Structure and Architecture

This thoroughly updated edition of Angus J. Macdonald’s insightful book

Structure and Architecture offers an in depth analysis of structural design and
its relationship with architecture. It draws on clear explanations of the
connections between structural form, structural performance and architectural
design to explore the interface between the technical and the visual in
architecture. Additional chapters in this new edition cover the fields of
structural theory, structural philosophy, the contributions of prominent
engineers to the evolution of Modern architecture, and the concept and
practice of sustainable design. Fully illustrated, this critical appraisal of
structures is a core-curriculum text for students of architecture, structural
engineering and architectural history, and is also a valuable resource for
practitioners of these disciplines.

Angus J. Macdonald is currently Professor Emeritus of Architectural

Structures at the Edinburgh School of Architecture and Landscape Archi-
tecture, University of Edinburgh. He has served as Head of the Department
of Architecture at the University of Edinburgh, as a Commissioner on the
Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland
and as a member of the Board of Governors of Edinburgh College of Art.
He is the author or co-author of ten books, including: Structural Design
for Architecture; Anthony Hunt: The Engineer’s Contribution to Contemporary
Architecture; and John Fowler and Benjamin Baker: The Forth Bridge (with I. B.
Whyte); as well as book chapters, including ‘Structure and Architecture:
Tectonics of Form’, in Kanaani, M. and Kopec, D. (eds), The Routledge
Companion for Architectural Design and Practice; and numerous articles on the
relationship between structure and architecture.
“This new expanded edition is a welcome update of Professor Macdonald’s
classic book introducing the principles and application of structural engineering
to young architects and engineers. Using both historical and recent examples,
with drawings and excellent photographs, he brings the subject alive and
provides an invaluable resource. Best of all, he offers readers the material to
develop a good understanding of the subject which will serve as a source of
inspiration to all designers.”
Bill Addis, author of Building: 3000 Years of Design
Engineering and Construction

“Architecture and engineering are perfectly merged into one, both sensitive
and sensible, subject in this splendid new edition of Angus Macdonald’s
admirable Structure and Architecture. Superbly written and precisely pin-
pointing the most crucial and essential issues regarding both structural science
and structural form and space-making, the present book spans topics ranging
from basic structural behaviour to sustainability questions and the history
of engineering theory and development in architecture. Angus Macdonald
explores this wide field with profound understanding – and genuine love.”
Bjørn Normann Sandaker, Professor of Architectural Technology,
The Oslo School of Architecture and Design; Adjunct Professor,
Norwegian University of Science and Technology

“This well-illustrated, fully revised and extended third edition of Angus

Macdonald’s book should be obligatory reading for those interested in
exploring the often complex relationship between structure and architecture.
I was impressed by the new reflective chapters deliberating on the philosophy
of structures, the influence of engineers on the development of Modern
architecture and, in particular, that drawing attention to the significant
contribution that appropriate selection of low embodied energy materials and
efficient structural systems can make in minimising a structure’s impact on
global climate change.”
John Chilton, Emeritus Professor, Architecture & Tectonics,
University of Nottingham, UK
Structure and
Architecture
Third edition

Angus J. Macdonald
ROUTLEDGE

Routledge
Taylor & Francis Group
LONDON AND NEW YORK
Third edition published 2019
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2019 Angus J. Macdonald
The right of Angus J. Macdonald to be identified as author of this work
has been asserted by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the
Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced
or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means,
now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording,
or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in
writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or
registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation
without intent to infringe.
First edition published by Architectural Press 1994
Second edition published by Elsevier 2001
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Macdonald, Angus, 1945– author.
Title: Structure and architecture / Angus J. Macdonald.
Description: Third edition. | New York : Routledge, 2018. |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2018000717| ISBN 9781138629226 (hardback) |
ISBN 9781138629240 (pbk.) | ISBN 9781315210513 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Structural design. | Architectural design.
Classification: LCC TA658.2 .M32 2018 | DDC 624.1/77—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018000717

ISBN: 978-1-138-62922-6 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-138-62924-0 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-315-21051-3 (ebk)

