Contents

List of Figures and Tables viii

Acknowledgements ix
Preface xi

Part 1 The Core of Professional Social Work Practice 1

Chapter 1 Social Work Methods in Context: Purposeful Practice 3

Social Work Methods and Skills: A Dynamic Approach 4
Theoretical Perspectives Informing this Book 12
Overview of the Book 18
Conclusion 19
Review Questions 20
Further Reading 20

Chapter 2 Professional Communication Skills 22

Listening Skills 23
Nonverbal Communication 26
Observation Skills 33
Effective Speaking in an Interpersonal Context 35
Demonstrating Sympathy and Empathy 41
Communication in Teams 45
Effective Speaking in a Public Context 48
Conclusion 50
Review Questions 50
Critical Reflection Questions 50
Further Reading 52

Part 2 Working with Individuals 53

Chapter 3 Working with Individuals to Resolve Life’s Problems 55

What is Social Casework and Counselling? 55
Social Casework and Other Forms of Interpersonal Practice 57
Key Debates: The Evidence-based Practice Movement and
Social Casework 59
A Framework for Social Casework and Counselling 64
Conclusion 81

v
vi Contents

Review Questions 81
Critical Reflection Question 81
Further Reading 82

Chapter 4 Working with Mandated Individuals 84

Defining Statutory Casework 84
Statutory Casework: An Inconvenient Truth? 86
Risk Assessment in Statutory Casework 90
Why Do Statutory Casework? 92
Statutory Casework Practice 93
Conclusion 107
Review Questions 107
Critical Reflection Question 107
Further Reading 108

Part 3 Working with Families and Groups 111

Chapter 5 Working with Families 113

What is a Family? 113
Why Work with Families? 114
Types of Family Work Practice 115
The Challenges and Cautions in Working
with Families 118
Working with Families 120
Conclusion 133
Review Questions 134
Critical Reflection Questions 134
Further Reading 135

Chapter 6 Working with Groups 137

What is Working with Groups? 137
Why Work with Groups? 139
The Range of Group Types 140
Stage Theories of Groups 143
Group Leadership 147
Creating an Environment for Change: Groupworker
Responsibilities 151
Group Facilitation Techniques 156
Evaluation and Termination in Groupwork 160
Conclusion 163
Review Questions 164
Critical Reflection Questions 164
Further Reading 165
 Contents vii

Part 4 Community Work, Policy Practice and

Organizational Change 167

Chapter 7 Community Work 169

Community Work Practice: Defining the Terms 169
Consensus versus Conflict Models 173
The History of Community Work in Social Work 175
Community Work and Social Work: Points of Commonality
and Tension 177
Community Work Skills 179
Conclusion 199
Review Questions 199
Critical Reflection Questions 199
Further Reading 200

Chapter 8 Policy Practice 202

Policy Practice: What it is and Why it Matters 202
Social Workers and Policy Practice 205
Phases of the Policy Process 210
Conclusion 228
Review Questions 229
Critical Reflection Questions 229
Further Reading 229

Chapter 9 Conclusion: Creating a Context for Change 231

Creating Organizational Change 234
Protecting and Sustaining Ourselves 239
Conclusion 240
Further Reading 241

References 242

Index 251
 Part 1
The Core of Professional
Social Work Practice

This book is divided into four parts, as shown in the figure below.

Part 2
Working with
individuals

Part 1
The core of
professional
social work
Part 4
practice Part 3
Community work,
Working with
policy practice and
families and
organizational
groups
change

In Part 1, I introduce the professional core of social work practice that

underpins our use of the diverse range of social work methods. Part 1
comprises two chapters. In Chapter 1, I describe how our sense of purpose
and use of methods is shaped by the interaction between service user and
community needs and capacities, our institutional context and our profes-
sional practice base. I define critical reflection and its relevance to the
construction of our professional purpose and our application of practice
methods. I outline the common base of professional communication skills
and the phases of practice that underpin the range of practice methods
outlined in the book.

1
2 The Core of Professional Social Work Practice

Chapter 2 provides an introduction to professional communication skills.

I will discuss how professional communication skills are similar to and
different from the communication skills we use in nonprofessional contexts.
In this chapter, I will consider how we can use professional communication
skills to support the achievement of our professional purpose with service
users, communities and the teams with whom we work.

2
 1
Social Work Methods in
Context: Purposeful Practice

In this book I aim to provide a comprehensive introduction to social work

methods and skills. The book is intended for students of social work practice
and for social workers seeking to develop, or consolidate, their knowledge of
a range of methods and skills for professional social work practice. In this
book, I seek to explain the rich diversity of social work practice methods and
skills and to demonstrate the importance of grounding our use of these
methods in a theoretically and practically informed sense of purpose.
The integrated approach to social work methods outlined in this book
recognizes that micro, mezzo and macro methods are all part of the profes-
sional practice foundation of social work. ‘Micro methods’ refers to practice
with individuals who voluntarily seek the help of social workers and those
who are compelled by law to do so (covered in Part 2), ‘mezzo methods’
refers to direct work with families and groups (covered in Part 3), while
‘macro methods’ refers to community work, policy practice and organiza-
tional change (covered in Part 4).
An integrated understanding of micro, mezzo and macro methods and
skills is important for a variety of reasons. A comprehensive and integrated
approach can help us to recognize a common body of social work skills
underpinning the range of practice methods. As we shall see in Chapter 2,
professional communication skills, such as effective listening and demon-
stration of empathy, are relevant to the range of practice methods. In addi-
tion, a diverse practice base is important for social workers in nonspecialist
roles. For example, a social worker delivering family support services or
aged care services may provide individual casework services, facilitate
groups and engage in community development activities. Even where we,
as social workers, are in specialist roles, a comprehensive understanding of
social work skills and methods can enhance our options for intraprofes-
sional collaboration to meet client needs. For example, a social worker
offering counselling services may collaborate with a community social
worker to assist a client to achieve a goal such as increased social support.

3
4 The Core of Professional Social Work Practice

In this book, I introduce social work methods and skills as integrated

with, and shaped by, our practice purpose. As I shall outline, our sense of
purpose is dynamic and influenced by client needs, our institutional context
and our professional practice base. Our purpose is constructed in every
practice interaction and so the application of practice methods and skills
involves both conceptual and practical capacities. In other words, social
work involves practical activities, but it is more than this, it also demands
the capacity to construct our sense of purpose in ways that best serve the
service users and communities with whom we practise. In this chapter, I
outline the elements of a dynamic approach to methods and skill use and
provide an overview of the contents of the book.

