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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND BASIC CONCEPTS

CHAPTER 2: HEAT CONDUCTION EQUATION

CHAPTER 3: STEADY HEAT CONDUCTION

CHAPTER 4: TRANSIENT HEAT CONDUCTION

CHAPTER 5: RADIATION HEAT TRANSFER

➢ List of references
a) Cengel, Y.A., “Heat and Mass Transfer – A Practical Approach”
b) J. P. Holman, " Heat Transfer," Published by McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
c) Frank P. Incropera and David P. DeWitt, "Introduction to Heat Transfer," Published by John
Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York.

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 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION AND BASIC CONCEPTS

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 THERMODYNAMICS AND HEAT TRANSFER
• The heat, is the form of energy that can be transferred from one system to another as a
result of temperature difference.
• Thermodynamics is concerned with the amount of heat transfer as a system
undergoes a process from one equilibrium state to another, and it gives no indication
about how long the process will take. A thermodynamic analysis simply tells us how
much heat must be transferred to realize a specified change of state to satisfy the
conservation of energy principle.
• In practice we are more concerned about the rate of heat transfer (heat transfer per
unit time) than we are with the amount of it.
• For example, we can determine the amount of heat transferred from a thermos bottle
as the hot coffee inside cools from 90°C to 80°C by a thermodynamic analysis alone.
• But a typical user or designer of a thermos bottle is primarily interested in how long
it will be before the hot coffee inside cools to 80°C, and a thermodynamic analysis
cannot answer this question. Determining the rates of heat transfer to or from a
system and thus the times of heating or cooling, as well as the variation of the
temperature, is the subject of heat transfer.
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• Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium states and changes from one equilibrium state to
another.
• Heat transfer, on the other hand, deals with systems that lack thermal equilibrium, and
thus it is a non equilibrium phenomenon.
• Therefore, the study of heat transfer cannot be based on the principles of thermodynamics
alone. However, the laws of thermodynamics lay the framework for the science of heat
transfer.
• The first law requires that the rate of energy transfer into a system be equal to the rate of
increase of the energy of that system.
• The second law requires that heat be transferred in the direction of decreasing temperature
• The basic requirement for heat transfer is the presence of a temperature difference.
• The temperature difference is the driving force for heat
transfer, just as the voltage difference is the driving force
for electric current flow and pressure difference is the
driving force for fluid flow.

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➢ Application Areas of Heat Transfer
• The human body is constantly rejecting heat to its surroundings, and human comfort is
closely tied to the rate of this heat rejection. We try to control this heat transfer rate by
adjusting our clothing to the environmental conditions.
• Heat transfer plays a major
role in the design of many
other devices, such as car
radiators, solar collectors,
various components of power
plants, and even spacecraft
• The optimal insulation thickness in
the walls and roofs of the houses,
on hot water or steam pipes, or on
water heaters is again determined
on the basis of a heat transfer
analysis with economic
consideration
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 ➢ HEAT AND OTHER FORMS OF ENERGY
• The forms of energy related to the molecular structure of a system and the degree of the
molecular activity are referred to as the microscopic energy.
• The sum of all microscopic forms of energy is called the internal energy of
a system
• Internal energy may be viewed as the sum of the kinetic and potential energies of the
molecules.
• The portion of the internal energy of a system associated with the kinetic energy of the
molecules is called sensible energy or sensible heat
Qs = mC P t
➢The portion of internal energy associated with the phase change with
constant temperature is called latent energy or latent heat

Ql = mh fg
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 ➢ ENGINEERING HEAT TRANSFER

The heat transfer problems encountered in practice can be considered in two groups:
(1)Rating problems
(2) Sizing problems

• The rating problems deal with the determination of the heat transfer rate for an existing
system at a specified temperature difference.

• The sizing problems deal with the determination of the size of a system in order to
transfer heat at a specified rate for a specified temperature difference.

➢ A heat transfer process or equipment can be studied either

(1) Experimentally (testing and taking measurements) or
(2) Analytically (by analysis or calculations).
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➢ The total amount of heat transfer Q during a time interval t can be
determined from
t
Q =  Q dt
0

➢ The heat flux

The rate of heat transfer per unit area normal to the direction of heat transfer

Q
q = (W/m2)
A

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Example 1.1

A 10-cm diameter copper ball is to be heated from 100 °C to an average

temperature of 150 °C in 30 minutes. Taking the average density and specific
heat of copper in this temperature range to be ρ = 8950 kg/m3 and Cp =
0.395 kJ/kg.°C, respectively, determine (a) the total amount of heat transfer
to the copper ball, (b) the average rate of heat transfer to the ball, nad (c) the
average heat flux.

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Heat Transfer Mechanisms

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Conduction
▪ Conduction is the transfer of energy from the more energetic particles of
a substance to the adjacent less energetic ones as a result of interactions
between them. Conduction can take place in solids, liquids, or gases.
▪ In gases and liquids, conduction is due to the collisions and diffusion of the molecules
during their random motion.

❑ Thermal conduction in solid material takes place by:

➢ electron movement (free electrons) only in electrically conducting material, i.e.,
metals.
➢atomic vibration in all solid materials.