Typeset in Caslon
by Florence Production Ltd, Stoodleigh, Devon, UK
Contents

Preface to the third edition viii

Acknowledgements ix
Introduction 1

1 The relationship of structure to building 9

2 Structural requirements 21
2.1 Introduction 21
2.2 Equilibrium 21
2.3 Geometric stability 21
2.4 Strength and rigidity 29
2.5 Conclusion 36

3 Structural materials 39
3.1 Introduction 39
3.2 Masonry 40
3.3 Timber 43
3.4 Steel 51
3.5 Reinforced concrete 56
3.6 Conclusion 59

4 The archetypes of structural form – the relationship between

structural form and structural efficiency 61
4.1 Introduction 61
4.2 The effect of form on internal force type 62
4.3 The concept of ‘improved’ shapes in cross-section and
longitudinal profile 67
4.4 Classification of structural elements – the archetypes of
structural form 74
Appendix to Chapter 4 – a note on the use of the term
‘form-active’ 76
vi CONTENTS

5 Complete structural arrangements 79

5.1 Introduction 79
5.2 Post-and-beam structures 81
5.3 Semi-form-active structures 91
5.4 Fully form-active structures 93
5.5 Conclusion 96

6 The critical appraisal of structures 99

6.1 Introduction 99
6.2 Reading a building as a structural object 99
6.3 The appropriateness of structural choices: complexity and
efficiency in structural design 100
6.4 Critical appraisal of structures 108
6.5 Conclusion 112

7 Theory of structures 117

7.1 Introduction 117
7.2 Example 1: the use of ‘geometric rules’ – structural theory
in Antiquity and the medieval period 119
7.3 Example 2: the evolution of structural theory based
on the use of ‘grounded rules’ – calculations based on
elastic theory 133
7.4 The role of structural theory – overall conclusions 154

8 Philosophy of structures and its relationship to architectural

theory in the Modern period 157
8.1 Introduction 157
8.2 ‘Building correctly’ – the writings of Torroja and Nervi 158
8.3 Structure in relation to architectural theory: technology
treated as a ‘style’ 165
8.4 Structural technology and Modern architecture 185
8.5 Conclusion 188

9 The engineers – their role in developing the imagery of

Modern architecture 191
9.1 Introduction 191
9.2 The engineer/architects – their role in the creation of
new images for architecture 192
9.3 The engineers who worked with architects in design
teams 222
9.4 Conclusion 251
 CONTENTS vii

10 Structure and architecture 255

10.1 Introduction 255
10.2 The types of relationship between structure and
architecture 256
10.3 Conclusion 294

11 Structure and sustainability 297

11.1 Introduction 297
11.2 General background 298
11.3 Relevant concepts 300
11.4 Recent practice in relation to ‘sustainable’ architecture 310
11.5 Structural design for sustainability 317
11.6 Conclusion 335

Glossary of structural terms 339

Selected bibliography 345
Index 347
Preface to the
third edition
The theme of this book is the relationship between structural engineering and
architecture. Its purposes are to provide insights into the role of structural
design in architecture, and to offer the reader the key components of the
knowledge required to make informed judgements about structure in the
critical appraisal of buildings.
The preliminary Chapters (1 to 6) are similar to those in the previous
editions and are concerned principally with explaining the properties and
behaviour of structures, as a preliminary to the discussion of the types of rela-
tionship possible between structural design and architectural design. These
chapters have been comprehensively revised and updated, with new illustrations.
Four new chapters have been added in this third edition; these widen the
scope of the book to include coverage of the following important topics:
structural theory; structural philosophy; the works of prominent engineers of
the Modern period; and environmental sustainability.
The intention in these additional chapters is to give an indication of the
contribution made by each of these specific topics to the subject as a whole.
Each is also intended to demonstrate the breadth and depth of its respective
topic, by exploring a limited number of aspects of it in detail. The new
chapter on structural theory, for example, closely examines two areas only of
this very large field, selected because these allow general conclusions to be
drawn about the role and influence of theory on design, and to allow insights
into the depth of the subject. Similarly, the chapter on engineers deals with
only a very few of the many members of that profession who have made
important contributions to the development of architecture in the Modern
period, again selected for their particularly significant roles. The final chapter
on environmental sustainability is intended to give a general view of this
increasingly relevant topic on present and future relationships between
structural engineering and architecture.
The book does not attempt to be comprehensive: no single-volume
treatment could cover all aspects of this very large field in detail and space
limitations have inevitably necessitated many omissions. I hope nevertheless
that the book will provide a useful overview of the subject for students and
practitioners of both structural engineering and architecture, and also for
members of related professions such as urban planning, landscape architecture
and architectural history.
Angus J. Macdonald, Edinburgh, July 2018
Acknowledgements