Social Work Methods and Skills: A Dynamic

Approach
Social work involves the practical application of methods and skills. Our
choice of method and skill use and our approach to applying them is, neces-
sarily, informed by our sense of professional purpose. As outlined in Figure
1.1, our professional purpose is shaped by our field of practice and is
informed by three key sources: service user needs and expectations; institu-
tional requirements; and our professional practice base.
In Figure 1.1, I suggest that one’s professional purpose is shaped by, and
also shapes, service users’ needs and expectations, our institutional context,
and our professional practice base. Our professional practice refers to the
combination of theories, knowledge and values that informs our approach
to social work practice. The dynamic model of methods and skills recognizes
that, in every interaction, the social worker actively constructs their sense of
purpose in ways that recognize the complementaries and tensions between
service users’ or communities’ needs and expectations, our institutional
context and our professional practice base. Often this is a challenging task.
For example, in many Anglophone countries, child protection social workers
may experience tension between parents’ expressed needs, such as the need
for assistance to manage a drug addiction, and the expectations of our insti-
tutional context, which may prioritize children’s needs and give scant recog-
nition to our role in responding to parents’ needs (Healy and Oltedal, 2010).
In most social work practice contexts, there are tensions between the various
factors influencing our sense of purpose, which make the task of developing
a coherent sense of purpose important and challenging.
In this dynamic model of methods and skills, I recognize that social
work is both a conceptual and practical activity. In every interaction, the
social worker needs to construct their sense of purpose from a variety of
sources, each of which may present different, and sometimes contradictory,
 Social Work Methods in Context: Purposeful Practice 5

Service user
The institutional Professional
needs and
context of practice practice base
expectations

Professional purpose

Methods and skills in

social work practice

Figure 1.1 A dynamic model of methods and skills in social work practice

expectations of our purpose. I turn now to consider how critical reflection

can assist us in constructing our professional purpose that is integral to our
choice and deployment of methods and skills.

Constructing our Sense of Purpose through Critical Reflection

Our sense of purpose as social workers is constantly constructed by us and

by other people, including politicians, policy-makers, employers and service
users. Our sense of purpose may change in each interaction with an indi-
vidual, group and community, and is certainly likely to alter over time in
most practice situations. For example, at the formation stage of a group, the
social worker may have an explicit leadership role, yet over time, group
members may assume an increasing proportion of the leadership role, thus
leading to changes in the social worker’s purpose.
How do we construct our sense of purpose from the different sources
influencing the nature and purpose of social work? One option is to passively
let our professional purpose emerge, that is, to allow others to determine
our professional purpose. However, we are vulnerable then to allowing the
most powerful voices, such as those from employing or funding bodies, to
6 The Core of Professional Social Work Practice

entirely determine our practice. We can see this is a problem, given that
funding bodies or employing agencies may be somewhat removed from the
daily realities of practice and service users’ lives, and so it is necessary for us
to negotiate how we practise. Such negotiation with funders, employers
and with service users is founded on a clear sense of purpose.
Critical reflection has been identified as a process through which profes-
sionals, particularly those in caring professions, can build their sense of
professional purpose (see Schön, 1983). Fook and Gardner (2007, p. 51)
describe critical reflection as a structured process designed to ‘unsettle the
fundamental (and dominant) thinking implicit in professional practice in
order to see other ways of practising’. Critical reflection views all dimen-
sions of social work practice as socially constructed and we can improve our
practice by critically analysing how our practice is constructed by us and by
others. Through this process of critical reflection, we can better understand
how our purpose is constructed and how we may take an active role in
negotiating our purpose in practice. This view is consistent with the contex-
tual approach to social work outlined earlier, where I emphasized that our
sense of purpose is constructed through an interchange between service
users, communities, the institutions in which we work and our professional
practice base.
A critical reflection approach also recognizes our practice experience as a
base for knowledge development. Proponents of critical reflection criticize
the notion that scientific knowledge can be applied to practice without an
appreciation of the context in which that knowledge is applied and the
nature of the relationship between the social worker and the service user or
community with whom they work. For example, we can see that ideas
about the use of self and role clarification must change according the
context of practice and can present different challenges according to
whether a service user voluntarily engages with the practitioner or is
compelled to do so by law.
Proponents of critical reflection recognize that social workers (and other
caring professionals) can learn much through ‘doing’ social work and then
reflecting on the experience of practice. The use of simulated and ‘real’ prac-
tice experiences is important to a critical reflective approach to learning
about, and becoming, a social worker. In this book, I have provided practice
exercises that are intended to assist you in critically reflecting on the appli-
cation of the methods and skills as I introduce them.

Service User Perspectives

So far I have suggested that our sense of purpose in social work is important
because it shapes our use of methods and skills in social work. I have also
 Social Work Methods in Context: Purposeful Practice 7

outlined that our sense of purpose is negotiated from a number of sources.

I turn now to consider one of these sources: service user perspectives on
their needs and expectations of social work services. Later sections of this
chapter consider how the requirements of our institutional context and our
professional practice base shape our sense of purpose. We will discuss service
users’ perspectives first because we want to demonstrate the important posi-
tion these perspectives should hold in determining our practice purpose.
Even though social workers, and the agencies we work for, often assert
that our primary purpose is to respond to service users’ needs, service user
perspectives in defining those needs are often undervalued or invisible.
There are at least five reasons for this apparent contradiction in the mission
of social work services to serve service users’ needs and the relative absence
of service users’ voices in shaping service delivery:

●● users of social work services often have limited capacity to pay for the
social work services they receive. Many social work and health and
welfare services are paid for by government funders or philanthropists
rather than by those receiving the service; known as a third party funding
arrangement (Gibelman, 1999). In these arrangements, the perspectives
of those paying for services may be prioritized over those receiving serv-
ices, unless there is commitment from those funding the service or those
providing it to ensure that service users’ voices are heard (Carr, 2004)
●● the service user may have limited capacity to speak directly for them-
selves because of a condition, such as a psychosis or dementia, that
limits their capacity to rationally form or express their preferences
●● there may be ambivalence by funders or service providers towards recog-
nizing the needs of particular groups of service users. For example, in
Anglophone countries, there is debate about the extent to which parents
are, or should be, recognized as primary clients in child protection serv-
ices (Dumbrill, 2010)
●● the diversity of service user views can be difficult to weigh up; for example,
in a criminal justice setting, it can be difficult to balance society’s and
sometimes the victim’s wish to see an offender punished, with the service
user’s own wish for assistance. Even within one practice context, service
users may express a variety of views. For example, in child protection
services, some children and young people observe that child protection
services waited too long before removing them from harmful situations,
while others wish to stay with their families despite the harm they experi-
ence because of the importance of their family bond to them
●● the compulsory nature of some service provision also creates tensions
in seeking service user views. In the context of statutory service provi-
8 The Core of Professional Social Work Practice

sion, such as child protection services or the prison service, services

have developed despite client ambivalence, or opposition, to service
delivery. This does not mean that service users’ views should not be
sought but it does mean that these service agencies may not have devel-
oped a culture of seeking service user perspectives on service delivery
and may consider service user dissatisfaction to be inherent to the
compulsory nature of service delivery.

