals. Birsa Munda started the movement and revolted against the
British rule. Number of tribal leaders like Umaji Naik, Ramaji
Bhungere and Baburao Gond offered heroic resistance to the
mighty British rule and to bring an end of their unjust rule. In areas
inhabited by tribal peoples such as Gonds, Santhals or Kolis and
Bhils, rebellion was frequent as the changes introduced by the
British administration invaded the socio-economic structure of their
communities. The British East India Company uprooted the tribals
of India who had opposed vigorously their exploitive economic
policies and tried to throw them out from the country. Number of
tribal revolts took place in India which was supported by local
people who were subjugated by Officers of the East India
Company. In this unit, we will study all these revolts and try to
understand their contribution in Indian freedom struggle.

10.2 CAUSES OF PEASANTS UNRESTS IN INDIA

In India majority of the people were cultivators. The agrarian

discontent against the British rule was due to the exploitative
agrarian policy of the British rule. The heavy land tax fixed by the
land settlement, fall in agricultural produce, growing poverty of the
agricultural masses and their indebtness added to the miseries of
 142

the peasants. The British neglected the agricultural industry and

their alliance with the moneylenders created serious unrest in the
minds of the people. As the insurrections of the Bhills, Kolis and the
Ramoshis took place, the peasants in Maharashtra also raised the
standard of revolt in the latter half of the Nineteenth century. This
unrest affected the areas of Poona, Satara, Ahmednagar and
Solapur. That was the result of the long standing grievances,
oppression and unrest in the peasant community.

Causes of Peasant’s Unrest in India:

1) Cultivation was the profession of a majority of people in India.
The Indian society was primarily an agrarian in the 19th century.
The rural people engaged in the cultivation. Land was the only
source of livelihood for them. So the policy of British
Government related with the agricultural sector was likely to
affect them.

2) The British introduced a new land revenue system to collect the

taxes from the agricultural sector. They introduced Rayatwari
system, in which land settlement was done with individual who
occupied the land. Though it was not as harsh as Zamindari in
Bengal, the peasants found it difficult to pay the taxes to the
British government. The condition of the peasant was worse due
to the scanty rainfall and lower prices of grains. The increasing
burden on land and increasing land revenue all resulted in the
indebtness of the peasants. This resulted in the miserable
condition of the peasants.

3) In the early days of occupation, the British government brought

changes in the mode of land settlement. The Sincere efforts
were made to modify system to promote cultivation. With the
outbreak of American civil war (1861-65), there was an increase
in demand of Indian cotton in England. It seemed that Indian
peasants were enjoying prosperity. However this temporary
boon was soon ended. With the end of American civil war,
American cotton replaced the demand of Indian cotton.
Peasants suffered due to this event. They were not prepared to
face the changed circumstances and this led to the further
problems in their life.

4) The moneylenders were the exploiter of the poor peasantry.

There was an evil union between moneylenders and the British
government. The government used to take enough care to save
the money lenders from the wrath of the poor peasants. But
they never took any initiative to solve the peasant’s problems.
British had given land an exchange value so it became easier
for the moneylenders to confiscate the mortgaged property of
the peasants. The limitation of the law encouraged the
moneylenders to exploit poor peasants.
 143

5) From 1832 to 1872 the population was growing rapidly. This led
to an increased burden on the land. Moreover the artisans and
soldiers, who were deprived of their work due to the arrival of
new regime, engaged themselves in the agrarian sector. This
led to increasing burden on the agricultural sector because a
land was not so fertile as to accommodate all the elements of
the society.

6) The economic policies of the British rulers such as new land

revenue system, colonial administration and ruins of handicrafts
resulted in the increasing burden on land. This transformed the
agrarian structure and extra burden on land led to the
impoverishment of the peasants. East India Company
introduced various experiments and their various methods of
revenue settlement led to the rising misery of the peasants. The
cultivator became landless labour in their own land. They just
wanted to collect taxes from the peasants. The revenue was
collected without mercy. In Deccan natural calamities like floods
and famines added to the impoverishment of peasants. They
were exploited by the moneylenders who usually confiscated
their land for failure to repay their debt.

On such background it was but natural the cultivators became

rebellious against the British. This led to the Deccan riots of 1875.

Check your progress :

1) Discuss in brief the causes of peasant’s unrest in India.