I would like to thank all those who have assisted in the making of this book,
in its present and previous editions: colleagues and students, past and present,
with whom interesting discussions have taken place over many years, in the
stimulating and supportive context of the University of Edinburgh, as well as
many other academic and practitioner collaborators on various projects; all
those who have contributed, or assisted in locating photographs and illus-
trations, who are either mentioned below or individually credited where the
images occur in the book; and also all those involved in various ways in the
making of the book itself.
Special thanks are due to the following: Stephen Gibson for his carefully
crafted line drawings for the first two editions, the majority of which are
included in this third edition; Andrew Siddall for the additional complex line
drawings which he generated for this third edition; Pat Hunt, Tony Hunt
and the staff of the picture libraries of Ove Arup & Partners and Anthony
Hunt Associates; Thérèse Duriez for picture research for the first edition; the
staff of Architectural Press (formerly Butterworth-Heinemann) for their hard
work and patience in initiating, editing and producing the earlier editions,
particularly Neil Warnock-Smith, Hilary Norman, Diane Chandler, Angela
Leopard, Sián Cryer and Sue Hamilton; and, for this third edition, Fran Ford
and the teams at Routledge/Taylor & Francis and Florence Production.
Thanks are due most particularly to my partner in several senses of the
word, Patricia Macdonald, for her continued encouragement and for her
expert assistance and scrutiny of many aspects of the text and illustrations.
Introduction

This book on architectural structures seeks to provide the reader with both
the technical background required to appreciate the role of structure in
architecture and a discussion of all aspects of this role, including the
contribution of structure to architectural form and style and its importance in
relation to questions such as environmental sustainability. The intention is to
give insights into both the methodology of structural engineering in relation
to architecture and its historical development.
Space does not permit that any of the topics be covered comprehensively.
For example, the works of only a small number of the many engineers who
have contributed prominently to Modern architecture have been included –
chosen for their particular significance. Similarly, the discussion of structural
theory covers only a few small aspects of that topic, again selected to allow
broad conclusions to be drawn concerning the role of theory in the building
process as a whole, and to give insights into its depths. The relationship
between built form and environmental sustainability now influences every
aspect of structural and architectural design and is discussed where relevant
throughout the book. In addition, crucial aspects of the topic are considered
in a separate chapter, but the coverage is necessarily limited and of a general
nature. There are therefore many omissions, made necessary by the attempt
to cover the full breadth and depth of a very large field. It is hoped that the
book will nevertheless give the reader a wide appreciation of the particular
contribution that structural engineering makes to architecture in all of its
forms.
It has long been acknowledged that an appreciation of the role of structure
is an attribute that is essential for the development of a proper understanding
of architecture. It was Vitruvius, writing at the time of the founding of the
Roman Empire, who identified the three basic requirements of architecture
as firmitas, utilitas and venustas and Sir Henry Wotton (Wotton, 1624, 2013),
in the seventeenth century, who translated these as ‘firmness’, ‘commodity’
and ‘delight’. Subsequent theorists have proposed different systems by which
buildings may be evaluated, their qualities discussed and their meanings
understood but the Vitruvian ontology nevertheless still provides a valid basis Facing page:
for the examination and criticism of a building. L'Oceanogràfic, Valencia,
In the present day the question of which of the three Vitruvian qualities is Candela/Calatrava. Photo:
the most important is controversial. For some, a building cannot be considered Sebastian Weiss.
2 INTRODUCTION

to be satisfactory unless it fulfils its utilitarian functions well in respect of

