EE 2103 ELECTRIC CIRCUIT THEORY

Unit 1 DC Circuit Analysis

1.0 Basic Circuits
An Electric circuit is an interconnection of various elements in which there is at least one
closed path in which current can flow. We can describe a circuit in a broad sense as
collection of objects called components or elements which form an entity governed by
certain laws.

1.1 Elements of Electric Circuit

An Electric circuit consists of following types of elements:

1) Active elements
Active elements are the elements of a circuit which possess energy of their own
and can impart it to other elements of the circuit.

Active elements are of two types namely; (a) voltage source and (b) current
source.

A Voltage source has a specified voltage across its terminals, independent of

current flowing through it.
And a current source has a specified current through it independent of the
voltage appearing across it.
2) Passive elements
The passive elements of an electric circuit do not possess energy of their own.
They receive energy from the sources. The passive elements are the resistance,
the inductance and the capacitance.
When electrical energy is supplied to a circuit element, it will respond in one or
more of the following ways.

If the energy is consumed, then the circuit element is a pure resistor.

If the energy is stored in a magnetic field, the element is a pure inductor.

 And if the energy is stored in an electric field, the element is a pure capacitor.

1.2 Linear and Non-linear Elements

Linear elements show the linear characteristics of voltage & current. That is, its voltage-
current characteristics are at all-times a straight-line through the origin.

For example, the current passing through a linear resistor is proportional to the voltage
applied across its terminals and the relation is expressed as V ∝ I ∨V =IR . A linear
element or network is one which satisfies the principle of superposition.

Non-linear element’s V-I characteristics do not follow the linear pattern i.e. the current
passing through it does not change linearly with the linear change in the voltage across
it. Examples are the semiconductor devices such as diode, transistor.

1.3 Bilateral and Unilateral Elements

An element is said to be bilateral, when the same relation exists between voltage and
current for the current flowing in both directions.

Example: Voltage source, Current source, resistance, inductance & capacitance.

The circuits containing them are called bilateral circuits.

An element is said to be unilateral, when the same relation does not exist between
voltage and current when current flowing in both directions.

Example: Vacuum diodes, Silicon Diodes, Selenium Rectifiers etc.

The circuits containing them are called unilateral circuits.

1.4 Lumped Circuits

A circuit component or element, depending on the wave length and physical length is
modelled as a lumped or a distributed component. The lumped elements are small in
size compared to the wave length corresponding to their normal frequency of operation.

A circuit containing lumped elements is known as lumped circuit. A lumped circuit is an

interconnection of lumped elements.
Distributed elements are those which are not electrically separable for analytical
purposes.

For example, a transmission line has distributed parameters along its length and may
extend for hundreds of kilometres.

1.5 Types of Sources

Both voltage and current sources may be classified as an independent or dependent
source.

If the voltage of the voltage source is completely independent of current flowing through
it and the current of the current source is completely independent of the voltage across
it, then the sources are called as independent sources.

The special kind of sources in which the source voltage or current depends on some
other quantity in the circuit which may be either a voltage or a current anywhere in the
circuit are called Dependent sources or Controlled sources.

There are four possible dependent sources:

a) Voltage dependent Voltage source

b) Current dependent Current source
c) Voltage dependent Current source
d) Current dependent Current source
 Figure 1.1 Dependent sources

The constants of proportionalities are written as B, g, a, r in which B & a have no units, r

has units of ohm & g units of mhos.

Independent sources actually exist as physical entities such as battery, a dc generator

in which the voltage V s =constat & an alternator in which voltage is a function of time
V s (t).

Symbols used for independent voltage sources:

a) Used for constant or time-varying voltage

b) Used for constant voltage (dc)

Figure 1.2 Symbols for independent voltage sources

But dependent sources are used to represent electrical properties of electronic devices
such as Operational amplifiers (OPAMPS) & Transistors.

Ideal and Practical sources

I. An ideal voltage source is one which delivers energy to the load at a constant
terminal voltage, irrespective of the current drawn by the load.
II. An ideal current source is one, which delivers energy with a constant current to
the load, irrespective of the terminal voltage across the load.
III. A Practical voltage source always possesses a very small value of internal
resistance r. The internal resistance of a voltage source is always connected in
 series with it & for a current source; it is always connected in parallel with it. As
the value of the internal resistance of a practical voltage source is very small, its
terminal voltage is assumed to be almost constant within a certain limit of current
flowing through the load.
IV. A practical current source is also assumed to deliver a constant current,
irrespective of the terminal voltage across the load connected to it.

Figure 1.3 Practical sources

Ideal voltage sources connected in series

 Figure 1.4 Ideal voltage sources connected in series

The equivalent single ideal voltage some is given by V= V1 + V2

Any number of ideal voltage sources connected in series can be represented by a

single ideal voltage some taking in to account the polarities connected together into
consideration.