 144

10.3 DECCAN RIOTS OF 1875

During this period peasants in western India had to face

number of problems due to several reasons which led to Peasants’
unrest in the Deccan and riots broke out in 1875. The life of
cultivator was not easy. It was full of hardship. The first period of
three decades after the British conquest led to the economic
depression. The cultivators were harassed by moneylenders. They
began to press for the recovery of debt. Peseant’s failure to pay
interest or loan further added problems. Moneylenders saw as an
opportunity to confiscate the land of the peasant. The riots were
only a symptom of the condition prevailing in rural Deccan in the
later part of the 19th Century. The majority of poor people were born
in debt, and die in debt. Moneylenders in Maharashtra used to lend
money at higher interest. The poor land laboures and peasants
could never repay the original amount of debt for they could pay
only interest of the debt. The Marwadi moneylenders have no any
kind of sympathy with the poor villagers. The Government and
moneylenders used to exploit poor peasants. This resulted into
hopeless state of distress growing among the agricultural
population of the Deccan. As a result, the lands of people began to
pass in the hands of moneylenders.

At the end of 1874 their feelings against the moneylenders

burnt into flame and their unrest exploded into violence in the
village of Sirur taluka in Poona. The people of the village declared
social and economic boycott on the moneylenders. The
moneylenders were forced to flee the village. The first outbreak of
 145

violence occurred at Supa in Pune where the houses of the money

lenders were attacked by the people. The riots spread rapidly to the
other parts of Pune. The riots of 1875 in Pune and Ahmadnagar
were rooted in acute agrarian distress. The riots were the reaction
to the extreme exploitation of the peasants by the moneylenders. In
1873-74 the hill tribes of the western part of Pune and Ahmadnagar
took up arms against moneylenders under the leadership of Honya
an influential Koli leader. The Koli tribes started struggles against
the moneylenders. Many of them were robbed and physically
attacked. However Honya was caught in 1876. The British
government finally appointed a commission to report of the causes
of riots and to suggest measures to overcome.

Deccan Riot Commission

Soon it became clear that the riot against the moneylenders
was not just problem of law and order. The problem was rooted in
the merciless exploitation of the peasantry. Hence the Government
appointed a commission to inquire, the causes of the riots. The
Deccan Riot commission found that the indebtness of peasantry
had grown to an extreme level. Their inquiries showed that only one
third of the land was retained by the cultivator. Rest of the land was
confiscated by the moneylenders. The interest of the debt was so
high that the debt was nearly double than the capital volume of the
debt. Commission came to conclusion that feeling of bitterness or
hated towards the moneylenders was due to excessive exploitation
of the peasants. By studying all the facts founded by commission,
British government passed the ‘Deccan Agricultural Relief Act of
1879’ to provide financial relief to the peasants.
 146

Check your progress :

1) Explain in short the Deccan Riots of 1875.

10.4 CONTRIBUTION OF REFORMERS TOWARDS

THE PEASANT MOVEMENT

19.4.1 Mahatma Jotirao Phule

Mahatma Jotirao Phule was a symbol of revolt against all
oppressed classes in the India. He had dedicated his entire life in
the service of the neglected and exploited classes. Jotirao decided
to create on awakening among the farmers. To study the problem
of farmers, he traveled on foot through many villages and went
place to place. He held meetings of the farmers to create on
awakening among them. He explained to them the ideas how to
improve agricultural production. Through his writing, he brought to
the notice of the general public, the miserable condition in which
the farmers lived.

He shed light on the exploitation at the farmers by revenue

department police official and irrigation authorities like Talathi,
Kulkarni and Mamledar. In the year 1885 the moneylender and
landlords near Junnar were found to be harassing the farmers with
high rate of interest. The farmers filed a petition with about five
thousand signature and sent it to the government. Jotirao went to
the Junnar and actively participated in the movement. He explained
the misery of the farmers to the government. At the end the
moneylenders and landlords decided to reduce the rates of interest.
The farmers again went to work.
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Santhal Rebellion.

Jotirao also exposed the exploitative nature of Brahmanism

which led to the exploitation of peasants. He wrote a book entitled
‘cultivators whipcord’ in which he narrated the sorrows of the
cultivators. He came to conclusion that the intellect, moral progress
and wealth, vanished due to the lack of education. So he urged the
peasants to take education. The book was written with a view to
discuss some of these reasons behind the problems of the peasant.
According to Jotirao, all white European officials are absorbed in
indulgence in pleasure and all government departments have a
majority of Brahmin officials. These people had nothing to do with
the problems of the peasants.

