SECTION 2: BLOCK DIAGRAMS

& SIGNAL FLOW GRAPHS

ESE 430 – Feedback Control Systems
2 Block Diagrams

K. Webb ESE 430

 Block Diagrams
3

 In the introductory section we saw examples of block diagrams

to represent systems, e.g.:

 Block diagrams consist of

 Blocks – these represent subsystems – typically modeled by, and labeled
with, a transfer function
 Signals – inputs and outputs of blocks – signal direction indicated by
arrows – could be voltage, velocity, force, etc.
 Summing junctions – points were signals are algebraically summed –
subtraction indicated by a negative sign near where the signal joins the
summing junction
K. Webb ESE 430
 Standard Block Diagram Forms
4

 The basic input/output relationship for a single block is:

𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑈𝑈 𝑠𝑠 ⋅ 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠

 Block diagram blocks can be connected in three basic forms:

 Cascade
 Parallel
 Feedback

 We’ll next look at each of these forms and derive a single-

block equivalent for each

K. Webb ESE 430

 Cascade Form
5

 Blocks connected in cascade:

𝑋𝑋1 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑈𝑈 𝑠𝑠 ⋅ 𝐺𝐺1 𝑠𝑠 , 𝑋𝑋2 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑋𝑋1 𝑠𝑠 ⋅ 𝐺𝐺2 𝑠𝑠

𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑋𝑋2 𝑠𝑠 ⋅ 𝐺𝐺3 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑋𝑋1 𝑠𝑠 ⋅ 𝐺𝐺2 𝑠𝑠 ⋅ 𝐺𝐺3 𝑠𝑠
𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑈𝑈 𝑠𝑠 ⋅ 𝐺𝐺1 𝑠𝑠 ⋅ 𝐺𝐺2 𝑠𝑠 ⋅ 𝐺𝐺3 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑈𝑈 𝑠𝑠 ⋅ 𝐺𝐺𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑠
𝐺𝐺𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑠 = 𝐺𝐺1 𝑠𝑠 ⋅ 𝐺𝐺2 𝑠𝑠 ⋅ 𝐺𝐺3 𝑠𝑠

 The equivalent transfer function of cascaded blocks is the

product of the individual transfer functions

K. Webb ESE 430

 Parallel Form
6

 Blocks connected in parallel:

𝑋𝑋1 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑈𝑈 𝑠𝑠 ⋅ 𝐺𝐺1 𝑠𝑠
𝑋𝑋2 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑈𝑈 𝑠𝑠 ⋅ 𝐺𝐺2 𝑠𝑠
𝑋𝑋3 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑈𝑈 𝑠𝑠 ⋅ 𝐺𝐺3 𝑠𝑠
𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑋𝑋1 𝑠𝑠 ± 𝑋𝑋2 𝑠𝑠 ± 𝑋𝑋3 𝑠𝑠

𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑈𝑈 𝑠𝑠 ⋅ 𝐺𝐺1 𝑠𝑠 ± 𝑈𝑈 𝑠𝑠 ⋅ 𝐺𝐺2 𝑠𝑠 ± 𝑈𝑈 𝑠𝑠 ⋅ 𝐺𝐺3 𝑠𝑠

𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑈𝑈 𝑠𝑠 𝐺𝐺1 𝑠𝑠 ± 𝐺𝐺2 𝑠𝑠 ± 𝐺𝐺3 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑈𝑈 𝑠𝑠 ⋅ 𝐺𝐺𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑠
𝐺𝐺𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑠 = 𝐺𝐺1 𝑠𝑠 ± 𝐺𝐺2 𝑠𝑠 ± 𝐺𝐺3 𝑠𝑠

 The equivalent transfer function is the sum of the individual

transfer functions:

K. Webb ESE 430

 Feedback Form
7

 Of obvious interest to us, is the feedback form:

𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑠 = 𝐸𝐸 𝑠𝑠 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠
𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑅𝑅 𝑠𝑠 − 𝑋𝑋 𝑠𝑠 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠
𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑅𝑅 𝑠𝑠 − 𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑠 𝐻𝐻 𝑠𝑠 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠

𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑠 1 + 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠 𝐻𝐻 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑅𝑅 𝑠𝑠 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠
𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠
𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑅𝑅 𝑠𝑠 ⋅
1 + 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠 𝐻𝐻 𝑠𝑠