Practical voltage sources connected in series

Figure 1.5 Practical voltage sources connected in series

Ideal voltage sources connected in parallel

Figure 1.6 Ideal voltage sources connected in parallel

When two ideal voltage sources of emf’s V1 & V2 are connected in parallel, what
voltage appears across its terminals is ambiguous.

Hence such connections should not be made.

However, if V1 = V2= V, then the equivalent voltage some is represented by V.

In that case also, such a connection is unnecessary as only one voltage source serves
the purpose.

Practical voltage sources connected in parallel

Figure 1.7 Practical voltage sources connected in parallel

Ideal current sources connected in series

Figure 1.8 Ideal current sources connected in series

When ideal current sources are connected in series, what current flows through the line
is ambiguous. Hence such a connection is not permissible.

However, if I1 = I2, = I then the current in the line is I.

But, such a connection is not necessary as only one current source serves the purpose.
Practical current sources connected in series

Figure 1.9 Practical current sources connected in series

Ideal current source connected in parallel

Figure 1.10 Ideal current sources connected in parallel

Two ideal current sources in parallel can be replaced by a single equivalent ideal
current source.

Practical current sources connected in parallel

Figure 1.11 Practical current sources connected in parallel

1.6 R, L, C Parameters
I. Resistance
Resistance is that property of a circuit element which opposes the flow of electric
current and in doing so converts electrical energy into heat energy.

It is the proportionality factor in ohm’s law relating voltage and current.

For metals and most of conductors, R is a constant and not dependent on the value of
current flowing through it.

Consider a conductor of metal wire whose length in the direction of flow of current is
l(metres) , the cross-sectional area perpendicular to the direction of current flow is
A(square metres) and resistivity of the metal is ρ(ohm−metre). Then, the resistance of the
conductor is

l
R=ρ (omhs)
A

Conductivity σ of a conductor material is the reciprocal of resistivity.

Ohm’s law states, that the voltage drop across a conductor of given length and area of
cross section is directly proportional to the current flowing through it.

V ∝i

V
V =Ri ∴ i= =GV
R

Where the reciprocal of resistance is called conductance G . The unit of resistance is

ohm and the unit of conductance is mho or Siemens.

When current flows through any resistive material, heat is generated by the collision of
electrons with other atomic particles. The power absorbed by the resistor is converted to
heat and is given by the expression

2
P=Vi=i R

Whereby i is the current in amps, and V is the voltage across the resistor in volts.
 t 2
V
Energy lost in a resistance in time t is given by W =∫ Pdt=Pt =i Rt =
2
t
0 R

The V-I characteristic of a linear resistor is a straight line and pass through the origin. i.e
the resistor is linear and therefore bilateral.

Figure 1.12 V-I characteristic of a linear resistor

A non-linear resistor may either be current dependent [v=f ( i ) ] or voltage dependent

[i=g ( v ) ].

Figure 1.13 V-I characteristic of a non-linear resistor

The circuit representation of non-linear resistors is shown below.

 Figure 1.14 Circuit representation of non-linear resistors

Circuit representation of a non-linear resistor

(a) Current dependent and

(b) Voltage dependent.

2. Inductance

Inductance is the property of a material by virtue of which it opposes any change of

magnitude and direction of electric current passing through conductor. A wire of certain
length, when twisted into a coil becomes a basic conductor. A change in the magnitude
of the current changes the electromagnetic field.

Increase in current expands the field and decrease in current reduces it. A change in
current produces change in the electromagnetic field. This induces a voltage across the
coil according to Faradays laws of Electromagnetic Induction.

di
The induced voltage V =L
dt

V =¿ Voltage across the inductor in volts

i=¿ current through the inductor in amperes

1
di= Vdt
L

Integrating both sides

 t

∫ di= 1L ∫ V ( t ) dt
−∞

gives

t
1
i= ∫ V ( t ) dt
L −∞

Or

t
1
i= ∫ V ( t ) dt+ i(t 0 )
Lt 0

where i(t 0) is the total current for −∞ <t <t 0 and i (−∞ )=0 . The idea of making i (−∞ )=0 is
practical and reasonable, because there must be a time in the past when there was no
current in the inductor.

The power delivered to the inductor is

P=Vi= L ( dtdi ) i
The energy stored is

t
W =∫ Pdt= ∫ L
−∞
( didt )idt
t
i 2 (t) i 2 (−∞ )
¿ L ∫ idi=L −L
−∞ 2 2

Since i (−∞ )=0

1 2
W = Li
2

We should note the following important properties of an inductor:

i. The induced voltage across an inductor is zero if the current through it is

constant. That means an inductor acts as short circuit to dc.
 ii. For minute change in current within zero time (dt = 0) gives an infinite voltage
across the inductor which is physically not at all feasible. In an inductor, the
current cannot change abruptly. An inductor behaves as open circuit just after
switching across dc voltage.
iii. The inductor can store finite amount of energy, even if the voltage across the
inductor is zero.
iv. A pure inductor never dissipates energy, it only stores it. Hence it is also called
as a non– dissipative passive element. However, physical inductor dissipates
power due to internal resistance.