Despite the various factors in practice that can lead to the silencing of
service users’ voices, it is important that social workers understand what service
users desire from social work services. Understanding service user perspectives
is the first step in realizing the value of supporting self-determination.
According to Banks (2006, p. 48), supporting self-determination involves
‘helping someone to reach a state where they have the capacity to see
what choices might be available’, and supporting them to undertake their
preferred course of action with due regard for one’s ethical framework,
legal responsibilities and practical limitations. In addition, effective social
work practice relies on the establishment of purposeful and constructive
relationships with service users (Trotter, 2004). This means that collabora-
tion between workers and service users is at the heart of effective social
work practice (Saleebey, 2006).
Research on service users’ experiences of social work services has focused
primarily on social casework services in both voluntary and involuntary
environments. This research indicates that service users often have many
fears about, and negative perceptions of, social work services. These fears
include that they will be humiliated, judged, their wishes ignored and that
they will be disrespected (Maiter et al., 2006; Trotter, 2002). These fears
appear to be especially acute in statutory practice settings where social
workers are involved in implementing laws that can carry enormous threats
for service users, such as the threat of losing their children or losing access
to a benefit or service. Fears about social work services are exacerbated by
the lack of control service users often experience in determining the nature
of services, for the reasons outlined above, such as the overarching power
that funding agencies have in determining the nature of these services.
Many studies of service users’ views of social work services reach the
common conclusion that many service users want the worker to engage with
them in an open, authentic and warm manner. For example, in a review of
evidence on effective social work engagement, Sheldon and Macdonald
(2009) report that service users want social workers to demonstrate:

●● Nonpossessive warmth: the service user perceives that the worker likes
them and supports them to make their own choices; in other words, the
warmth of the worker does not depend on the service user’s compliance
 Social Work Methods in Context: Purposeful Practice 9

with them but instead arises from an unconditional positive regard for
the service user
●● Genuineness: the service user perceives that the worker cares about
them and their situation
●● Accurate empathy: the service user perceives that the worker listens to
them and is able to demonstrate that they understand the service user’s
thoughts and emotions in relation to their experience.

Other researchers have also pointed to the importance of the perception

that social workers are nonjudgemental, willing and able to help the service
user (Healy et al., 2011). Several studies have found that service users appre-
ciate social workers being willing to ‘go the extra mile’, that is, being suffi-
ciently flexible to offer help in a way that is appreciated by service users
(Frederick and Goddard, 2008; Maiter et al., 2006).
There are several practical ways that we can demonstrate a respectful and
helpful approach in our engagement with service users, without negating the
control aspects inherent in many social work roles (Miller, 2009; Trotter, 2004):

●● being punctual – this demonstrates to service users that you value their time
●● being reliable – if you commit to undertake a task, it is important that
you honour that undertaking in order to create a sense of mutual respon-
sibility within your relationship
●● courteousness, for example asking service users how they would like to
be addressed
●● communicating clearly by using jargon-free language
●● clarifying the nature of your role, particularly if there are tensions in
your role such as care and control aspects of your role, and being willing
to discuss and where possible negotiate that role
●● being yourself rather than sticking rigidly to a professional role. Being
yourself can include engaging in limited self-disclosure and practising in
ways that demonstrate human care and compassion for those you serve. It
is important, of course, that you maintain appropriate professional bound-
aries so that the service user is not confused about the nature of your role.

The Institutional Context of Practice

The term ‘institutional context of practice’ refers to ‘the laws, public and
organizational policies, and accepted practices shaping the institutions
10 The Core of Professional Social Work Practice

where social workers are located’ (Healy, 2005, p. 4). Our institutional
context shapes, but does not entirely determine, our purpose, tasks and
methods as social workers. The institutional context prescribes our formal
responsibilities, including our legal responsibilities, and the terms of refer-
ence for our role. These formal terms are often outlined in our job descrip-
tion. However, as professionals, we must also interpret these responsibilities
in terms of our professional practice base, particularly in relation to our
ethical responsibilities to service users. In some instances, social workers
may experience compatibility between their institutional context and their
practice framework. Regrettably, however, tensions between our institu-
tional context and other sources of influence, such as our professional
knowledge, values and clients’ needs, are common.
Tensions between institutional context and professional frameworks are
not unique to social workers; indeed, such tensions are frequently encoun-
tered in a range of professions, particularly caring occupations, due, in part,
to resource constraints in most service environments. For example, medical
professionals may experience tensions between their ethical responsibility
to do what is possible to save a patient’s life and the budgetary constraints
that limit the availability of some pharmaceuticals and surgical procedures.
The tensions for caring occupations, such as teaching and social work, can
also be intense because of the relational and, to some extent, indeterminate
character of some of the work undertaken by these occupations. Despite the
significant inroads made by the evidence-based practice movement, social
workers remain some way from being able to demonstrate the evidence
base for many forms of professional intervention. The intensely political
environments in which many social work services operate, being highly
reliant on government funding, also create tensions, particularly where
some forms of intervention, such as services to prisoners or vulnerable
families, may not be politically popular. From a critical social work perspec-
tive, tensions between our institutional context and social work practice
frameworks are inevitable because our institutional context usually frames
service users’ problems individualistically, while neglecting to acknowledge
or address the societal factors contributing to service users’ disadvantages,
such as social inequality and institutional forms of discrimination (Domi-
nelli, 2002; Healy, 2000; Mullaly, 2007).
Developing a clear sense of purpose when there are conflicts between the
institutional construction of the social work role and our professional
knowledge and value base is challenging. In the context of the rise of mana-
gerialism (also known as new public management), which has contributed
to pressure to narrow the role of social workers to focus on the management
of risk, social workers may encounter resistance to a view of social work as
a thoughtful, holistic or creative activity (Healy, 2009). For example, over
the past decade, many child protection authorities have moved towards an
 Social Work Methods in Context: Purposeful Practice 11

increasingly forensic orientation (Lonne et al., 2009); similar changes have

been observed in probation services. At the very least, social workers need
to consider how the inroads being made by managerialism are reshaping
public expectations of social work services and how they can strategically
resist those aspects of managerialism that threaten our capacity to actively
participate in the construction of our purpose based on a thoughtful inte-
gration of employer and service user expectations and our professional
practice base.

Our Professional Base

Our professional base refers to the theory, knowledge, values and skills that
inform professional social work practice. Theory refers to conceptual frame-
works through which we make sense of our world and different theories can
provide very different sets of assumptions about the nature of social work
practice. Knowledge refers to information and perspectives used by social
workers to understand aspects of practice such as assessment of service
users’ needs. Some examples of knowledge used by social workers within
specific fields of practice includes reference to diagnostic information, such
as the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, knowledge about
human development and local knowledge of service systems.
In social work, as in other fields, there is an overlap between the theo-
retical and knowledge bases of our practice. There are two distinguishing
features of the theory and knowledge on which social workers rely. The first
is that social workers draw extensively on ‘received ideas’ for the theoretical
and knowledge bases of their practice (Rojek et al., 1988). This means that
much of the theory and knowledge on which social workers rely has not
been developed in the context of social work practice and so must be
adapted by practitioners to their practice contexts. The second distin-
guishing feature of social work theory and knowledge is its diversity. The
diverse nature of social work practice itself, which can involve a range of
methods from casework to policy work, limits our capacity to develop a
common theoretical and knowledge base.
Studies on theory and knowledge use in social work practice have repeat-
edly found that social workers rarely use theory consciously in practice (see
Fook et al., 2000). This is not to say that social workers do not use theory;
however, it is perhaps the case that social workers do not often articulate, or
reflect upon, the theoretical frames that guide their work. This failure to
reflect on our theoretical frames of reference is a problem because it means
that we are unaccountable to these assumptions and these assumptions
may remain underdeveloped. Throughout this book, I seek to make clear
links between theories for social work practice and the choice and applica-
12 The Core of Professional Social Work Practice

tion of a range of micro, mezzo and macro methods. I turn now to an

explanation of the three theoretical approaches informing the use of
methods discussed in this book.