 The closed-loop transfer function, 𝑇𝑇 𝑠𝑠 , is

𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑠 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠
𝑇𝑇 𝑠𝑠 = =
𝑅𝑅 𝑠𝑠 1 + 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠 𝐻𝐻 𝑠𝑠
K. Webb ESE 430
 Feedback Form
8

𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠
𝑇𝑇 𝑠𝑠 =
1 + 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠 𝐻𝐻 𝑠𝑠

 Note that this is negative feedback, for positive feedback:

𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠
𝑇𝑇 𝑠𝑠 =
1 − 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠 𝐻𝐻 𝑠𝑠
 The 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠 𝐻𝐻 𝑠𝑠 factor in the denominator is the loop gain or open-loop
transfer function
 The gain from input to output with the feedback path broken is the
forward path gain – here, 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠
 In general:
forward path gain
𝑇𝑇 𝑠𝑠 =
1 − loop gain
K. Webb ESE 430
 Closed-Loop Transfer Function - Example
9

 Calculate the closed-loop transfer function

 𝐷𝐷 𝑠𝑠 and 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠 are in cascade

 𝐻𝐻1 𝑠𝑠 is in cascade with the feedback system consisting of 𝐷𝐷 𝑠𝑠 ,
𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠 , and 𝐻𝐻2 𝑠𝑠
𝐷𝐷 𝑠𝑠 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠
𝑇𝑇 𝑠𝑠 = 𝐻𝐻1 𝑠𝑠 ⋅
1 + 𝐷𝐷 𝑠𝑠 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠 𝐻𝐻2 𝑠𝑠
𝐻𝐻1 𝑠𝑠 𝐷𝐷 𝑠𝑠 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠
𝑇𝑇 𝑠𝑠 =
1 + 𝐷𝐷 𝑠𝑠 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠 𝐻𝐻2 𝑠𝑠

K. Webb ESE 430

 Unity-Feedback Systems
10

 We’re often interested in unity-feedback systems

 Feedback path gain is unity

 Can always reconfigure a system to unity-feedback form
 Closed-loop transfer function is:
𝐷𝐷 𝑠𝑠 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠
𝑇𝑇 𝑠𝑠 =
1 + 𝐷𝐷 𝑠𝑠 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠

K. Webb ESE 430

11 Block Diagram Manipulation

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 Block Diagram Algebra
12

 Often want to simplify block diagrams into simpler,

recognizable forms
 To determine the equivalent transfer function

 Simplify to instances of the three standard forms,

then simplify those forms
 Move blocks around relative to summing junctions
and pickoff points – simplify to a standard form
 Move blocks forward/backward past summing junctions
 Move blocks forward/backward past pickoff points

K. Webb ESE 430

 Moving Blocks Back Past a Summing Junction
13

 The following two block diagrams are equivalent:

𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑈𝑈1 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑈𝑈2 𝑠𝑠 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑈𝑈1 𝑠𝑠 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑈𝑈2 𝑠𝑠 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠

K. Webb ESE 430

 Moving Blocks Forward Past a Summing Junction
14

 The following two block diagrams are equivalent:

1
𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑈𝑈1 𝑠𝑠 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑈𝑈2 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑈𝑈1 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑈𝑈2 𝑠𝑠 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠
𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠

K. Webb ESE 430

 Moving Blocks Relative to Pickoff Points
15

 We can move blocks backward past pickoff points:

 And, we can move them forward past pickoff points:

K. Webb ESE 430

 Block Diagram Simplification – Example 1
16

 Rearrange the following into a unity-feedback system

 Move the feedback block, 𝐻𝐻 𝑠𝑠 , forward,

past the summing junction
 Add an inverse block on 𝑅𝑅 𝑠𝑠 to
compensate for the move

 Closed-loop transfer function:

1
𝐻𝐻 𝑠𝑠 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠
𝐻𝐻 𝑠𝑠
𝑇𝑇 𝑠𝑠 = =
1 + 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠 𝐻𝐻 𝑠𝑠 1 + 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠 𝐻𝐻 𝑠𝑠
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 Block Diagram Simplification – Example 2
17

 Find the closed-loop transfer function of the following

system through block-diagram simplification

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 Block Diagram Simplification – Example 2
18