3. Capacitor

A capacitor consists of two metallic surfaces or conducting surfaces separated by a

dielectric medium. It is a circuit element which is capable of storing electrical energy in
its electric field.

Capacitance is its capacity to store electrical energy. The Capacitance is the

proportionality constant relating the charge on the conducting plates to the potential.

Charge on the capacitor q ∝ V

q=CV

Where `C` is the capacitance in farads, if q is charge in coulombs and V is the potential
difference across the capacitor in volts.

The capacitance of a capacitor depends on the dielectric medium and the physical
dimensions.

For a parallel plate capacitor, the capacitance is given by

εA
C=
D

where A is the surface area of each plate, D is the distance between the plates, and ε is
the permittivity of the dielectric material between the plates.
Although the above equation applies to only parallel-plate capacitors, we may infer from
it that, in general, three factors determine the value of the capacitance:

i. The surface area of the plates - the larger the area, the greater the capacitance.
ii. The spacing between the plates - the smaller the spacing, the greater the
capacitance.
iii. The permittivity of the material - the higher the permittivity, the greater the
capacitance.

The current flowing in the circuit is rate of flow of charge

dq dV
i= =C
dt dt

The equation

dV
i=C
dt

Is the current-voltage relationship for a capacitor, assuming the positive sign

convention. The relationship for a capacitor whose capacitance is independent of
voltage is illustrated below.

Figure 1.15 Current-voltage relationship of a capacitor

Capacitors that satisfy the above equation are said to be linear. For a nonlinear
capacitor, the plot of the current-voltage relationship is not a straight line. Although
some capacitors are nonlinear, most are linear. We will assume linear capacitors in this
course.
The voltage-current relation of the capacitor can be obtained by integrating both sides of
equation

1
dV = idt
c

We get

t
1
V= ∫ idt
C −∞

Or

t
1
V=
Ct
∫ idt +V (t 0)
0

Where V ( t 0 )=q (t 0)/C is the voltage across the capacitor at time (t 0) . Equation above
shows that capacitor voltage depends on the past history of the capacitor current.
Hence, the capacitor has memory—a property that is often exploited.

The instantaneous power delivered to the capacitor is

dV
P=Vi=CV
dt

Figure 1.16 Current-voltage relationship of a capacitor

The energy stored in the capacitor is therefore

t t t
dV 1
W =∫ Pdt =C ∫ V dt=∫ VdV = C V ¿∞
2 t

−∞ −∞ dt −∞ 2
We note that V (−∞ )=0 , because the capacitor was uncharged at t=−∞ .

Thus,

1 2
W= CV
2

Since

q=CV

Then

q
V=
c

The energy stored in the capacitor can be expressed as

( )
2 2
1 q 1q
W= C =
2 C 2C

W represents the energy stored in the electric field that exists between the plates of the
capacitor. This energy can be retrieved, since an ideal capacitor cannot dissipate
energy.

We should note the following properties of a capacitor

i. The current in a capacitor is zero, if the voltage across it is constant, that means
the capacitor acts as an open circuit to dc.
ii. A small change in voltage across a capacitance within zero time gives an infinite
current through the capacitor, which is physically impossible. Therefore, in a fixed
capacitor, the voltage cannot change abruptly. Consequently, capacitor behaves
as short circuit just after switching across dc voltage.
iii. The capacitor can store a finite amount of energy, even if the current through it is
zero.
iv. A pure capacitor never dissipates energy but only stores it hence it is called non-
dissipative element.
Kirchhoff’s laws

Ohm’s law by itself is not sufficient to analyse circuits. However, when it is coupled with
Kirchhoff’s two laws, we have a sufficient, powerful set of tools for analysing a large
variety of electric circuits.

Kirchhoff’s first law

Kirchhoff’s first law is based on the law of conservation of charge, which requires that
the algebraic sum of charges within a system cannot change.

Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL)

states that the algebraic sum of currents entering anode (or a closed boundary) is zero.

Mathematically, KCL implies that

∑ in=0
n =1

where N is the number of branches connected to the node and i n is the nth current
entering (or leaving) the node. By this law, currents entering a node may be regarded as
positive, while currents leaving the node may be taken as negative or vice versa.

Figure 1.17 Currents at a node

Consider the above figure

i 1+ (−i 2 )+ i3 +i 4 + ( −i5 ) =0
since currents i 1 , i 3 and i 4 are entering the node, while currents i 2 and i 5 are leaving it. By
rearranging the terms, we get

i 1+ i3 +i 4 =i 2+i 5

The equation above is an alternative form of KCL:

The sum of the currents entering a node is equal to the sum of the currents leaving the
node.

Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL)

states that the algebraic sum of all voltages around a closed path (or loop) is zero.

Expressed mathematically, KVL states that

∑ V m=0
m

where M is the number of voltages in the loop (or the number of branches in the loop)
and V m is the mth voltage.

To illustrate KVL, consider the circuit below.

Figure 1.18 Loop circuit

The sign on each voltage is the polarity of the terminal encountered first as we travel
around the loop. We can start with any branch and go around the loop either clockwise
or counter clockwise.

Suppose we start with the voltage source and go clockwise around the loop as shown;
then voltages would be−v1, +v2, +v3, −v4, and+v5, in that order. For example, as we
reach branch3, the positive terminal is met first; hence we have +v 3. For branch 4, we
reach the negative terminal first; hence, −v4. Thus, KVL yields

−V 1 +V 2 +V 3−V 4 +V 5=0

Rearranging terms gives

V 2 +V 3 +V 5=V 1 +V 4

which may be interpreted as

Sum of voltage drops = Sum of voltage rises

This is an alternative form of KVL.

When voltage sources are connected in series, KVL can be applied to obtain the total
voltage. The combined voltage is the algebraic sum of the voltages of the individual
sources.

Example 1

For the circuit below find the voltages V 1 and V 2

To find the voltages V 1 and V 2 we apply Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s voltage law.

Assume that current i flows through the loop as shown below.

From Ohm’s law

V 1=2 i∧V 2=−3i

Applying KVL around the loop gives

−20+V 1 −V 2=0

Substituting for V 1 and V 2 we get

−20+2 i−(−3 i )=−20+ 2i+3 i=0

Or

20
5 i=20 , i= =4 A
5

V 1=2 Ω × 4 A=8V , V 2=−3Ω × 4 A=−12 V

Example 2

Determine V 0 and i in the circuit below

Solution
We apply Ohm’s law

V 0=−6 i

Applying KVL

−12+4 i+2 V 0 −4−V 0=0

Substituting for V 0 we get

−12+4 i−12i−4+ 6 i=−16−2i=0

−16
i= =−8 A , V 0=−6 Ω×−8 A=48 V
2

Network Reduction

In certain engineering applications, we come across some circuits which are complex.
The analysis of those circuits become very tedious and time consuming. In order to
overcome the above difficulties, we go for network reduction techniques.

The reduction techniques used are:

1) Division rule
2) Source transformation
3) Star-delta or delta-star transformation

Division Rule
There are two types of division rules, namely
a) Voltage division rule and
b) Current division rule
Voltage division rule
Consider a series circuit which acts as a voltage divider

Figure 1.19 Series circuit as a voltage divider

Same current flows through each resistor, the voltage drops are proportional to the
values of resistors.
V
i=
( R1 + R2 )
Therefore
V 1=i R1

V 2=i R2

Substituting
V
i=
( 1 + R2 )
R

V
V 1= R1
( R1 + R2 )
V
V 2= R2
( R1 + R2 )
In general,
Considered branch resistance
Voltage drop across the considered branch= Applied voltage ×
Total resistnce
Current division rule
Consider in a parallel circuit, where the current divides in all branches. Therefore, a
parallel circuit acts as a current divider, the total current entering into the parallel
branches is divided into the branch currents according to the resistance values.
 Figure 1.20 Parallel circuit as a current divider
Applying KCL we get
i=i 1 +i 2

And
V 1=i 1 R 1

V 2=i 2 R 2

In parallel circuit, voltage drops are equal

V 1=V 2

i 1 R1 =i2 R2

i1 R1
i 2=
R2

Therefore

i=i 1 +
i1 R 1
R2 [ ] [
=i 1 1+
R1
R2
=i1
R2 + R1
R2 ]
R2
i 1=i× A
R 2+ R 1

Similarly
R1
i 2=i× A
R 1+ R 2

In general
Resistance of opposite branch
Current flowing ∈the considered branch=Total curret ×
Total resistance
Source transformation

Rule 1: To convert a voltage (V) in series with resistance (R) into an equivalent current
source. Replace the voltage source with a current source whose value is V / R and place
a resistance (R) in parallel.

Figure 1.21 Source transformation circuits

Rule 2: To convert a current source (I) in parallel with a resistance (R) into a voltage
source, replace the current source with a voltage source whose value is (IR) in series
with a resistance (R)

Delta to star transformation

Figure 1.22 Delta-star transformation circuits

In star connection above

The resistance between terminals X and Y, R x− y =R x + R y (1)

The resistance between terminals Y and Z, R y− z=R y + R z (2)

The resistance between terminals Z and X, R z−x =R z + R x (3)