Theoretical Perspectives Informing this Book

The theoretical frames informing this book are critical social work theory,
systems theory and the strengths perspective. These theoretical perspectives
have been selected for a variety of reasons that we will outline in this
section. These perspectives are all social work theories for practice, which
means that although they draw on received ideas from other disciplines,
they have been developed by social work researchers and practitioners for
social work practice.
The primary theoretical frame shaping this book, and much of my
previous work, is critical social work (Healy, 2000, 2005; see also Fook,
2002). At its core, critical social work recognizes that most service users
experience profound disadvantage and oppression and that this shapes
service users’ capacities to address their needs without the support of social
work agencies. Many social workers, not only those writing from a critical
social work perspective, recognize that social workers’ primary purpose is to
work with disadvantaged citizens. As Sheldon and Macdonald (2009, p. 3)
aptly define it:

Social work’s disciplinary territory is the poor, troubled, abused or discriminated

against, neglected, frail and elderly, mentally ill, learning-disabled, addicted,
delinquent, or otherwise socially marginalized up-against-it citizen in his or her
social circumstances.

From a critical social work perspective, it is important that social workers

not only engage in a humane and compassionate way with disadvantaged
and oppressed citizens but that we also work towards creating a more just
society. This involves challenging the unjust social conditions that
contribute to the troubles experienced by service users.
At its core, critical social work demands that social workers reflect upon
the ways in which social disadvantage and oppression shape our sense of
purpose as practitioners. This perspective demands that a social worker
should, at the very least, have a critical understanding of social disadvan-
tage and how to respond to individuals living in oppressed or difficult
circumstances. Indeed, in order to give practical expression to social work
values of acceptance and equality, it is often necessary for social workers to
critically reflect on the broader societal attitudes that contribute to the
discrimination and oppression experienced by service users. Theory can
 Social Work Methods in Context: Purposeful Practice 13

help social workers to make the cognitive shift necessary to working with
service users in a way that moves beyond a focus on individual pathology
to an approach that offers hope, recognizes service users’ strengths, and is
oriented towards creating conditions for change.

Over to you …

Understanding and responding to social disadvantage

Social workers provide services to people who experience social disadvantage, margin-
alization and oppression. It is important that you are able to engage with service users in
a nonjudgmental and supportive way and particularly in ways that avoid blaming them
for the difficult conditions they face. Consider:

1. What individual and social factors might contribute to a person living in poverty or
becoming homeless?

2. What theoretical frameworks do you already know about that seek to explain disad-
vantage, marginalization and oppression?

3. How might these theoretical frameworks be helpful for you in engaging in a nonjudg-
mental and supportive way with clients who are experiencing disadvantage?

A second perspective that informs this book is systems theory. Systems

perspectives have had a powerful influence on the theory and knowledge
base of the profession. During the 1960s and 70s, systems theories became
widely accepted within the profession, although many systems concepts
were well established in the profession prior to this (Healy, 2005). Most
notably, Mary Richmond (1917), a social work pioneer, outlined the impor-
tance of understanding and responding to the person in their social envi-
ronment. Frank Hankins, a sociologist and educator at Smith College in
Northampton, USA, is credited with introducing ‘systems theory’ to the
professional in the 1930s (see Woods and Hollis, 1990). A wide variety of
schools of systems theory have influenced the profession (for an extended
discussion of these perspectives, see Healy, 2005, Ch. 7).
This book is informed by a systems perspective, sometimes referred to
as an ‘ecosystem perspective’, which came to prominence in the 1970s
and which continues to be influential within the social work profession
today. This branch of systems perspective focuses on social workers’ role
in understanding and enhancing the interaction between the individual
and the systems that influence them, such as family and health and
14 The Core of Professional Social Work Practice

welfare service systems. Using a systemic approach, Pincus and Minahan

(1973, p. 9) defined the purpose:

Social work is concerned with the interactions between people and their social
environment which affect the ability of people to accomplish their life tasks,
alleviate distress, and realize their aspirations and values. The purpose of social
work therefore is to (1) enhance the problem-solving and coping capacities of
people, (2) link people with systems that provide them with resources, serv-
ices, and opportunities, (3) promote the effective and humane operation of
these systems, and (4) contribute to the development and improvement of
social policy.

Pincus and Minahan, like many other theorists associated with the ecosystem
perspective, emphasized the multisystemic nature of the challenges facing
service users and the responsibilities of social workers to address these chal-
lenges. According to this perspective, the social workers’ role could not be
limited to any one system, even though some might chose to specialize in
practice with a specific system type, such as families or communities. The
ecosystems perspective is appealing to many social workers because it is
consistent with the core value of social justice, in that it turns our attention
to the systemic context of apparently private troubles.
The strengths perspective is the third perspective informing this book.
This perspective seeks to emphasize and build on service users’ capacities. It
is a future-oriented approach that ‘concentrates on enabling individuals
and communities to articulate, and work towards, their hopes for the future’
(Healy, 2005, p. 152). The strengths perspective encourages us, as social
workers, to:

●● Recognize that all people (service users and peers) have strengths and
capacities and that these assets can assist in creating change
●● Ensure that, in our engagement with, and assessment of, service user
need, we recognize and build on service users’ resilience and capacity,
rather than focus on deficit
●● Challenge our colleagues, and broader society, to recognize the strengths
and assets of service users. In other words, we must challenge a problem-
saturated view of the client
●● Engage in a collaborative relationship with service users and respect and
build service users’ capacity for self-determination.

While proponents of the strengths perspective have made significant

contributions to casework practice, this approach is also making inroads
 Social Work Methods in Context: Purposeful Practice 15

into group and community work practice, as we shall see in Chapters 6 and
7 (see also Green and Haines, 2002; Saleebey, 2006).

Values in Practice

Values are important to how we, as social workers, understand our profes-
sional purpose. Despite considerable debate about values in social work
practice, some values are common to the profession across many countries.
For example, in her review of social work ethical codes across several coun-
tries, including the UK, Australia and the USA, Banks (2006, p. 47) identi-
fied that these codes shared variations of the values of: ‘human dignity and
worth; service to humanity; and social justice’ (see also IFSW, 2004).
However, the application of these values is not clear-cut. Social workers
often have to weigh up competing values in practice as, for example, when
we seek to recognize the ‘dignity of the individual, but also to make and
implement difficult decisions (including restriction of liberty) in human
situations that involve the potential for benefit or harm’ (QAA, 2008, p. 7).
Our values inform our use of practice methods through, for example,
requiring that service users and community members have access to prac-
tice methods that best promote their dignity and achieve social justice with
and for them.
Values shape the nature of our relationship with service users and
community members. Social workers’ professional codes of ethics, like
those of other caring occupations, assert the professional nature of the rela-
tionship between social workers and service users. Indeed, our ethical codes
in social work, and in many other caring occupations, demand that we
prioritize service users’ needs over our own needs or interests. In the IFSW/
IAASW code of principles (2004), it is asserted that: ‘Social workers should
not subordinate the needs or interests of people who use their services to
their own needs or interests.’ In the professional practice literature, the
relationship between social workers and the individuals, groups and
communities they serve is widely considered to be the vehicle of change.
Furthermore, given the emphasis in the social work literature on equality
and collaboration, and therefore on rejecting traditional notions of profes-
sional hierarchy, there is some room for confusion for both service providers
and service users about the nature of the relationship. It is important, there-
fore, that we critically reflect on the nature of our professional relationships
and ensure that these relationships are consistent with social work values
and also with our professional purpose. We also need to be clear with
ourselves and those with whom we work about the professional nature of
our relationship with service users and community members.
16 The Core of Professional Social Work Practice