 𝐺𝐺1 𝑠𝑠 and 𝐻𝐻1 𝑠𝑠 are in feedback form

𝐺𝐺1 𝑠𝑠
𝐺𝐺𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑠 =
1 − 𝐺𝐺1 𝑠𝑠 𝐻𝐻1 𝑠𝑠
K. Webb ESE 430
 Block Diagram Simplification – Example 2
19

 Move 𝐺𝐺2 𝑠𝑠 backward past the pickoff point

 Block from previous step, 𝐺𝐺2 𝑠𝑠 , and 𝐻𝐻2 𝑠𝑠 become a

feedback system that can be simplified

K. Webb ESE 430

 Block Diagram Simplification – Example 2
20

 Simplify the feedback subsystem

 Note that we’ve dropped the function of 𝑠𝑠 notation, 𝑠𝑠 , for clarity

𝐺𝐺1 𝐺𝐺2
1 − 𝐺𝐺1 𝐻𝐻1 𝐺𝐺1 𝐺𝐺2
𝐺𝐺𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑠 = =
𝐺𝐺1 𝐺𝐺2 𝐻𝐻2 1 − 𝐺𝐺1 𝐻𝐻1 + 𝐺𝐺1 𝐺𝐺2 𝐻𝐻2
1+
1 − 𝐺𝐺1 𝐻𝐻1
K. Webb ESE 430
 Block Diagram Simplification – Example 2
21

 Simplify the two parallel subsystems

𝐺𝐺4
𝐺𝐺𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑠 = 𝐺𝐺3 +
𝐺𝐺2

K. Webb ESE 430

 Block Diagram Simplification – Example 2
22

 Now left with two cascaded subsystems

 Transfer functions multiply

𝐺𝐺1 𝐺𝐺2 𝐺𝐺3 + 𝐺𝐺1 𝐺𝐺4

𝐺𝐺𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑠 =
1 − 𝐺𝐺1 𝐻𝐻1 + 𝐺𝐺1 𝐺𝐺2 𝐻𝐻2

K. Webb ESE 430

 Block Diagram Simplification – Example 2
23

 The equivalent, close-loop transfer function is

𝐺𝐺1 𝐺𝐺2 𝐺𝐺3 + 𝐺𝐺1 𝐺𝐺4
𝑇𝑇 𝑠𝑠 =
1 − 𝐺𝐺1 𝐻𝐻1 + 𝐺𝐺1 𝐺𝐺2 𝐻𝐻2
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24 Multiple-Input Systems

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 Multiple Input Systems
25

 Systems often have more than one input

 E.g., reference, 𝑅𝑅 𝑠𝑠 , and disturbance, 𝑊𝑊 𝑠𝑠

 Two transfer functions:

 From reference to output
𝑇𝑇 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑠 ⁄𝑅𝑅 𝑠𝑠
 From disturbance to output
𝑇𝑇𝑤𝑤 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑠 /𝑊𝑊 𝑠𝑠

K. Webb ESE 430

 Transfer Function – Reference
26

 Find transfer function from 𝑅𝑅 𝑠𝑠 to 𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑠

A linear system – superposition applies
 Set 𝑊𝑊 𝑠𝑠 = 0

𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑠 𝐷𝐷 𝑠𝑠 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠
𝑇𝑇 𝑠𝑠 = =
𝑅𝑅 𝑠𝑠 1 + 𝐷𝐷 𝑠𝑠 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠

K. Webb ESE 430

 Transfer Function – Reference
27

 Next, find transfer function from 𝑊𝑊 𝑠𝑠 to 𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑠

 Set 𝑅𝑅 𝑠𝑠 = 0
 System now becomes:

𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑠 𝐺𝐺𝑤𝑤 𝑠𝑠 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠
𝑇𝑇𝑤𝑤 𝑠𝑠 = =
𝑊𝑊 𝑠𝑠 1 + 𝐷𝐷 𝑠𝑠 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠

K. Webb ESE 430

 Multiple Input Systems
28

 Two inputs, two transfer functions

𝐷𝐷 𝑠𝑠 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠 𝐺𝐺𝑤𝑤 𝑠𝑠 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠
𝑇𝑇 𝑠𝑠 =
1+𝐷𝐷 𝑠𝑠 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠
and 𝑇𝑇𝑤𝑤 𝑠𝑠 =
1+𝐷𝐷 𝑠𝑠 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠

 𝐷𝐷 𝑠𝑠 is the controller transfer function

 Ultimately,
we’ll determine this
 We have control over both 𝑇𝑇 𝑠𝑠 and 𝑇𝑇𝑤𝑤 𝑠𝑠

 What do we want these to be?