In delta connection

R xy ( R yz + R zx )
R x− y =R xy /¿ ( R yz + R zx )= (4)
R xy + R yz + R zx

R yz ( R zx + R xy )
R y− z=R yz /¿ ( R zx + R xy ) = (5)
R xy + R yz + Rzx

R zx ( R xy + R yz )
R z−x =R zx /¿ ( Rxy + R yz ) = (6)
R xy + R yz + R zx

Equating respective equations

R xy ( R yz + R zx )
R x+ R y= (7)
R xy + R yz + R zx

R yz ( R zx + R xy )
R y + R z= ( 8)
R xy + R yz + R zx

R zx ( Rxy + R yz )
R z + R x= (9)
R xy + R yz + R zx

Subtracting Eq. (8) from Eq. (7) we have

R xy ( R yz + R zx ) R yz ( R zx + R xy ) R xy R yz + R xy R zx −R yz R zx −R yz R xy
R x −R z= − = (10)
R xy + R yz + R zx R xy + R yz + R zx R xy + R yz + R zx

Adding Eq. (9) to Eq. (10) we get

R xy R yz + R xy R zx −R yz R zx −R yz R xy + R zx R xy + R zx R yz 2 R xy Rzx
2 Rx = =
R xy + R yz + R zx R xy + R yz + R zx

R xy R zx
R x= (11)
R xy + R yz + R zx

R yz R xy
Ry = (12)
R xy + R yz + Rzx
 R zx R yz
R z= (13)
R xy+ R yz + R zx

Star to delta transformation

Figure 1.23 Star-delta transformation circuits

To obtain the conversion for transforming a star network to an equivalent delta network,
we note from Eq. (11) to Eq. (13), that

2 2 2
R xy R yz R zx + R yz R xy R zx + Rzx R xy R yz
R x R y+ R y R z + R z R x= 2
(14 )
( R xy + R yz + R zx )

Now let us divide Eq. (14) by R x, we get

R y R z R2xy R yz R zx + R2yz R xy R zx + R2zx R xy R yz R xy R yz R zx ( R xy+ R yz + R zx ) R xy R yz Rzx

Ry + Rz+ = 2
= 2
=
Rx R x ( R xy + R yz + R zx ) R x ( R xy + R yz + R zx ) R x ( R xy + R yz + R zx )

Therefore,

R y Rz R xy R yz R zx
Ry + Rz+ = (15)
Rx R x ( R xy + R yz + R zx )

Now substituting the value of R x from Eq. (11) whereby,

1 R xy + R yz + R zx
=
Rx R xy R zx
Eq. (15) can be rewritten as

R y R z R xy + R yz + R zx R xy R yz R zx
Ry + Rz+ = × =R
Rx R xy R zx ( R xy+ R yz + R zx ) yz

Hence,

R y Rz
Ry + Rz+ =R yz (16)
Rx

Then similarly, dividing the same Eq. (14) by R y and R z respectively, we get the other
two relations as

Rx Rz
R x+ R z + =R zx (17)
Ry

Rx R y
R y + R x+ =R xy (18)
Rz

Nodal-voltage and Mesh-current methods of circuit analysis

Having understood the fundamental laws of circuit theory (Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s
laws), we can now apply these laws to develop two powerful techniques for circuit
analysis: nodal-voltage analysis, which is based a systematic application of Kirchhoff’s
current law (KCL), and Mesh-current analysis, which is based on a systematic
application of Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL).

With the two techniques, we can analyse almost any circuit by obtaining a set of
simultaneous equations that are then solved to obtain the required values of current or
voltage.

Nodal-voltage Analysis Method

Nodal-voltage analysis or simply nodal analysis provides a general procedure for

analysing circuits using node voltages as circuit variable. Choosing node voltages
instead of element voltages as circuit variables is convenient and reduces the number
of equations one must solve simultaneously.
To simplify the matters, we shall first look at the circuits that do not contain voltage
sources. Circuits containing voltage sources will be analysed in the next section.
In nodal analysis, we are interested in finding the node voltages. Given a circuit with n
nodes without voltage sources, the nodal analysis of the circuit involves taking the
following steps:

1. Select a node as the reference node. Assign voltages v 1 , v 2 , … . v n−1 to the

remaining n−1 nodes. The voltages are referenced with respect to the reference
node.
2. Apply KCL to each of the n−1 nonreference nodes. Use Ohm’s law to express
the branch currents in terms of node voltages.
3. Solve the resulting simultaneous equations to obtain the unknown node voltages.

The first step in nodal analysis is selecting a node as the reference or datum node. The
reference node is commonly called the ground since it is assumed to have zero
potential.
Once we have selected a reference node, we assign voltage designations to
nonreference nodes. Consider, for example, the circuit in Fig. 1.24.

Figure 1.24 A circuit

On the circuit in Fig. 1.24a, first we select node 0 as the reference node ( v=0 ) , while
nodes 1 and 2 are assigned voltages v 1∧v 2, respectively.
 Figure 1.24a
Keep in mind that the node voltages are defined with respect to the reference node.
Each node voltage is the voltage rise from the reference node to the corresponding
nonreference node or simply the voltage of that node with respect to the reference
node.
As the second step, we apply KCL to each nonreference node in the circuit. The circuit
in Fig. 1.24a is redrawn in Fig. 1.24b, where we now add i 1 , i 2 ,∧i 3 as the currents
through resistors R1 , R 2 ,∧R3, respectively.