Integrating Diverse Methods

A professional approach to social work practice requires that social workers

have a foundation in the broad range of methods for achieving change
with individuals, families, groups and communities, and in the institu-
tional contexts of our practice. Undeniably, it is challenging to develop a
broad practice foundation. Yet to fail to do so can limit our capacity to
initiate or support change in the lives of the people with whom we work
and the institutions that shape their lives and our practice. In this book, I
anchor this diverse methodological base of social work in a common set of
communication skills and also within a structured approach to the use of
each method.
As I shall outline in Chapter 2, all methods of practice are underpinned
by a common set of communication skills. The communication skills we
use in professional practice include many of the skills we use to commu-
nicate in everyday life. These skills include spoken, observational and
nonverbal skills. While social workers have paid much attention to the
use of these skills in micro and mezzo forms of practice, I will argue that
the purposeful deployment of these communication skills is central to all
practice methods, although how we use these skills may differ according
to the methods.
I also link the diverse practice methods to an integrated approach to
practice. In this integrated approach, I consider that all practice methods,
from micro to macro, are underpinned by four phases. These phases, which
are outlined in Figure 1.2, are engagement, assessment, intervention and
evaluation/termination.
I suggest that all methods of practice involve the phases outlined in
Figure 1.2:

●● Engagement refers to the point at which the social worker joins with
the individual, group, family, community organization or policy process.
●● Assessment refers to developing an understanding, usually in collabora-
tion with others, about the nature of the problem to be addressed and
the capacities present within the situation to creating positive change.
●● Intervention is where the social worker is involved in achieving identi-
fied change goals.
●● Evaluation and termination refer to the assessment of the extent to
which the intervention process has achieved change goals and the
development of strategies for the achievement of unmet goals. In the
termination phase, the period of professional engagement concludes.
 Social Work Methods in Context: Purposeful Practice 17

Evaluation and Engagement

termination

Practice purpose

Practice methods

Intervention Assessment

Figure 1.2 Phases of social work practice

I have conceptualized these phases of social work practice as being in a

circular, rather than linear, relationship with each other. This is because
each phase can and, in fact, often does blur into other phases in the applica-
tion of all the practice methods I outline in this book. For example, the
engagement process involves elements of evaluation and termination,
insofar as the social worker establishes a baseline of information about the
nature of the problem facing an individual or community against which
progress will be assessed and clarifies the period of their involvement in the
life of the service user or community. Our sense of purpose and the methods
of practice we use to achieve that purpose are represented in the centre of
Figure 1.2. This is because, as we shall see throughout this book, our purpose
and our practice method shape our work in each of these phases.
18 The Core of Professional Social Work Practice

Overview of the Book

We turn now to an outline of the contents of this book. The remainder of
this book is focused on providing a sequenced and comprehensive intro-
duction to a range of social work methods and skills. A unique feature of
this book is that I include ‘micro’ methods, which involve working with
individuals in both voluntary and involuntary practice contexts, alongside
‘mezzo’ methods such as groupwork, and ‘macro’ methods such as commu-
nity work and policy work. Hopefully, in this chapter, I have demonstrated
why these methods all belong to the foundation of social work practice.
Essentially, I consider that, drawing on the theoretical and ethical frames
identified in this chapter, all social workers should have the capacity to criti-
cally understand a range of forms of intervention and, better still, have the
capacity to engage in this range at least at a foundational level. I do not
claim that any of these methods are unique to social work. Indeed, a range
of practitioners engage in the methods discussed in this book. Nonetheless,
I will discuss how we, as social workers, use these methods to achieve our
purpose in a variety of practice contexts.
The book is divided into four parts. In Part 1, I introduce the professional
core of social work practice. In this first chapter, I have outlined the theo-
ries, ideas and values that inform the approach to social work practice
discussed in this book. In Chapter 2, I will outline the professional commu-
nication strategies and skills used by social workers as we engage with the
range of practice methods and communicate with our work teams and with
the general public.
In Part 2, I introduce social work methods for practice with individuals.
This section comprises two chapters. In Chapter 3, I discuss the methods
social workers can use to work with individuals to resolve life’s problems.
My focus is on interpersonal practice with service users who are volun-
tarily involved with social work services, in the sense that they are not
required by law to receive these services. In Chapter 4, I introduce practice
with mandated individuals, that is, service users who are required by law
to receive social work services. I concentrate on how social workers work
towards achieving safety with service users and their families and the
community in the face of risk and resistance. The reader may be aware
that the terms used to describe interpersonal practice are controversial
and contested. In Chapter 3, I will argue that ‘social casework’, a term
once commonly used to describe interpersonal practice, remains the best
way of describing how social workers practise with individuals to resolve
problems. In Chapter 4, I will argue that the term ‘statutory social work’ is
a better description than other commonly used terms, such as practice
with involuntary clients, to convey individual work with mandated indi-
viduals. I ask the reader to bear with me as I make the case for the use of
 Social Work Methods in Context: Purposeful Practice 19

these terms for describing our work with individuals even though these
terms may be controversial.
In Part 3, I introduce social work methods for practice with families and
groups, referred to as ‘mezzo’ practice. In Chapter 5, I introduce the variety
of methods social workers use when working with families and I describe
methods for meeting families and involving members in decision-making.
In Chapter 6, I discuss the rationales for groupwork in social work practice,
diverse methods of groupwork used by social workers, and I will introduce
how social workers can foster change through groupwork.
In Part 4, I introduce social work methods for practice with communi-
ties, policy work and in organizational change. In Chapter 7, I discuss the
rationales for, and tensions around, including community work as a
method of social work practice. I discuss the skills required in working with
communities for creating change. In Chapter 8, I discuss policy work as a
method of social work practice and discuss how social workers, working in
direct practice, can participate in and foster the participation of service
users and community members in policy practice. In Chapter 9, the
concluding chapter, I review the themes underpinning the diverse methods
of social work practice and I discuss how social workers can engage in
organizational change.
Each chapter ends with review questions and practice exercises to
consolidate your learning, as well as annotated further reading. The review
questions are intended to assist you to recall key messages from the chap-
ters. Through practice exercises, I aim to facilitate your reflection upon how
the concepts and methods discussed in the chapter may apply, or be
adapted, to your own practice within specific fields of service delivery.