Jotirao established ‘Satyashodhak Samaj’ to free the

exploited elements in the societies like peasants, shudratishadras
and women. Satyashodhak Samaj started weekly journal
‘Deenbandhu’. Krishnrao Bhalekar became the editor in chief of
Deenbandhu. The problems of the peasants were highlighted in
Deenbandhu. Jotirao Phule made demand to the government
regarding establishment of hostels for the children of peasants. He
also made appeal to government to fix a reasonable assessment of
land and to free farmers from ignorance and superstition. He
addressed the sorrows of the peasants to the Duke of Canaught
when he visited Pune in 1888.

10.4.2 Vitthal Ramji Shinde and Peasants’ Problem

Vitthal Ramji Shinde, one of the great social reformers of
Maharashtra was born in a peasant family. His family suffered
miseries at the hands of moneylenders. The peasant movement at
1920 in western Maharashtra was a child of the Non Brahmin
Movement of Ssatyashodhak Movement.

In 1928 to avert the calamity of Small Holding bill, Shinde

came forward to assume the leadership of the causes of the
peasants in the critical moment. This bill created great unrest
among the farmers. When the peasants were properly roused in the
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Bombay presidency, ‘peasants’ conference’ was held at Ray

Market in Pune with V. R. Shinde as the president. Shinde criticized
the Indian ministers of the government, He pointed out that, the
corrupt officers, clerks and the moneylenders had deprived the
peasants of his land.

10.4.3 Contribution of Sane Guruji

Pandurang Sadashiv Sane, popularly known as Sane Guruji
played important role in peasant movement. Though teacher by
profession, he was a devoted follower of Gandhiji. He had
dedicated his entire life in the service of Maharashtra. In 1939 the
Khandesh region was devasted due to the heavy rainfall. He toured
the region and demanded the tax exemption on land. He took great
effort to make Faizpur session of congress successful.

Sane guruji

10.4.4 Senapati Bapat and Mulshi Satyagrah

In 1921, Senapati Bapat launched the Mulshi Satyagrah to
save the lands of cultivators from submersion under the Mulshi
dam. He demanded the loss of the peasants should be combated
with money. At last in 1923, all the demands of the peasants were
agreed upon.

10.4.5 Dr. B.R. Ambedkar and Peasant Movement

Dr. B. R. Ambedkar, alias as Babasaheb Ambedkar, was
one of the most illustrious sons of India. He appeared on the Indian
socio-political scene in early 1920’s and remained in the forefront of
all social, economic, political and religious movements for the
upliftment of the lowest stratum of the Indian society. He was par
excellence, a spokesman of the ignored humanity, the labourers,
peasants and tenants and industrial labourers. As a member of the
Bombay Legislature (1927 to 1942), Ambedkar gave effective
expression to the grievances of the rural poor through his mass
movements. His successful agitation against Mahar Vatan
emancipated a large section of the rural poor from virtual serfdom.
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His successful struggle against the prevailing land tenure system

called Khoti and he wanted to liberate a vast majority of the rural
poor from an extreme form of economic exploitation. He has
submitted two separate bills to end the unjust and cruel practice of
Mahar Vatan and Khoti system but it was opposed by landlords of
Konkan and members of Congress party. He organized a peasant
march on Bombay Legislative Assembly on 10th March 1938 in
association with Communist leaders and it was participated by
more than 10000 peasants. He also led Chirner Satyagraha of
peasants. He has also presented a bill in the State Assembly aimed
at preventing the malpractices of money-lenders hurting the poor
peasants.

Dr. Ambedkar established a political party called the

‘Independent Labour party’ on 15th August 1936 to address the
issues of peasants, landless labourers and textile workers. Under
the banner of this new party a comprehensive programme with the
immediate needs and grievance of the landless poor tenants,
agriculturists and workers was taken up. As a labour minister in
Viceroys Executive Council (1942-1946), he makes various laws for
the betterment of peasants’ class.

Check your progress :

1) Explain in short the work of reformers towards the Peasant

movement.

10. 5 INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS AND THE

PEASANTS

Indian National Congress was founded in 1885 and it

addressed the problem of peasants in India from the beginning of
Moderate phase. Extremist leaders also raised the grievances of
peasants’ class. Mahatma Gandhi involved number of peasants in
all his movements. During this time, all his movements became
mass movements due to the participation of various classes
especially peasants. Peasants’ problems were also raised in
various sessions of the Congress. It was for the first time that
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Indian National Congress held its session at rural area. Faizpur was
a rural area in Khandesh in Maharashtra. A large number of
peasants participated in the session. The session passed a large
number of resolutions of the welfare of the peasants. The session
demanded the deferment of the recovery of loans from farmers. It
also demanded an adequate minimum wages to the landless
labourers. The president of the session Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru
asked the workers and peasants to participate in the activities of
the congress. Congress and its leaders criticized the British rule for
the exploitation of peasants and motivated them to fight against the
injustice of Britishers.