Figure 1.24b
At node 1, applying KCL gives,
I 1=I 2+i 1 +i 2 (1.1)

At node 2
I 2+i 2=i 3 (1.2)

We now apply Ohm’s law to express the unknown currents i 1 , i 2 ,∧i 3 in terms of
voltages. The key idea to bear in mind is that, since resistance is passive element, by
the passive sign convention, current must always flaw from a higher potential to a lower
potential. We can express this principle as
v higher −v lower
i= (1.3)
R
With this in mind, we obtain from Fig. 1.24b,
v 1−0
i 1=
R1

v 1−v 2 v 2−0
i 2= (1.4 )i 3= substituting Eq. (1.4) in Eq. (1.1) and (1.2) results, respectively,
R2 R3

in

v 1 v 1−v 2
I 1=I 2+ + (1.5)
R1 R2

v 1−v 2 v 2
I 2+ = (1.6)
R2 R3

The third step in nodal analysis is to solve for the node voltages. If we apply KCL to n−1
nonreference nodes, we obtain n−1 simultaneous equations such as Eqs (1.5) and (1.6)
to obtain the node voltages v 1∧v 2 using any standard method, such as the substitution
method, the elimination method, Cramer’s rule, or matrix inversion. To use either of the
last two methods, on must write the simultaneous equations in matrix form.

Example 1.1

Calculate the node voltages in the circuit shown in Fig. 1.25a

Figure 1.25a Original circuit

Solution
 Figure 1.25b Circuit for analysis

Consider Fig. 1.25b prepared from the circuit in Fig. 1.25a for nodal analysis. Note how
the currents are selected for the application of KCL. Except for the branches with
current sources, the labelling of the currents is arbitrary but consistent. The reference
node is selected, and the node voltages v 1∧v 2 are now to be determined.

At node 1, applying KCL and Ohm’s law gives

v 1−v 2 v 1−0
i 1=i 2+ i3 →5= +
4 2

Multiplying each term in the last equation by 4, we obtain

20=v 1−v 2+ 2 v 1

or

3 v 1−v 2=20 (1.1.1)

At node 2, we do the same thing and get

v 1−v 2 v 2−0
i 2+ i 4=i 1 +i 5 → +10=5+
4 6

Multiplying each term by 12 gives

3 v 1−3 v 2+ 120=60+ 2 v 2

or
−3 v 1 +5 v 2 =60(1.1 .2)

Putting Eqs. (1.1.1) and (1.1.2) in matrix form we obtain

[−33 −15 ] [ vv ]=[ 2060]

1

The main determinant of the matrix is

∆=
[−33 −15 ]=15−3=12
We now obtain v 1∧v 2 as

v 1= =
[
20 −1
∆1 60 5
=
100+60 ]
=13.33V
∆ ∆ 12

[
3 20
∆2 −3 60 180+ 60
v 2= = =
]
=20 V
∆ ∆ 12

If we need the currents, we can easily calculate them from the values of the nodal
voltages.

Example 1.2

Determine the voltages at the nodes in Fig. 1.26a.

Figure 1.26a Original circuit

Solution
The circuit in this example has three nonreference nodes. We assign voltages to the
three nodes as shown in Fig. 1.26b and label the currents.

Figure 1.26b Circuit for analysis

At node 1,

v 1−v 3 v 1−v 2
3=i1 +i x →3= +
4 2

Multiplying by 4 and rearranging terms, we get

3 v 1−2 v 2−v 3 =12(1.2.1)

At node 2,

v 1−v 2 v 2−v 3 v 2−0

i x =i 2 +i 3 → = +
2 8 4

Multiplying by 8 and rearranging terms, we get

−4 v 1 +7 v2 −v 3=0(1.2.2)

At node 3,

v 1−v 3 v 2−v 3 v 1−v 2

i 1+ i2 =2i x → + =2
4 8 2

Multiplying by 8, rearranging terms, and dividing by 3, we get

2 v 1−3 v 2+ v 3=0 (1.2.3)

Writing Eqs. (1.2.1), (1.2.2) and (1.2.3) in matrix form, we get

[ ][ ] [ ]
3 −2 −1 v 1 12
−4 7 −1 v 2 = 0
2 −3 1 v 3 0

From this, we obtain

∆1 ∆2 ∆3
v 1= , v 2= , v 3=
∆ ∆ ∆

[ ]
3 −2 −1
∆= −4 7 −1 =10
2 −3 1

[ ]
12 −2 −1
∆ 1= 0 7 −1 =48
0 −3 1

[ ]
3 12 −1
∆ 2= −4 0 −1 =24
2 0 1

[ ]
3 −2 12
∆ 3= −4 7 0 =−24
2 −3 0

Thus, we find

∆1 48
v 1= = =4.8 V
∆ 10

∆2 24
v 2= = =2.4 V
∆ 10

∆3 −24
v 3= = =−2.4 V
∆ 10

Mesh-current Analysis Method

Mesh-current analysis provides another general procedure for analysing circuits, using
mesh currents as the circuit variables. Using mesh currents instead of element currents
as circuit variables is convenient and reduces the number of equations that must be
solved simultaneously. Recall, that a loop is a closed path with no node passed more
than once. A mesh is a loop that does not contain any other loop within it.