Conclusion
In this chapter, I have introduced the approach to social work practice
methods that underpins this book. I have argued that our sense of profes-
sional purpose, which varies across the contexts and circumstances of our
work, influences our use of methods in social work practice. I have identi-
fied a range of influences on how we develop our sense of professional
purpose in practice, which include the needs and preferences of service
users and community members, our institutional environment, and our
professional practice base. My intention in outlining these factors is to
assist you in critically reflecting on how your professional purpose is shaped
in practice and how it varies between practice contexts and circumstances.
As we become aware of how varied and variable our professional purpose is,
so too we may recognize the need for a diverse methodological base to
achieve our purposes. The rest of this book is dedicated to introducing this
20 The Core of Professional Social Work Practice

diverse methodological base in the hope that it will provide you with the
foundations for achieving your professional purpose in the diverse, and
often challenging, environments of social work practice.

Review Questions
1. What are the key messages in this chapter about service users’ views on
what they are seeking in their relationships with social workers?
2. The social work profession is committed to supporting service user self-
determination and promoting social justice. What do these terms mean?
How would you practically achieve these values in practice? Thinking of
a specific field of practice, consider what challenges you might face in
implementing these values.
3. Social workers’ sense of professional purpose is shaped by service user
needs and expectations, the demands of our institutional context, and
our professional practice base. In a field of practice that interests you,
what do you see as the professional purpose of social workers?
4. What are your views about the nature of professional boundaries in
social work practice? What might be the challenges for you in commu-
nicating your professional boundaries to individuals, groups and
communities with whom you work?

Further Reading
●● Banks, S. (2006) Ethics and Values in Social Work, 3rd edn. Basingstoke: Palgrave
Macmillan.

Comprehensive introduction to values and ethics in social work and health and
welfare services practice.

●● Berg, I.S. and Kelly, S. (2000) Building Solutions in Child Protective Services. New
York: Norton.

Offers an insightful and practical analysis of the use of strengths-based and

solution-focused practice with vulnerable children and their families.

●● Fook, J. and Gardner, F. (2007) Practising Critical Reflection: A Resource Handbook.

Maidenhead: Open University Press.

Accessible, practical introduction to the practice of critical reflection as a base for

building knowledge and skills in practice.
 Social Work Methods in Context: Purposeful Practice 21

●● Germain, C. and Gitterman, A. (1996) The Life Model of Social Work Practice:
Advances in Theory and Practice, 2nd edn. New York: Columbia University Press.

One of the foundational texts on the ecosystems approach to social work practice.

●● Healy, K. (2000) Social Work Practices: Contemporary Perspectives on Change.

London: Sage.

Outlines the theory of critical social work practice.

●● Pincus, A. and Minahan, A. (1973) Social Work Practice: Model and Method. Itasca,
IL: FE Peacock.

One of the enduring classics of the systems approach to social work practice.
Clearly outlines different types of systems impacting on service users and
provides insights into how social workers can strategically intervene to create
systemic change.

●● Saleebey, D. (ed.) (2006) The Strengths Perspective in Social Work, 4th edn. Boston,
MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Includes a range of papers on the theoretical foundations and practical applica-

tion of strengths-based approaches to a broad range of practice fields. Excellent
introduction to the strengths perspective.
 Index

abuse 26, 85, 87, 91, 95, 118–20, 123–4, Canada 29, 176
153, 157, 210, 213 care system 34, 43, 92, 124, 128, 153,
accurate empathy 9 202, 207, 213, 239
action plans 191–3, 196 see also foster care
Addams, J. 175 case management 57, 104
advocacy groups 239 see also social casework; statutory
African cultural behaviour 31 casework
aged care services see elderly people case studies 189–90, 215
aggression see antisocial behaviour; cash benefits 203
violence census data 185, 214
alcohol abuse 115, 130 Chapin, R. 202, 213, 215, 221, 227
Alinsky, S. 176 Charity Organization Societies (COS)
Allen, G. 22 59, 175
anger management 141, 145 Chen, M.-W. 29–30
anti-racism 119–20, 172 child protection 4, 7–8, 10–11, 33, 184,
antisocial behaviour 44, 96, 104 232–3
anxiety 40, 116, 141, 156 and empathy 43–4
appearance 31–3 and family work 113, 117, 119–21,
Asian cultural behaviour 29–31 123, 129–30, 133
assertiveness training 146, 161 and observation skills 34–5
assessment 16–17 and policy practice 203, 206–7, 210,
with and for families 124–30 220
in social casework 61, 65, 68–75 and statutory casework 87–8, 90–6,
in statutory casework 97–100 98–101, 104–6
asset-based community development childcare 137, 140, 160, 182, 194
(ABCD) model 174 citizen action groups 139, 142–3, 148,
asylum seekers 214–18, 221–2 152, 155–6
Australia 15, 29, 130, 176, 206, 240 clarification 37
clinical social work 58–9, 76
babysitters see childcare closed groups 139
Banks, S. 8, 15 closed questions 39
Barclay Report 176 clothing 31–2
behavioural change 76–7, 152 cognitive behavioural theory 56, 75
groups 138–9, 141, 147–8, 155 communication skills 9, 16, 22–3, 73,
benefits 77, 202–4 152, 233
Berg, I.K. 98 communication in teams 45–8
body language see nonverbal demonstrating sympathy and
communication skills empathy 41–5
Boyle, S. 38–9 listening skills 3, 23–6, 36, 48, 88,
brainstorming 131, 157–8 152
budgetary constraints 10, 217 nonverbal skills 16, 26–33, 88
Bunyan, P. 174 observational skills 16, 33–5, 162, 198
businesses 174, 183, 208 spoken skills 16, 35–41, 48–50

251
252 Index

communities of association 170 cultural diversity 96, 119, 123, 215–16,

community development 171, 175, 191 221, 233
community education 173, 175, 194 and nonverbal skills 28–31
community organizing 172–3 and observation 34
community planning 172 and use of questions 38
community service 171, 174
community work 3, 14–15, 17–18, 22, data analysis 188–90, 195, 197–8,
24–5, 232, 234 214–15, 219, 223
consensus versus conflict models data collection 187–8, 198, 214
173–4 De Jong, P. 98
defining the terms 169–73 delinquency 43, 45, 172
history of 175–7 DeMasi, K. 174, 193, 195, 197
and policy practice 209–10 demeanour 32
skills 179–98 depression 102, 124, 141, 156
and social work 177–9 diaries 80, 132, 162
see also macro methods dignity 15, 208–9
compassion 9, 12 disability rights movement 170
confidence building 26, 76, 144, 149, disability support 113–14, 117, 143,
153, 193 160, 170, 173, 202, 239
confidentiality issues 140, 145, 150, disadvantaged citizens 10, 12–13, 92,
152 172–3, 175, 180, 184–5, 204
conflict-based models 173–4 discrimination 10, 12, 143, 204
consciousness raising 172 divorce 124, 126–8
consensus approaches 173–4 domestic violence 86, 90–1, 120, 123,
continuums 40, 86, 147–8, 159 207, 213
control trials 61, 161 Douglas, H. 120
coping questions 40 drug addiction 4, 86, 88, 95, 101, 115,
cost–benefit arguments 217, 221–2 130
Coulshed, V. 118
counselling 55, 58, 61–2, 87, 123, 139, ecomaps 73–4
232 ecosystem perspective see systems theory
assessment phase 68–75 education 77, 139, 184, 187, 192–4
casework/counselling relationship community education 173, 175, 194
65–8 psychoeducational groups 138,
definition of 55–7 141–2, 155
framework for 64–81 see also schools
intervention phase 75–8 Egan, G. 27, 65
termination and evaluation phase elderly people 3, 58, 113, 114, 117, 181,
78–81 192, 231
courteousness 9 Elliot, N. 236
Courtney, M.E. 58, 63 empathy 3, 9, 41–5, 66, 77, 88, 95–6
courts 32, 48–9, 86, 114 empathetic listening 23
Crago, H. 121 strengths and limits of 43–5
credibility 32, 139, 142, 149–50, 180 employment 77, 103, 124, 143, 161,
Crichton-Hill, Y. 130 183, 193–4, 204, 220
criminal behaviour 7, 44, 90, 105 see also unemployment
critical incident technique 106 engagement 16–17
critical reference groups 228 with communities 179–82
critical reflection 5–6, 18, 32, 45, 65, with families 121–4
233, 236 in social casework 65–8
critical social work theory 12, 65 in statutory casework 94–7
 Index 253