10.6 TRIBAL UPRISINGS

Indian tribes revolted against the Britishers, soon after the

establishment of their authority over India. Britishers were opposed
in various parts of India. In Maharashtra the hilly tribes offered stiff
resistance to the British rule. Tribals like Ramoshi, Koli, Bhill,
Gadakari, Gond and many others opposed British imperialistic
policies through their revolts. It was not just tribal revolt but it was
important step to overthrow the British regime. The tribal revolts did
not take place suddenly. The roots of these revolts lie in the
exploitation of the tribal by the evil nexus of Zamindars,
moneylenders and the British rulers. There are many factors that
led to the tribal revolts against the British rule. The Causes of their
revolts are as follows:

1) The tribes were not happy with the growing influence of the
British in their own area of influence. From many years they had
been living peacefully with the nature. The Mughals and the
Deccan kingdoms hardly interfere in their day of day life.
However the British desire of exploiting the natural resources
made them rebel and stand of against the government.

2) Most of the tribes like Ramoshis and Kolis attacked

moneylenders. Moneylenders exploited poor and illiterate
tribals. There was growing discontent among the tribals
regarding this exploitation. Their chief aim was to teach lesson
to the moneylenders who uses to cheat poor ignorant tribals.
The moneylenders had protection of the British government. So
naturally they got evolved against the British rule.

3) The British wished to create a monopoly over forest. Unlike

Indian ruler, the British could not understand the attachment of
the tribes to their original inhabitance. They lived in hilly regions
and forests. They lived in harmony with the nature. They didn’t
like the British attitude of exploitation of natural wealth for the
sake of their material development. The suzerainty of Britishers
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over their forest zones, creation of reserved forests and attempt

to monopolize forest wealth made the tribes rebellious.

4) The British disrupted the traditional economic set up. They

devoid the tribal people of their traditional economic set up and
hence the tribals were forced to serve as menial labourers and
miners. They were instigated against British by the hostile
personalities like Vasudev Phadke, Trimbak Dengle and Umaji
Naik.

10.7 THE UPRISING OF THE RAMOSHIS

Ramoshis also known as Berad was a nomadic tribe of

hunter gatherers found in a large scale in western Maharashtra.
They served as a fighting force in the Maratha army, well known for
their bravery. In the early nineteenth century the commercial British
national forest policy and the conflict it created over forest use
forced them to start struggle against British rule. After the final
defeat of the Marathas in 1818, the British administration of the
Bombay Province found it difficult to suppress the activities of
Ramoshis. Since the Maratha rule was over, they became
unemployed. They were working in police administration of Maratha
with the introduction of the British administrative set up the local
tribes like Ramoshis and Bhills were neglected. Most of them were
removed from job. This led to the rising discontent in their mind
against the British. Though Ramoshis were unemployed they were
confident of themselves as they were armed. They were ready to
join anyone who would provide them suitable employment. The
economic problems created by famine and British regime had
adverse effect on the people.

The Ramoshis led the banner of revolt under their spirited

leader Umaji Naik. He and his associate Bapu Trimbakji revolted
against the British rule. Their revolt caused a lot of trouble for the
British rule. They lived in forest and people had sympathy for them,
since they did not harm the poor people. On the contrary they
attacked the moneylenders and rich people who were exploiting the
masses. From 1828 to 1829 their rule was the ultimate in the hills
around the fort of Torna. Though their leader Umaji was captured
and put to death by the British they never lost their struggle.
Ramoshis were so troublesome that after few years, British tried to
pacify them by granting lands as well as recruiting them as hill
police.

10.8 THE UPRISING OF THE KOLIS

The kolis were neighbours of the Bhills and lived in the

country both and below the Sahyadri in the Thane. They were
 152

scattered over the whole area from the border of Kutch to the
Western Ghats. By nature, they were fighting race. In 1824, Kolis of
Gujarat burnt and plundered village. For the British rule, it was the
first taste of their might. It was only the use of force that could stop
the activities of kolis.