 Design 𝑇𝑇 𝑠𝑠 for desired performance
 Design 𝑇𝑇𝑤𝑤 𝑠𝑠 for disturbance rejection

K. Webb ESE 430

29 Signal Flow Graphs

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 Signal Flow Graphs
30

 An alternative to block diagrams for graphically describing systems

 Signal flow graphs consist of:

 Nodes –represent signals
 Branches –represent system blocks
 Branches labeled with system transfer functions
 Nodes (sometimes) labeled with signal names
 Arrows indicate signal flow direction
 Implicit summation at nodes
 Always a positive sum
 Negative signs associated with branch transfer functions
K. Webb ESE 430
 Block Diagram → Signal Flow Graph
31

 To convert from a block diagram to a signal flow

graph:
1. Identify and label all signals on the block diagram
2. Place a node for each signal
3. Connect nodes with branches in place of the blocks
 Maintain correct direction
 Label branches with corresponding transfer functions
 Negate transfer functions as necessary to provide negative
feedback
4. If desired, simplify where possible

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 Signal Flow Graph – Example 1
32

 Convert to a signal flow graph

 Label any unlabeled signals

 Place a node for each signal

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 Signal Flow Graph – Example 1
33

 Connect nodes with branches, each representing a system block

 Note the -1 to provide negative feedback of 𝑋𝑋2 𝑠𝑠

K. Webb ESE 430

 Signal Flow Graph – Example 1
34

 Nodes with a single input and single output can be

eliminated, if desired
 This makes sense for 𝑋𝑋1 𝑠𝑠 and 𝑋𝑋2 𝑠𝑠
 Leave 𝑈𝑈 𝑠𝑠 to indicate separation between controller and plant

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 Signal Flow Graph – Example 2
35

 Revisit the block diagram from earlier

 Convert to a signal flow graph

 Label all signals, then place a node for each

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 Signal Flow Graph – Example 2
36

 Connect nodes with branches

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 Signal Flow Graph – Example 2
37

 Simplify – eliminate 𝑋𝑋5 𝑠𝑠 , 𝑋𝑋6 𝑠𝑠 , 𝑋𝑋7 𝑠𝑠 , and 𝑋𝑋8 𝑠𝑠

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 Signal Flow Graphs vs. Block Diagrams
38

 Signal flow graphs and block diagrams are

alternative, though equivalent, tools for graphical
representation of interconnected systems
 A generalization (not a rule)
 Signal flow graphs – more often used when dealing
with state-space system models
 Block diagrams – more often used when dealing with
transfer function system models

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39 Mason’s Rule

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 Mason’s Rule
40

 We’ve seen how to reduce a complicated block

diagram to a single input-to-output transfer
function
 Many successive simplifications

 Mason’s rule provides a formula to calculate the

same overall transfer function
 Singleapplication of the formula
 Can get complicated

 Before presenting the Mason’s rule formula, we

need to define some terminology
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 Loop Gain
41

 Loop gain – total gain (product of individual gains) around

any path in the signal flow graph
 Beginning and ending at the same node
 Not passing through any node more than once
 Here, there are three loops with the following gains:
1. −𝐺𝐺1 𝐻𝐻3
2. 𝐺𝐺2 𝐻𝐻1
3. −𝐺𝐺2 𝐺𝐺3 𝐻𝐻2
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 Forward Path Gain
42

 Forward path gain – gain along any path from the input
to the output
 Not passing through any node more than once
 Here, there are two forward paths with the following
gains:
1. 𝐺𝐺1 𝐺𝐺2 𝐺𝐺3 𝐺𝐺4
2. 𝐺𝐺1 𝐺𝐺2 𝐺𝐺5
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 Non-Touching Loops
43

 Non-touching loops – loops that do not have any

nodes in common
 Here,
1. −𝐺𝐺1 𝐻𝐻3 does not touch 𝐺𝐺2 𝐻𝐻1
2. −𝐺𝐺1 𝐻𝐻3 does not touch −𝐺𝐺2 𝐺𝐺3 𝐻𝐻2