Nodal analysis applies KCL to find unknown voltages in a given circuit, while mesh
analysis applies KVL to find unknown currents.

To understand mesh analysis, let us first explain more the meaning of a mesh.

Figure 1.27 A circuit with two meshes

In Fig. 1.27, for example, paths abefa and bcdeb are meshes, but path abcdefa is not a
mesh. The current through a mesh known as mesh current. In mesh analysis, we are
interested in applying KVL to find the mesh currents in a given circuit.

In the mesh analysis of a circuit with N meshes, we take the following three steps to
determine mesh currents:

1. Assign mesh currents i 1 , i 2 ,… . , i N to the N meshes.

2. Apply KVL to each of the N meshes. Use Ohm’s law to express the voltages in
terms of the mesh currents.
3. Solve the resulting N simultaneous equations to get the mesh currents.

To illustrate the steps, consider the circuit in Fig. 1.27. The first step requires that mesh
currents i 1∧i 2 are assigned to meshes 1 and 2. Although a mesh current may be
assigned to each mesh in an arbitrary direction, it is conventional to assume that each
mesh current flows clockwise.
As the second step, we apply KVL to each mesh.
Applying KVL to mesh 1, we obtain
−V 1 + R1 i1 + R3 ( i 1−i 2 )=0

or
( R1 + R3 ) i 1−R3 i2=V 1 (1.7)
For mesh 2, applying KVL gives
R2 i2 +V 2 + R3 ( i 2−i 1 )=0 or

−R3 i 1+ ( R 2+ R 3 ) i 2=−V 2 (1.8)

Note in Eq. (1.7) that the coefficient of i 1 is the sum of the resistances in the first mesh,
while the coefficient of i 2 is the negative of the resistance common to meshes 1 and 2.
Now observe that the same is true in Eq. (1.8).
The third step is to solve for mesh currents. Putting Eqs. (1.7) and (1.8) in matrix form
yields

[ R1+ R 3 −R3 i 1
][ ] [ ]
V
= 1 (1.9)
−R3 R2 + R3 i 2 −V 2

Which can be solved to obtain the mesh currents i 1∧i 2.

Example 1.3

Figure 1.28 For Example 1.3

For the circuit in Fig. 1.28, find the branch currents I 1 , I 2 ,∧I 3 using mesh analysis.
Solution:
We first obtain the mesh currents using KVL.
For mesh 1,
−15+5 i 1+ 10 ( i1−i 2 ) +10=0

or
3 i 1−2i 2=1 ¿

For mesh 2,
6 i 2+ 4 i 2 +10 ( i 2−i 1 )−10=0

or
−i 1+ 2i 2=1(1.3 .2)

To use Cramer’s rule, we write Eqs. (1.3.1) and (1.3.2) in matrix form as

[−13 −22 ] [ii ]=[ 11]

1

We obtain the determinants

∆= |−13 −22 |=6−2=4

∆ =|
1 2|
1 −2
1 =2+2=4

∆ =|
−1 1|
3 1
2 =3+1=4

Thus,
∆1 4 ∆2 4
i 1= = =1 A , i 2= = =1 A ,
∆ 4 ∆ 4
The branch currents
I 1=i 1=1 A , I 2=i 2=1 A , I 3=i 1−i 2=1−1=0 A

Example 1.4
Use mesh analysis to find the current i 0 in the circuit in Fig.1.29
 Figure 1.29 For Example 1.4
Solution:
We apply KVL to the three meshes in turn.
For mesh 1,
−24 +10 ( i1 −i2 ) +12 ( i 1−i 3 )=0 or

11i 1−5 i 2−6 i 3=12(1.4 .1)

For mesh 2,
24 i 2 +4 ( i 2−i3 ) + 10 ( i 2−i 1 ) =0 or

−5 i 1+19 i 2−2 i 3=0(1.4 .2)

For mesh 3,
4 i 0+12 ( i 3−i 1 ) +4 ( i 3−i 2 )=0

But at node A.
i 0=i 1−i 2 ,

Hence,
4 (i 1−i 2)+12 ( i 3−i 1 ) +4 ( i3 −i 2) =0

or
−i 1−i 2+ 2i 3=0 (1.4 .3)