Leadership of Ramaji Bhungere

Ramaji Bhungere, a Koli officer who resigned the
government service raised the standard of revolt in 1828. The large
number of Kolis joined him, since most of them became
unemployed due to the British advancement. Government sent
troops to suppress the revolt. The Kolis were inspired by the
example of the Ramoshiss. They got support of common people in
their struggle against the British. They plundered a large number of
villages in the Sahyadri. They were also joined by others
dissatisfied leaders of Maratha nobility such as Chimaji Jadhav,
Bhau Khare. The rebels declared the change of the Government in
the name of Peshwa. But the British government put down the
revolt. Soon many Kolis were captured and put to death. However
the spirit of Koli community was not destroyed.

They broke into revolt again in 1844. This time Raghu

Bhungere was their leader. They raided several villages. The police
and the Kolis experienced many skirmishes. They attacked police
station and killed many police men. It is interesting to note that
during the Koli rebellion of May 1845, the leaders of the Ramoshis
uprising had also joined the Kolis at Purandar in Pune. In 1845 the
rebellion spread in Purandar. Though Bapu Bhungere was captured
the Koli continued their struggle till 1850. By 1850 the first phase of
Koli rebellion had been suppressed. In 1873 Honya an influential
Koli raised a well trained band of followers in the Poona. This time
the moneylenders were main target of Kolis. Honya was against the
moneylenders because they cheated the poor tribesmen. Though
he was cough in 1815 the spirit of rebellion never ceased. Between
May to July 1875 many moneylenders were targeted. British
decided to crush the rebellion of kolis so they sent many able
officers to pun to an end revolt of Koli.

10.9 THE BHILL UPRISING

The Bhills were primitive and predatory tribes living in

settlement scattered in the western Maharashtra. Khandesh was
the stronghold of the Bhills. They controlled the mountain passes
between the north and the south. In countryside they were
cultivators. However in hilly region, they carried on plunder of the
rich landlords. They had suffered exploitation at the hand of British.
The British occupied the Khandesh in 1818. This increased the
suspicion in the minds of the Bhills. So they took shelter in hilly
 153

region of Satpuda and carried their activities from there. The

Satpuda region became the base of their military operations.

In 1817 the Bhills rebelled against the British. Economic

distress, famine and the ill governance of the British led them to the
uprising. It was suspected that this uprising was caused at the
instigation of Trimbakji Dengle, the noble of Peshwa Bajirao II.
When British pressurized Bajirao to arrest Trimbakji, the Bhills
turned anti British and revolted against them. The British
succeeded in suppressing the Bhills rising by military actions and
by conciliatory approach. Bhill uprising in 1819 led to the
devastation of neighboring region. The British adopted brutal
method to uproot Bhills. Their settlement of Bhills was destroyed
and many of them killed. Then also many Bhills continued their
struggle. Taking advantage of the British reverse in Burmese war in
1825 the Bhills again rebelled. They challenged British authority
from time to time. The British policy of suppression and conciliation
seemed to pacify them at last. But it took too much time. In this
way, Bhills tried to oppose the British rule.

Check your progress:

1) Explain the Ramoshis and Bhills uprisings in India.

10.10 THE REVOLT OF GADKARI

Gadkari used to garrison the Maratha forts and enjoyed land

grants for their service. After the third Anglo Maratha war, their
services were dispensed and they were required to pay revenues
for the lands they held. The British took away some other
customary privilege of the Gadkaris. These activities spread
discontent among the soldiers and common people against the
British. This led to the rising of Gadkaris. The local military
commanders also joined them. Gadkari rising became a general
popular revolt against the British. The fire of rebellion spread
neighboring states also. The rebels captured the forts of Panhala
and Pavangad. The Bombay government took extensive steps to
suppress the revolt. After the intensive military campaign, the
British finally succeeded in suppressing the risings of the Gadkaris.
 154

10.11 THE GOND UPRISING

Maratha power was the last regime which was defeated by

the British. Bhosale of Nagpur was one of the important center of
Maratha might. However after the end of their rule, British were free
to introduce their administrative system in the Nagpur region.
Within three years of their assuming charge of Chandrapur, the
British had to face a trouble in the area. A large part of Chandrapur
district was covered with thick forest populated mainly by Gonds.
Several Zamindars also were related to the Raj Gond families of
Chandrapur. A number of Raj Gond had helped Appasaheb
Bhosale in his struggle against the British.