Epstein, L. 65, 74 foster care 34, 116, 124, 128

Eriksson, L. 175 see also care system
ethical issues 10, 15, 67, 93, 207–8, 227, Freire, P. 173, 176
236, 240 funding 5–7, 10, 204, 219, 224–5
ethnic groups 30, 33, 87, 153, 171 funding bodies 5–6, 48, 183, 191, 195,
see also cultural diversity; racism 205, 211
evaluation 16–17, 232–3
in community work 194–8 Gandhi, M. 176
in family work 132–3 Gardner, F. 6
in groupwork 160–3 gender issues 29, 31, 96, 178–9
in social casework 65, 78–81 see also feminism
in statutory casework 104–7 genograms 73–4, 125–9
evidence-based practice 10, 59–64 genuineness 9, 66
exception questions 40 geographical communities 170
external review bodies 105 Germain, C. 59–60
externalization 72 Gestalt therapy 141
eye contact 29–30 getting to know you exercises see
see also nonverbal communication icebreakers
skills governments 7, 10, 84–5, 175–6, 184–5,
191, 234, 236–7
facial expression 29–30 and policy practice 202–7, 209–10,
see also nonverbal communication 213–22, 224–7
skills graffiti 191–2
facilitation 24, 147, 156–60 grief 55, 58, 78, 212
families 3, 10, 13–14, 22, 25–6, 32, 43, ground rules 26, 140, 144–5, 152, 237
88, 92, 95, 99, 102, 106, 111–12, groups 3, 15, 18, 22–5, 43, 85, 111–12,
133–4 231
assessment with and for 124–30 definition of working with groups
challenges in working with 118–20 137–9
definition of 113–14 facilitation techniques 156–60
engaging 121–4 groupworker responsibilities 151–6
evaluation phase 132–3 leadership of 147–51
genograms and ecomaps 73–4, 125–9 range of group types 140–3
interventions with 130–2 reasons for working with 139–40
observation skills 34 stage theories of 143–7
and policy practice 203, 206, 212 termination and evaluation phase
reasons for working with 114–15 160–3
types of practice 115–18 see also mezzo methods
see also child protection; mezzo
methods Han, Y.S. 29–30
family group conference (FGC) approach Hankins, F. 13
116–17, 206 Hawtin, M. 182, 184, 188–9
Fawcett, B. 203 health and safety 203–4
feminism 62, 119, 174, 176, 178–9 health and welfare services 13–14, 32,
see also gender issues 45, 47, 55–6, 58, 84, 114, 118, 125,
Ferguson, H. 34 130, 179, 233, 235–6, 238
Fischer, J. 59–60 and policy practice 202–5, 210, 212,
five-stage model 143–5 214, 217–19, 221–2, 224–6
flexibility 9, 66, 68 Henderson, P. 179–80
focus groups 186–7, 198 homelessness 86, 114, 206–8, 212,
Fook, J. 6, 62, 65, 67 220
254 Index

housing 77, 86, 131, 171–2, 184, 189, leadership skills 137, 142, 147–51
203–4, 206, 220–1 legal responsibilities 10, 94, 104
Hull-House 175 Lipsky, M. 206
human rights 175, 222 listening skills 3, 23–6, 36, 48, 88, 152
literacy 129, 194, 196, 198
icebreakers 145, 157 literature 15, 22, 32, 35, 143, 149, 156,
identity-based communities 170 187, 194, 225, 237
IFSW/IAASW code of principles 15 Livermore, M. 175
illiteracy see literacy
illness 55, 140, 142, 173, 189 McDermott, F. 151–2
see also mental health Macdonald, G. 8, 12, 56, 63, 76, 80
immigration see asylum seekers McGoldrick, M. 126
implementing policies 224–6, 228–9 McMaster, K. 153, 155
imprisonment 184 macro methods 3, 12, 16, 18, 43, 167
see also prison service see also community work; policy
income supplements 203, 206 practice
individuals 3, 15, 17–18, 53–4 Maiter, S. 119
see also social casework; statutory managerialism 10–11, 63, 232, 234–6,
casework 239
industrial unions 239 mandated individuals see statutory
informal education see community casework
education Marxism 62
institutional context of practice 9–11 media 48, 180–1, 193–4, 219–20
integrating diverse methods 16–17 mental health 7, 11, 72, 76, 233–4, 239
International Federation of Social and community work 170–2
Workers (IFSW) 178 and family work 113–15, 117, 130
interpersonal work see counselling; social and policy practice 202, 205, 207,
casework 213–22, 227
intervention 10, 16–17, 232 and statutory casework 85–6, 88,
and community work 176 90–1, 94, 98–9, 101–2, 104–5
with families 117–18, 130–2 support groups 142, 147–8, 150–1,
and group work 149, 160–1 155–6
in social casework 61, 65, 74–9 mental health consumers’ movement
in statutory casework 101–4 170
involuntary practice 18, 22 mezzo methods 3, 12, 16, 18
see also statutory casework see also families; groups
isolation 80–1, 140, 179, 183, 191, 231 micro methods 3, 12, 16, 18
see also social casework; statutory
Jansson, B.S. 203, 218–19 casework
jargon 9, 48, 67, 101, 103, 129, 190 Midgley, J. 175
Jensen, M. 143, 145 Miller, R. 94, 119
Johnson, Y. 29 Minahan, A. 14
Jungian therapy 141 miracle questions 40–1, 72
juvenile offenders 43, 45, 172 modelling behaviours 76–7, 104, 152
Mullender, A. 149
Killen, K. 44 Munch, S. 29
kinship networks see families
narrative theory 56, 70–2, 116
Langford, D. 22 National Association of Social Workers
language 9, 48, 67, 101, 103, 129, 190 (NASW) 58
laws 6, 9, 33, 84–7, 90, 130, 203, 222 negative responses 35, 66
 Index 255