K. Webb ESE 430

 Non-Touching Loop Gains
44

 Non-touching loop gains – the product of loop gains

from non-touching loops, taken two, three, four, or
more at a time
 Here, there are only two pairs of non-touching loops
1. −𝐺𝐺1 𝐻𝐻3 ⋅ 𝐺𝐺2 𝐻𝐻1
2. −𝐺𝐺1 𝐻𝐻3 ⋅ −𝐺𝐺2 𝐺𝐺3 𝐻𝐻2

K. Webb ESE 430

 Mason’s Rule
45

𝑃𝑃
𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑠 1
𝑇𝑇 𝑠𝑠 = = � 𝑇𝑇𝑘𝑘 Δ𝑘𝑘
𝑅𝑅 𝑠𝑠 Δ
𝑘𝑘=1
where
𝑃𝑃 = # of forward paths
𝑇𝑇𝑘𝑘 = gain of the 𝑘𝑘𝑡𝑡𝑡 forward path
Δ = 1 − Σ(loop gains)
+Σ(non-touching loop gains taken two-at-a-time)
−Σ(non-touching loop gains taken three-at-a-time)
+Σ(non-touching loop gains taken four-at-a-time)
−Σ …
Δ𝑘𝑘 = Δ − Σ(loop gain terms in Δ that touch the 𝑘𝑘𝑡𝑡𝑡 forward path)

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 Mason’s Rule - Example
46

 # of forward paths:  Σ(NTLGs taken two-at-a-time):

𝑃𝑃 = 2 −𝐺𝐺1 𝐻𝐻3 𝐺𝐺2 𝐻𝐻1 + 𝐺𝐺1 𝐻𝐻3 𝐺𝐺2 𝐺𝐺3 𝐻𝐻2
 Forward path gains:  Δ:
𝑇𝑇1 = 𝐺𝐺1 𝐺𝐺2 𝐺𝐺3 𝐺𝐺4 Δ = 1 − −𝐺𝐺1 𝐻𝐻3 + 𝐺𝐺2 𝐻𝐻1 − 𝐺𝐺2 𝐺𝐺3 𝐻𝐻2
𝑇𝑇2 = 𝐺𝐺1 𝐺𝐺2 𝐺𝐺5 + −𝐺𝐺1 𝐻𝐻3 𝐺𝐺2 𝐻𝐻1 + 𝐺𝐺1 𝐻𝐻3 𝐺𝐺2 𝐺𝐺3 𝐻𝐻2
 Σ(loop gains):
−𝐺𝐺1 𝐻𝐻3 + 𝐺𝐺2 𝐻𝐻1 − 𝐺𝐺2 𝐺𝐺3 𝐻𝐻2

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 Mason’s Rule – Example - Δ𝑘𝑘
47

 Simplest way to find Δ𝑘𝑘 terms is to calculate Δ with the 𝑘𝑘 𝑡𝑡𝑡

path removed – must remove nodes as well
 𝑘𝑘 = 1:

 With forward path 1 removed, there are no loops, so

Δ1 = 1 − 0
Δ1 = 1

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 Mason’s Rule – Example - Δ𝑘𝑘
48

 𝑘𝑘 = 2:

 Similarly, removing forward path 2 leaves no loops, so

Δ2 = 1 − 0
Δ2 = 1

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 Mason’s Rule - Example
49

 For our example: 𝑃𝑃

𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑠 1
𝑃𝑃 = 2 𝑇𝑇 𝑠𝑠 = = � 𝑇𝑇𝑘𝑘 Δ𝑘𝑘
𝑇𝑇1 = 𝐺𝐺1 𝐺𝐺2 𝐺𝐺3 𝐺𝐺4
𝑅𝑅 𝑠𝑠 Δ
𝑘𝑘=1
𝑇𝑇2 = 𝐺𝐺1 𝐺𝐺2 𝐺𝐺5
Δ = 1 + 𝐺𝐺1 𝐻𝐻3 − 𝐺𝐺2 𝐻𝐻1 + 𝐺𝐺2 𝐺𝐺3 𝐻𝐻2 − 𝐺𝐺1 𝐻𝐻3 𝐺𝐺2 𝐻𝐻1 + 𝐺𝐺1 𝐻𝐻3 𝐺𝐺2 𝐺𝐺3 𝐻𝐻2
Δ1 = 1
Δ2 = 1