Heat transfer from electron movement is approximately 100 times by that from atomic
motion.
• The rate of heat conduction through a medium depends on the geometry of the medium, its
thickness and the material of the medium, as well as the temperature difference across the
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Rate of heat transfer by conduction, Q k = Q / t through the
length, L across the cross-sectional area, A is given by

 kAT
Fourier’s law Qk =
L

where k is the thermal conductivity(which is a measure of

the ability of a material to conduct heat) and ΔT is the
temperature difference between the two ends. The thermal
conductivity is defined as the rate of heat transfer
through a unit thickness of the material per unit
area per unit temperature difference.
SI Unit of Thermal Conductivity: J/(s · m · °C) or W/m . °C
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Example 1.2
The roof of an electrically heated home is 6 m long, 8 m wide, and 0.25 m thick, and is made
of a flat layer of concrete whose thermal conductivity is K = 0.8 W/m.°C . The temperature of
the inner and outer surfaces of the roof one night are measured to be 15 °C and 4 °C ,
respectively, for a period of 10 hours. Determine (a) the rate of heat loss through the roof that
night and (b) the cost of that heat loss to the home owner if the cost of electricity is
$0.08/kWh.

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➢ A simple experimental setup to determine the thermal conductivity of a
material.

A layer of material of known thickness and area can be heated

from one side by an electric resistance heater of known output.
If the outer surfaces of the heater are well insulated, all the heat
generated by the resistance heater will be transferred through the
material whose conductivity is to be determined.

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➢The thermal diffusivity
The ratio of the heat conducted through the material to the heat stored per unit
volume, which represents how fast heat diffuses
through a material and is defined as
Heat conducted k
= = (m 2 /s)
Heat stored C P

The larger the thermal diffusivity, the faster the propagation of heat into
the medium. A small value of thermal diffusivity means that heat is mostly
absorbed by the material and a small amount of heat is conducted further

TABLE 1.2
The thermal diffusivity of some materials at room
temperature
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 Convection
➢ Convection is the mode of energy transfer between a solid surface and the adjacent fluid
that is in motion, and it involves the combination effects of conduction and fluid motion.

➢ In the absence of any fluid motion, heat transfer between a solid surface and the
adjacent fluid is by pure conduction.
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• Consider the cooling of a hot block by blowing cool air over its top
surface. Heat is first transferred to the air layer adjacent to the block by
conduction. This heat is then carried away from the surface by
convection, that is, by the combined effects of conduction within the air
that is due to random motion of air molecules and the bulk or
macroscopic motion of the air that removes the heated air near the
surface and replaces it by the cooler air.

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• Convection is called forced convection if the fluid is forced to flow over the surface by
external means such as a fan, pump, or the wind.
• In contrast, convection is called natural(or free) convection if the fluid motion is
caused by buoyancy forces that are induced by density differences due to the variation
of temperature in the fluid.

Forced convection Natural convection

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• Heat transfer processes that involve change of phase of a fluid are also considered to be
convection because of the fluid motion induced during the process, such as the rise of the
vapor bubbles during boiling or the fall of the liquid droplets during condensation.

Condensation.

Boiling

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➢ Newton’s law of cooling
Q conv = hAs (Ts − T ) (W)

where
h → is the convection heat transfer coefficient in (W/m 2
. oC )
As → is the surface area through which convection heat transfer takes place, 𝑚2
Ts → is the surface temperature, °C

T → is the fluid temperature sufficiently far from the surface. °C

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Example 1.3
A 2-m-long, 0.3-cm-diameter electrical wire extends across a room at 15 °C,
as shown in the figure. Heat is generated in the wire as a result of resistance
heating, and the surface temperature of the wire is measured to be 152 °C in
steady operation. Also, the voltage drop and electric current through the wire
are measured to be 60 V and 1.5 A, respectively. Disregarding any heat
transfer by radiation, determine the convection heat transfer coefficient
between the outer surface of the wire and the air in the room.

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 Radiation
▪ Radiation is the energy emitted by matter in the form of electromagnetic
waves (or photons) as a result of the changes in the electronic configurations
of the atoms or molecules.

▪ Unlike conduction and convection, the transfer of energy by radiation does

not require the presence of an intervening medium.

▪ All bodies at a temperature above absolute zero emit thermal radiation.

▪ The maximum rate of radiation that can be emitted from a surface at an absolute
temperature Ts
(in K) is given by the Stefan-Boltzmann law as

Q emit ,max = AsTs4 (W)

where
 = 5.67 10−8 W/m 2 . K 4 (is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant.)

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❑ Blackbody radiation represents the maximum amount of radiation that can be
emitted from a surface at a specified temperature.

❑ The radiation emitted by all real surfaces is less than the radiation emitted by a
blackbody at the same temperature, the ratio of the emitted power by a body to the
emitted power of a balck body at the same temperature and wave length is called the
emissivity, ε, of the body
Q body
=   Q body = Q black = AsTs4 (W)
Q black

➢ The property emissivity, whose value is in the

range 0 ≤ ε ≤ 1, is a measure of how closely a surface
approximates a blackbody for which ε = 1

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 ➢ Absorbitivity (α)

The fraction of the radiation energy incidence on a surface that is absorbed

by the surface.

➢ A blackbody is a perfec absorber (α = 1 ) as it is a perfect emitter.

➢ Kirchhoff's law of radiation states that

The emissivity and absorpitivity of a surface at a given temperature and

wavelength are equal.

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▪ When a surface of emissivity ε is completely enclosed by a much larger (or black) surface
at absolute temperature Tsurr separated by a gas (such as air)
▪ The net rate of radiation heat transfer between these two surfaces is given by
Q rad = As (Ts4 - Tsurr
4
) (W)

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Example 1.3

Consider steady heat transfer between two large parallel plates at constant
temperatures of T1 = 300 K and T2 = 200 K that are L = 1 cm apart, as shown
in the figure. Assuming the surfaces to be black, determine the rate of heat
transfer between the plates per unit surface area assuming the gab between
the plates (a) filled with atmospheric air (k = 0.0219 W/m .°C), (b) evacuated,
(c) filled with fiber-glass insulation (k = 0.026 W/m .°C), and (d) filled with
superinsulation that has an apparent thermal conductivity of 0.00002
W/m.°C

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