Taking advantage of the revolt of 1857 the Gond Zamindar

of Adapalli and Ghot revolted against the British. They gathered a
considerable force of Gonds and brought Rajgad Pargana under
his control. British sent army to suppress the Gond rebellion.
Baburao Gond attacked the English camp in the Aheri province and
looted it. English army did find it difficult to suppress the Gond
revolt. However treachery played the trick. Baburao Gond was
captured and hanged to death. The rising of Chadrapur was
spontaneous. Though Gond did not become successful, their heroic
efforts inspired the others.

Check your progress:

1) Explain in brief the revolt of Gadkari and Gond uprisings in

India.

10.12 TRIBAL MOVEMENT IN BENGAL

The tribal movement in the north western Bengal from 1824 to 1932
was also considered as an important struggle of Modern period.
Tribal leader, Jitu Santhal began this movement in Malda area of
Bengal, which was against the landlords, who used to exploit the
tribal as their tenets. The movement began when the exploitation
became exorbitant and unbearable. It took the shape of tenant
agitation against the landlord and continued till 1932 when some of
the tribals were shot dead.
 155

Check your progress:

1) Explain in short the tribal movement in the Bengal.

10.13 SUMMARY

Thus, from the above discussion it is clear that peasants

gave stiff resistance to the unjust and inhuman policies of the
British government and moneylenders. Though they failed to over
through the British rule, they inspired the other fellow citizens to
unite and to oppose the British policies. Peasants in India, with their
increased consciousness, which was created due to peasant
movement by various leaders, participated in the Indian National
movement to over through the British rule and to teach lesson to
landlords and moneylenders. Due to their support and participation
in Indian freedom struggle, India got independence in 1947.

From the above discussion it is clear that the tribals gave

stiff resistance to the unjust and inhuman policies of the British
government and moneylenders. Though they failed to over through
the British rule, they inspired the other fellow citizens to unite and to
oppose the British policies. The freedom fighters and the leaders of
Indian National Movement appreciated the efforts of Ramoshis,
Bhills, and Kolis. Due to their support and participation in Indian
freedom struggle, India got independence in 1947.

10.14 ADDITIONAL READINGS

1. Bipan Chandra, History of Modern India, Orient Blackswan,

2009.
2. Bipan Chandra et al., India’s Struggle for Independence,
Penguin, New Delhi, 1987.
3. B.L. Grover and S. Grover, A New Look at Modern Indian
History, S. Chand and Company, New Delhi, 2001.
4. Dhananjay Keer, Ambedkar: Life and Mission, Popular
Prakashan, Bombay, 1961.
5. Rosalind O’Hanlon, Caste Conflict And Ideology: Mahatma
Jotirao Phule And Low Caste Protest in Ninetieth Century
Western India, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1985
 156

6. Sumit Sarkar, Modern India 1885-1947, Macmillan, Madras,

1996.
7. Sekhar Bandyopadhyay, From Plassey to Partition and After: A
History of Modern India, Orient Blackswan, 2004.
8. Bipan Chandra, History of Modern India, Orient Blackswan,
2009.
9. Bipan Chandra et al., India’s Struggle for Independence,
Penguin, New Delhi, 1987.
10. B.L. Grover and S. Grover, A New Look at Modern Indian
History, S. Chand and Company, New Delhi, 2001.
11. Sumit Sarkar, Modern India 1885-1947, Macmillan, Madras,
1996.
12. Sekhar Bandyopadhyay, From Plassey to Partition and After: A
History of Modern India, Orient Blackswan, 2004.

10.15 QUESTIONS

1) Discuss the factors led to the peasant’s unrest in India.

2) Write a detailed note on Deccan riots of 1875.
3) Explain the contribution of various leaders in peasant
movement in India.
4) Describe the work of Indian National Congress towards the
peasant movement in India.
5) Trace the history of tribal uprisings in India.
6) Describe the tribal uprisings in Maharashtra with special
reference to Ramoshi and Bhill.
7) Discuss the Koli and Gond uprisings in Western India.
8) Explain in detail the tribal movement in Bengal.


 Semester II
Subject : History

History of Modern India :

(100 marks)
Society & Economy

(1) All Question are compulsory

(2) All Question Carry Equal Marks
(3) Figures to the right indicates marks to a Sub – Question

Que 1. Attempt any two of the following ( On Module – I )

(20 marks)

A)
B)
C)

Que 2. Attempt any two of the following ( On Module – II )

(20 marks)

A)
B)
C)

Que 3. Attempt any two of the following ( On Module – III )

(20 marks)

A)
B)
C)

Que 4. Attempt any two of the following ( On Module – IV )

(20 marks)

A)
B)
C)

Que 5. Write any two short notes.

(20 marks)

A)
B)
C)
D)