firmness and commodity. From such a viewpoint, there cannot be delight
without well-designed structure and a set of spaces that function well for the
intended purpose of the building. For others, these mundane functions are of
secondary importance in relation to the aesthetic agenda which is considered
overwhelmingly to be the source of delight. For much of the Modern period
the latter view has tended to dominate architectural discourse and, as a
consequence, many of its best-regarded buildings perform poorly in respect of
firmness and commodity.
It is not the intention of this book to enter into the controversy that
surrounds the relative importance of the three Vitruvian virtues but simply to
offer criteria by which the structural qualities of a building – the basis of
‘firmness’ – may be judged. To be in a position to make such judgements the
critic or observer must know something of the structural make-up of the
building. This requires an ability to read a building as a structural object, a
skill that depends on a knowledge of the functional requirements of structure
and an ability to distinguish between the structural and the non-structural
parts of the building. These topics are discussed here in Chapters 1 to 6.
Traditionally, the primary consideration, so far as the purely technical
performance of a structure is concerned, was that it should fulfil its function
with maximum economy of means in three respects: efficiency in the use of
material, ease of construction and long-term durability. In this view, a structure
should contain no more material than is necessary; it should be no more
difficult to design and construct than is necessary and it should not require
that excessive amounts of maintenance be carried out in order that it can
continue to function adequately for its intended purpose. A recent addition to
these traditional objectives, which arises from the increasing need for buildings
to be designed for sustainability, is the requirement that a structure should
not unduly disrupt the ecosystem in which it is placed. It should, in other
words, have some of the qualities of a living organism, particularly with
respect to its consumption of energy and materials and its suitability for
recycling or re-use. All of the above desirable qualities are affected by the
form that is adopted for the structure.
Perhaps the most fundamental consideration in relation to structural
performance is with the relationship between structural form and structural
efficiency. As is explained in Chapter 4, the principal single factor that affects
this is the overall form of the structure in relation to the pattern of load that
it supports, because it is the relationship between form and load distribution
that determines the type of internal force that occurs in structures: axial-type
internal forces can be resisted much more efficiently than those that derive
from bending. In the case of architectural structures, which predominantly
involve horizontal spans carrying distributed gravitational loads, the shapes
that produce axial rather than bending-type internal forces are curvilinear –
arches, domes, vaults, cable nets, fabric tents. These are the most efficient
 INTRODUCTION 3

forms. The straight, horizontal spans of rectilinear frameworks produce

predominantly bending-type internal forces that result in an inefficient use of
structural material. Where, as is frequently the case, it is not practicable to
adopt a curvilinear form, the efficiency of straight-sided arrangements can be
improved by the use of complex cross-sections, such as the I-form or box
beam, or by other devices such as triangulation of the internal geometry. The
reasons for this are also explained in Chapter 4 where a classification system
for structures is suggested. The fact that the performance of a structure is to
a large extent determined by its form means that it is possible to make a
meaningful assessment of its suitability from a purely visual inspection of its
make-up. This technique of assessment is explained in detail in Chapters 4
and 6.
One of the most significant aspects of structural behaviour is that high
efficiency requires high complexity: curvilinear forms are more efficient than
those that are straight-sided; complex cross-sections are more efficient than
solid circles or rectangles. Most structures involve a compromise between
complexity of form, which improves efficiency, and simplicity of form, which
makes design, construction and maintenance easier, and one of the most
interesting aspects of the design of any structure is the nature of the com-
promise that has been achieved.
In making a judgement concerning the suitability of a chosen structural
arrangement for a particular application, the important question is whether or
not the level of complexity that is present is appropriate; whether or not the
particular compromise that has been adopted is sensible, in other words. The
various factors that influence this question are discussed in Chapter 6 where
it is shown that the most important of these is span: the larger the span, the
greater is the level of efficiency that is necessary and therefore of complexity
that can be justified. Thus, large-scale enclosures usually involve the use of
spectacular curvilinear forms or complex triangulated arrangements while
those of modest scale are generally supported by simple, but inefficient, post-
and-beam frames of various kinds. High complexity is rarely justified tech-
nically for structures of short or medium span. These, and other factors that
influence the selection of structural form, are the subject of Chapter 8.
In the context of architecture, where the question of ‘delight’ becomes a
major consideration, the relationship between structural design and archi-
tectural design can take many forms and the selection of structure type for a
building is often influenced by the requirements of appearance and aesthetics
rather than simply by technical performance. The role of structure can range
from that of simply an agency that provides support for a building and whose
visual qualities are of no particular significance, to one in which the structural
elements contribute symbolic meaning and expression of various kinds to the
architecture. This possible architectonic function of structure is discussed in
Chapters 8, 9 and 10.
4 INTRODUCTION