 The closed-loop transfer function:

𝑇𝑇1 Δ1 + 𝑇𝑇2 Δ2
𝑇𝑇 𝑠𝑠 =
Δ
𝐺𝐺1 𝐺𝐺2 𝐺𝐺3 𝐺𝐺4 + 𝐺𝐺1 𝐺𝐺2 𝐺𝐺5
𝑇𝑇 𝑠𝑠 =
1 + 𝐺𝐺1 𝐻𝐻3 − 𝐺𝐺2 𝐻𝐻1 + 𝐺𝐺2 𝐺𝐺3 𝐻𝐻2 − 𝐺𝐺1 𝐻𝐻3 𝐺𝐺2 𝐻𝐻1 + 𝐺𝐺1 𝐻𝐻3 𝐺𝐺2 𝐺𝐺3 𝐻𝐻2

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50 Preview of Controller Design

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 Controller Design – Preview
51

 We now have the tools necessary to determine the

transfer function of closed-loop feedback systems
 Let’s take a closer look at how feedback can help us
achieve a desired response
 Just a preview – this is the objective of the whole course

 Consider a simple first-order system

𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
 A single real pole at 𝑠𝑠 = −2
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
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 Open-Loop Step Response
52

 This system
exhibits the
expected first-
order step
response
 No overshoot or
ringing

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 Add Feedback
53

 Now let’s enclose the system in a feedback loop

 Add controller block with transfer function 𝐷𝐷 𝑠𝑠

 Closed-loop transfer function becomes:
1
𝐷𝐷 𝑠𝑠 𝐷𝐷 𝑠𝑠
𝑇𝑇 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑠𝑠 + 2 =
1
1 + 𝐷𝐷 𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠 + 2 𝑠𝑠 + 2 + 𝐷𝐷 𝑠𝑠

 Clearly the addition of feedback and the controller

changes the transfer function – but how?
 Let’s consider a couple of example cases for 𝐷𝐷 𝑠𝑠
K. Webb ESE 430
 Add Feedback
54

 First, consider a simple gain block for the controller

 Error signal, 𝐸𝐸 𝑠𝑠 , amplified by a constant gain, 𝐾𝐾𝐶𝐶

 A proportional controller, with gain 𝐾𝐾𝐶𝐶
 Now, the closed-loop transfer function is:
𝐾𝐾𝐶𝐶
𝑠𝑠 + 2 𝐾𝐾𝐶𝐶
𝑇𝑇 𝑠𝑠 = =
𝐾𝐾𝐶𝐶
1 + 𝑠𝑠 + 2 𝑠𝑠 + 2 + 𝐾𝐾𝐶𝐶

 A single real pole at 𝑠𝑠 = − 2 + 𝐾𝐾𝐶𝐶

 Pole moved to a higher frequency
 A faster response
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 Open-Loop Step Response
55

 As feedback gain
increases:
 Pole moves to a
higher frequency
 Response gets
faster

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 First-Order Controller
56

 Next, allow the controller to have some dynamics of its own

 Now the controller is a first-order block with gain 𝐾𝐾𝐶𝐶 and a pole at
𝑠𝑠 = −𝑏𝑏
 This yields the following closed-loop transfer function:
𝐾𝐾𝐶𝐶 1
𝑠𝑠 + 𝑏𝑏 𝑠𝑠 + 2 𝐾𝐾𝐶𝐶
𝑇𝑇 𝑠𝑠 = = 2
𝐾𝐾𝐶𝐶 1 𝑠𝑠 + 2 + 𝑏𝑏 𝑠𝑠 + 2𝑏𝑏 + 𝐾𝐾𝐶𝐶
1+
𝑠𝑠 + 𝑏𝑏 𝑠𝑠 + 2

 The closed-loop system is now second-order

 One pole from the plant
 One pole from the controller

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 First-Order Controller
57

𝐾𝐾𝐶𝐶
𝑇𝑇 𝑠𝑠 = 2
𝑠𝑠 + 2 + 𝑏𝑏 𝑠𝑠 + 2𝑏𝑏 + 𝐾𝐾𝐶𝐶

 Two closed-loop poles:

𝑏𝑏 + 2 𝑏𝑏 2 − 4𝑏𝑏 + 4 − 4𝐾𝐾𝐶𝐶
𝑠𝑠1,2 =− ±
2 2
 Pole locations determined by 𝑏𝑏 and 𝐾𝐾𝐶𝐶
 Controller parameters – we have control over these
 Design the controller to place the poles where we want them
 So, where do we want them?
 Design to performance specifications
 Risetime, overshoot, settling time, etc.
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 Design to Specifications
58

 The second-order closed-loop transfer function

𝐾𝐾𝐶𝐶
𝑇𝑇 𝑠𝑠 = 2
𝑠𝑠 + 2 + 𝑏𝑏 𝑠𝑠 + 2𝑏𝑏 + 𝐾𝐾𝐶𝐶
can be expressed as
𝐾𝐾𝐶𝐶 𝐾𝐾𝐶𝐶
𝑇𝑇 𝑠𝑠 = 2 2 = 2
𝑠𝑠 + 2𝜁𝜁𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 𝑠𝑠 + 𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 𝑠𝑠 + 2𝜎𝜎𝑠𝑠 + 𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛2

 Let’s say we want a closed-loop response that satisfies the

following specifications:
 %𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 ≤ 5%
 𝑡𝑡𝑠𝑠 ≤ 600 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
 Use %𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 and 𝑡𝑡𝑠𝑠 specs to determine values of 𝜁𝜁 and 𝜎𝜎
 Then use 𝜁𝜁 and 𝜎𝜎 to determine 𝐾𝐾𝐶𝐶 and 𝑏𝑏

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 Determine 𝜁𝜁 from Specifications
59

 Overshoot and damping ratio, 𝜁𝜁, are related as

follows:
− ln 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂
𝜁𝜁 =
𝜋𝜋 2 + ln2 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂

 The requirement is %𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 ≤ 5%, so

− ln 0.05
𝜁𝜁 ≥ = 0.69
𝜋𝜋 2 + ln2 0.05

 Allowing some margin, set 𝜁𝜁 = 0.75

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 Determine 𝜎𝜎 from Specifications
60

 Settling time (±1%) can be approximated from 𝜎𝜎 as

4.6
𝑡𝑡𝑠𝑠 ≈
𝜎𝜎
 The requirement is 𝑡𝑡𝑠𝑠 ≤ 600 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
 Allowing for some margin, design for 𝑡𝑡𝑠𝑠 = 500 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
4.6 4.6
𝑡𝑡𝑠𝑠 ≈ = 500 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 → 𝜎𝜎 =
𝜎𝜎 500 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
which gives
𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
𝜎𝜎 = 9.2
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
 We can then calculate the natural frequency from 𝜁𝜁 and 𝜎𝜎
𝜎𝜎 9.2 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 = = = 12.27
𝜁𝜁 0.75 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

K. Webb ESE 430

 Determine Controller Parameters from 𝜎𝜎 and 𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛
61

 The characteristic polynomial is

𝑠𝑠 2 + 2 + 𝑏𝑏 𝑠𝑠 + 2𝑏𝑏 + 𝐾𝐾𝐶𝐶 = 𝑠𝑠 2 + 2𝜎𝜎𝜎𝜎 + 𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛2
 Equating coefficients to solve for 𝑏𝑏:
2 + 𝑏𝑏 = 2𝜎𝜎 = 18.4
𝑏𝑏 = 16.4
and 𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐 :
2𝑏𝑏 + 𝐾𝐾𝐶𝐶 = 𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛2 = 12.27 2 = 150.5
𝐾𝐾𝐶𝐶 = 150.5 − 2 ⋅ 16.4 = 117.7 → 118
𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐 = 118

 The controller transfer function is

118
𝐷𝐷 𝑠𝑠 =
𝑠𝑠 + 16.4
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 Closed-Loop Poles
62

 Closed-loop system
is now second order

 Controller designed
to place the two
closed-loop poles at
desirable locations:
 𝑠𝑠1,2 = −9.2 ± 𝑗𝑗𝑗.13 Controller Plant
pole pole
 𝜁𝜁 = 0.75
 𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 = 12.3

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 Closed-Loop Step Response
63

 Closed-loop step
response satisfies
the specifications
 Approximations
were used
 If requirements not
met - iterate

K. Webb ESE 430