neglect 87, 91, 95, 118–20, 210 Pincus, A. 14

neighbourhood work see geographical policy practice 3, 9
communities definition of 202–5
neoliberalism 63–4, 207, 234–5 phases of 210–28
networks 77–8, 121, 183 and social workers 205–10
new public management see see also macro methods
managerialism policy-makers 5, 173, 183–4, 190, 194,
New Zealand 29, 116, 206 205, 209–10, 213, 217–19, 221–4,
newsletters 181 226–7
newspapers 181, 220 politicians 5, 173, 183, 190
nonpossessive warmth 8–9 Popple, K. 176
nonverbal communication skills 16, 26, popular education see community
88 education
appearance, identity and postmodern theory 65
communication 31–3 post-traumatic stress disorders 217
and cultural diversity 28–31 poverty 13, 87
SOLER model 27–8 pregnancy 76–7, 117
normalizing 72–3 preplanning 180, 182
Preston-Shoot, M. 150
observational communication skills 16, prison service 8, 10, 85, 87–8, 90–1, 113,
33–5, 162, 198 233
occupational health and safety 203–4 privacy policies see confidentiality issues
Ohmer, M. 174, 193, 195, 197 probation services 11, 85
older people see elderly people problem identification 213–15
open-ended groups 138, 155, 163 problem-solving theory 56, 64, 66, 88
open-ended questions 38–9 professional associations 240
oppression 12, 33, 75, 156, 172, 178 professional base 11–12
Orme, J. 118 prosocial perspective 44, 76–7, 88, 104
out-of-home care see care system psychodynamic approach 34, 56–7, 60,
overidentification 44–5 70, 178
psychoeducational groups 138, 141–2,
panel discussions 50 155
paraphrasing 36–7 psychosis 7, 88
parents 4, 7, 34–5, 45, 76, 80–1, 90, psychotherapy 57–9
95–6, 99, 101, 113, 182, 194, 207, psychotherapeutic groups 138–9,
210 141, 148, 155
parenting groups/help 118, 141–2, public health 85, 203
157, 181 public speaking 48–50
single parents 73, 76 punctuality 9, 77, 152
young parents 118, 142, 149, 153,
157, 203, 206, 212 quality of life 59, 93, 114, 161, 176,
see also child protection; families; 181–2, 227
single parents questions 38–41, 72, 88, 101–2
parroting 37
participatory action research 215 racial minorities 87
peer support 137, 141–2, 148–9 see also cultural diversity
Percy-Smith, J. 182, 184, 188–9 racism 119–20, 172
Perlman, H.H. 60, 63 radical theory 56, 61–3, 65, 72–3, 77–8,
photographs 129–30, 155, 157–8, 189, 88, 174–5
191 received ideas 11
physical infrastructure 180, 183 refreshments 122, 160, 182
256 Index

refugees 214–18, 221–2 social casework

regulations 203–4 assessment phase 68–75
rehabilitation 86, 95 casework/counselling relationship
rehearsal of approaches 76–7 65–8
Reid, W.J. 60–1, 64–5, 74 definition of 55–7
relationship problems 36, 157, 161 and the evidence-based practice
see also divorce; separation movement 59–64
resistance 98–9, 106 framework for 64–81
resources 77–8 intervention phase 75–8
responsibilities 10 and other forms of interpersonal
Reynolds, B.C. 61 practice 57–9
Richmond, M. 13, 55, 60 radical critiques of 61–3
rights-based arguments 222 termination and evaluation phase
risk assessment 23, 69–70, 129 78–81
in statutory casework 88–92, 99–100 Social Diagnosis 55, 60
Rocha, C.J. 209, 222, 225 social disadvantage see disadvantaged
role clarification 6, 46–7 citizens
role-play 131, 155, 158 social justice 14–15, 86–7, 206–7, 209,
Rothman, J. 171–2, 174–5 215
‘rule of three’ 74 social networks see networks
socioeconomic disadvantage see
Saario, S. 234 disadvantaged citizens
scaling questions 40 SOLER model 27–8
schizophrenia 72 solution-focused theory 56, 65, 70–2,
schools 32, 133, 174, 180–1, 183, 193 88, 99, 101, 116
school attendance 44, 131–2 Specht, H. 58, 63
see also education spoken communication skills 16, 35–41,
seating arrangements 30, 122, 159 48–50
Seden, J. 56, 63 use of questions 38–41
Seebohm Report 176 stakeholders 190–1, 209
self-determination 14, 29, 86, 95, 101, statistics 184–5, 187, 223
207 statutory casework 207
self-disclosure 9, 67 assessment phase 97–100
self-harming 98, 104, 213 concerns with 86–90
self-help groups 137–8, 142, 147–8, 171 definition of 84–6
separation 126, 128, 141 engagement phase 94–7
services 77–8 evaluation phase 104–7
settlement house movement 175 intervention phase 101–4
sexism 120, 172 reasons for 92–3
see also feminism risk assessment in 90–2
sexual abuse 150, 152 Stepney, P. 176, 234
sexual involvement 67 stimulus materials 49, 80, 129–30, 155,
Sheldon, B. 8, 12, 56, 63, 76, 80 157–8, 189, 191
Shlonsky, A. 91 street-level bureaucrats 206
‘signs of safety’ approach 101, 109 strengths-based approach 12, 14–15,
silence 30 65, 70–3, 88, 101, 151, 155–6, 158,
single parents 73, 76 209
skill development groups 139 student placements 46, 78, 195
Skuse, V. 30 substance abuse 4, 86, 88, 95, 101, 115,
social action groups 139, 142–3, 148, 130
152, 155–6, 170, 173 Sue, D. 31
 Index 257

Sue, D.W. 31 UK 15, 60, 130, 176, 240

suicide 90–1, 213 unemployment 130
summarizing 37–8 see also employment
Sure Start programme 176 unplanned pregnancy 76–7
surveys 185–7, 214 USA 15, 29, 59, 175, 240
SWOT analysis 192
sympathy 41–5 value-based arguments 221
systems theory 12–14 values in practice 15, 66
verbal communication skills see spoken
Tavistock Clinic 60 communication skills
taxation system 203 violence 26, 44–5, 77, 86, 95, 101, 120,
teenage parents see young parents 123, 141, 152
terminal illnesses 140 see also domestic violence
termination 16–17 visual aids 26, 49, 80, 122, 129–30, 133,
in groupwork 160–3 191
in social casework 65, 78–81 voluntary practice 18, 22, 69, 100
terms of reference 221 see also social casework
third party funding arrangements 7
Thomas, D. 179–80 Wadsworth, Y. 197, 228
time limits 65–7, 74, 78, 138, 163 Wagner, D. 91
trade-offs 237–8 Walsh, T. 120
transport 132, 137, 143, 160, 182, 191, Ward, D. 149
194, 216, 222 websites 181, 193, 220
trauma 27, 214, 217–18
Trevithick, P. 43 young offenders 43, 45, 172
Trotter, C. 43–4, 95, 98, 104, 119 young parents 118, 142, 149, 153, 157,
trust 151–3, 157 203, 206, 212
Tuckman, B. 143, 145 young people 32, 36, 40, 87, 95, 105,
Turunen, P. 169–70 115, 117, 133, 182, 184, 186, 189,
Twelvetrees, A. 169, 172, 177, 191 192, 208, 239