It is possible for an architect virtually to ignore structural considerations

while inventing the form of a building and to conceal entirely the structural
elements in the completed version of the building. Many buildings of the
Modern period fall into this category, for example, the Walt Disney Concert
Hall in Los Angeles (2003) by the architect Frank Gehry (Figures 0.1 and
0.2) and the Glasgow Transport Museum building (2012) by Zaha Hadid
(Figures 1.9, 1.10, 10.25 and 10.26). Buildings such as these contain a structure
but the technical requirements of the structure have not significantly influenced
the form that has been adopted and the structural elements themselves are not
direct or visible contributors to the aesthetics of the architecture. Structures
that have been evolved in this way rarely perform well when judged by
technical criteria. At the other extreme it is possible to produce a building
that consists of little other than structure and where structural considerations

Figure 0.1 Walt Disney Concert Hall, Los Angeles; Frank Gehry (1929–), architect.
An example of Late-Modern ‘Digital Architecture’. The form of this building was little
influenced by structural requirements.
Photo: Jon Sullivan/Wikimedia Commons.
 INTRODUCTION 5

have dominated the design. The masonry vaulted enclosure system that is
under development by Afrotech and Foster & Partners for use in Africa as a
terminal for a medical supply facility operated by drones is an example of this
(Figure 0.3). Between these extremes many different approaches to the
relationship between structure and architecture are possible. In the early
Modern buildings of Walter Gropius, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe (Figure
0.4), Le Corbusier and others, the forms that were adopted were influenced
by the types of geometry that were suitable for steel or reinforced concrete
structural frameworks. In these cases structure and architecture were allowed
to develop together. In another approach, structure can be allowed to dominate
the appearance of a building for stylistic reasons and this often leads to the
selection of a particular type of structure from consideration principally of its
visual qualities rather than its technical performance – something that was
common in the work of the so-called High-Tech architects of the late
twentieth century (Figures 3.19, 9.28 and 10.7). As is discussed in Chapter
10, the relationship between structure and architecture can therefore take
many forms and it is the purpose of this book to explore these against a
background of information concerning the technical properties and require-
ments of structures.

Figure 0.2 Walt Disney Concert Hall, Los Angeles; Frank Gehry (1929– ), architect. The
supporting structural steel framework is highly inefficient. The overall cost of the building
was $274 million, compared to $190 (equivalent) for three other halls on the same site
that were built in the 1960s with conventional post-and-beam structures.
Photo: Cygnusloop99/Wikimedia Commons.
Figure 0.3 Droneport Prototype Building; Norman Foster Foundation, architects;
Ochsendorf, De Jong and Block, engineers. The principal element of this building is a
self-supporting (and therefore structural) multi-bay vaulted enclosure constructed from
compressed earth bricks. Structural requirements have strongly influenced the choice of
form and materials.
Photo: Sonia Millat/Foster & Partners.

Figure 0.4 Farnsworth House, Illinois, 1951; Mies van der Rohe (1886–1969), architect.
This building is supported by a rectilinear steel framework structure. The form is
appropriate in the context of an industrialised society and for the span involved.
Photo: Victor Grigas/Wikimedia Commons.
 INTRODUCTION 7

Whatever the relationship between structure and architecture, the form of

a structural armature is inevitably very closely related to that of the building
that it supports and the act of designing a building – of determining its overall
form – is therefore, consciously or unconsciously, also an act of structural
design. The potential conflict between the visual aspects of a work of archi-
tecture and the purely technical performance of its structure is one of the most
controversial aspects of the relationship between structure and architecture
and is particularly relevant in the context of design for environmental sustain-
ability. The debate is often diminished by a degree of misinformation, or even
simply a lack of understanding of structural principles, by the participants and
this is one of the problems of architectural interpretation that it is the intention
of this book to address. The author hopes that the book will be found useful
by architectural critics and historians as well as by students and practitioners
of the professions concerned with building.
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