In matrix form, Eqs. (1.4.1), (1.4.2) and (1.4.3) become

[ ][ ] [ ]
11 −5 −6 i1 12
−5 19 −2 i2 = 0
−1 −1 2 i3 0

We obtain determinants as
 | |
11 −5 −6
−5 19 −2
∆= −1 −1 2 =418−30−10−114−22−50=192
11 −5 −6
−5 19 −2

| |
12 −5 −6
0 19 −2
∆ 1= 0 −1 2 =456−24=432
12 −5 −6
0 19 −2

| |
11 12 −6
−5 0 −2
∆ 2= −1 0 2 =24 +120=144
11 12 −6
−5 0 −2

| |
11 −5 −6
−5 19 −2
∆ 3= −1 −1 2 =60+228=288
11 −5 −6
−5 19 −2

We calculate the mesh currents using Cramer’s rule as

∆1 432 ∆2 144 ∆3 288
i 1= = =2.25 A , i2 = = =0.75 A , i3 = = =1.5 A ,
∆ 192 ∆ 192 ∆ 192
Thus,
i 0=i 1−i 2=2.25 A−0.75 A=1.5 A

Duality
The concept of duality is a time-saving measure of solving circuit problems. It
sometimes occurs in circuit analysis, that two different circuits have the same equations
and solutions, except that the roles of certain complementary elements are
interchanged. This interchangeability is known as the principle of duality.
The duality principle asserts a parallelism between pairs of characterising equations and
theorems of electric circuits.
Dual pairs are shown in Table 1.1
Table 1.1 Dual pairs
Resistance R Conductance G
 Inductance L Capacitance C
Voltage v Current i
Voltage source Current source
Node Mesh
Series path Parallel path
Open circuit Short circuit
KVL KCL
Thevenin Norton

Note, that power has no dual. The reason for this is the principle of linearity; since
power is not linear, duality does not apply. Also notice from Table 1.1 that the principle
of duality extends to circuit elements, configuration, and theorems.
Two circuits that are described by equations of the same form, but in which the
variables are interchanged, are said to be dual to each other. i.e.
Two circuits are said to be duals of one another if they are described by the same
characterising equations with dual quantities interchanged.
The usefulness of the duality principle is self-evident. Once we know the solution to one
circuit, we automatically have the solution for the dual circuit. However, it must be kept
in mind, that principle is limited to planar circuits. Nonplanar circuits have no duals, as
they cannot be described by a system of mesh equations.
To find the dual of a given circuit, we do not need to write down the mesh or node
equations. We can use a graphical technique. Given a planar circuit, we construct the
dual circuit by taking the following three steps:
1. Place a node at the centre of each mesh of the given circuit. Place the
reference node (the ground) of the dual circuit outside the given circuit.
2. Draw lines between the nodes such that each line crosses an element. Replace
that element by its dual (see Table 1.1).
3. To determine the polarity of voltage sources and direction of current sources,
follow this rule: A voltage source that produces a positive (clockwise) mesh
current has its dual current source whose reference direction is from the ground
to nonreference node.
In case of doubt, one may verify the dual circuit by writing the nodal or mesh equations.
The mesh (or nodal) equations of the original circuit are similar to the nodal (or mesh)
equations of the dual circuit.

Example 1.5
Construct the dual of the circuit in Fig. 1.30
 Figure 1.30 For example 1.5
Solution:

Figure 1.31a Construction of the dual circuit of Fig. 1.30

As shown in Fig. 1.31a, we first locate nodes 1 and 2 in the two meshes and also the
ground node 0 for the dual circuit.
We draw a line between one node and another crossing an element. We replace the
line joining the nodes by the duals of the elements which it crosses. For example, a line
between nodes 1 and 2 crosses a 2H inductor, and we place a 2F capacitor (an
inductor’s dual) on the line. A line between nodes 1 and 0 crossing the 6V voltage
source will contain a 6A current source. By drawing lines crossing all the elements, we
construct the dual circuit on the given circuit as in Fig. 1.31a.
The dual circuit is redrawn in Fig. 1.31b below.

Figure 1.31b Dual circuit of the circuit on Fig.1.30

Example 1.6
Obtain the dual of the circuit in Fig. 1.32
 Figure 1.32 For Example 1.6
Solution:

Figure 1.33a Construction of the dual circuit of Fig. 1.32

The dual is constructed on the original circuit in Fig. 1.33a. We first locate nodes 1 to 3
and the reference node 0. Joining nodes 1 and 2, we cross the capacitor 2F capacitor,
which we replace by a 2H inductor.
Joining nodes 2 and 3, we cross the 20Ω resistor, which is replaced by a 1/20Ω resistor.
We keep doing this until all the elements are crossed. The result is in Fig.1.33a. The
dual circuit is redrawn in Fig. 1.33b.

Figure 1.33b Dual circuit redrawn.