THE ORIGIN OF PETROLEUM

Millions of years ago, the earth was populated with plants and animals. Much of that life
was located in or adjacent to ancient rivers, lakes, and sea. As plants and animals died,
their remains settled to the bottom of these bodies of water. Ancient rivers carried mud
and sand that buried the organic material. As layers of organic material continued to
build up, the oxygen supply to the lower layers eventually was cut off and
decomposition slowed down. The thickness of such layers grew to 100s of feet over the
time.

Petroleum is a Latin word of (Petra ‘‘rock’’ + Oleum ‘’ oil ‘’), It is completely different
than oil that comes from vegetable sources such as the olive, but modern research has
traced its origin to the lipids (oils) of planktonic (free floating) plants and animals which
live in brackish water such as blue-green algaes and foraminifera. The brackishness is
essential because aerobic bacteria does not live in brackish water which in turn would
decompose all of the organic matter. In brackish water the organic matter of the
planktonic plants and animals sinks to the bottom and incorporated into clay sediments
which ultimately become sedimentary rocks, as we called shale rock. Under high
pressure and temperature the oil of clay shales can be squeezed out and into porous rock.
In porous rock the oil can travel, until it reaches an impervious barrier such as a salt
dome.

Petroleum is so important to ensure life sustainability as a source of energy which has a

big impact on society from several aspects including: economy, politics and human basic
needs. It is a strategic commodity that every country is seeking by developing new
technologies which contribute to maximizing petroleum recovery from underground.

The origin (genesis) of petroleum enlightens you about how petroleum has been formed
and from where it has been derived or emanated. Petroleum genesis is a debatable
subject and the precise details are still arguable about it. In order to understand
petroleum and perceive where to look for it and how to explore and produce it we have
to have a good comprehension about the origin of petroleum otherwise we will end up in
vain.

Regarding the origin of petroleum there are two different theories which are organic
(biotic) Theory and Inorganic (abiotic) Theory. Any theory of the origin of Petroleum
has to clarify geological and chemical observations in order to be accepted and approved.
The organic theory of Petroleum genesis is upheld more by scientists and more
evidences are available for its support. However, the abiogenic origin of Petroleum
cannot be outclassed and dismissed because it has contributed to the formation of
petroleum back to the sixteenths century onward till even nineteenths century. All in all,
Organic theory is more in favor of scientists, geologists and chemists.

The geological observations are that, huge accumulations of hydrocarbons occur in

Sedimentary rocks. According to (Pratt) hydrocarbons are characteristic of un-
metamorphosed marine and continental sediments. And they arise in porous materials
encapsulated from other porous materials.

Moreover, traces of indigenous hydrocarbons are also observed in Igneous, metamorphic

rocks and chondritic meteorites. Beside the geological observations, there are some
chemical ones too; crude oil differs from recent hydrocarbons which are rare and they
contain even numbered carbon chains unlike the recent hydrocarbons which contain odd
numbered carbon chains. They contain 123 of light hydrocarbons meanwhile light
hydrocarbons are rare or even absent in modern hydrocarbons.

INORGANIC THEORY

The Inorganic theory states that hydrogen and carbon came together under great
temperature and pressure, far below the earth’s surface and formed oil and gas where
chemical reactions have occurred. The oil and gas then seeped through porous rock to
deposit in various natural underground traps. It has also excluded the hypothesis that
petroleum is a finite substance.

Early theories of petroleum generation postulated an inorganic origin. The strongest and
chief support for the inorganic origin of Petroleum can be seen in the following;

Metal carbide theory

Developed by a Russian chemist and states that the deposition of petroleum is controlled
by tectonic activities that occurred during the life of sedimentary rock. To explain his
observations, he has put forth "metal carbide theory". Metal carbides deep in Earth
reacted with water at high pressure and temperature to form acetylene which condenses
to heavier hydrocarbons.

Reaction equation is: CaC2+H2O= C2H2+Ca(OH)2

Hydrocarbons such as benzene, methane, acetylene and ethane have been repetitively
made from an inorganic source material.

COSMIC THEORY
Another hypothesis says that petroleum has a cosmic origin and the presence of
hydrocarbons in the bodies out of which the earth was formed make the earth’s interior
contain much more hydrocarbons than the produced hydrocarbons from decayed plants
and animals.

Moreover, the abiogenic mantle theory of Mendeleev cannot be forgotten. He suggested

that mantle contained Iron carbide and this will react with percolating water and as a
result, hydrocarbons such as methane are formed.

Volcanic theory

Involves outgassing of the mantle via volcanic activity or eruption. Petroleum has been
recorded emanating from volcanoes. Ethane gas may have been formed and derived
from the heating of the organic matter as volcanoes erupt through a coat of sedimentary
rocks.

Furthermore, another supporting hypothesis is that hydrocarbons occurred within

igneous rocks and this is where the igneous rocks mostly have intruded the sediments.
Chondritic meteorties also comprise more than 83 methane and various traces of other
hydrocarbons.

Earthquake theory Involves outgassing deep Earth's mantle via tectonic activities such
as faults, and this is still happening till now.

Serpentinization theory

States that hydrocarbon is a by-product that came from a metamorphic transformation of

the green dark Olivine mineral, which was found in Earth's mantle

Geographical location: most of hydrocarbon producing regions are located close to

belts of tectonic activities.

Stability with depth: Corresponding to what organic theory's supporters have admitted
themselves; petroleum is a fossil fuel, and there has never been a real fossil found below
16000 feet. Nowadays, there is drilling for oil reservoirs at 28000 feet or 30000 feet
where there is no a fossil remains.

Despite these entire hypotheses regarding the inorganic origin of petroleum, there are
some problems which make the inorganic theory unacceptable. There is no held
evidence that inorganic processes have existed and occurred in nature. And commercial
and fruitful amount of hydrocarbons cannot be emitted and gained from volcanoes,
igneous rocks and magma. The lack of connection between volcanism and petroleum
origin is another point for doubting inorganic theory.

Lostly, the optical activity is a characteristic of petroleum and it is almost entirely related
to organic origin of petroleum.

ORGANIC THEORY

It is the most widely accepted. The oil and gas are formed from remains of prehistoric
plants and animals. Remains of plants have been transformed to coal and animals to oil
and gas. These remains were settled into seas and accumulated at the ocean floor and
buried under several kilometers of sediments. Over a few milion years, the layers of the
organic material were compressed under the weight of the sediments above them. The
increase in pressure and temperature with the absence of oxygen changed the mud, sand,
slit or sediments into rock and organic matter into Kerogen. After further burial and
heating, the kerogen transformed via cracking into petroleum and natural gas.

Organic Theory says that the origin of petroleum is from the remains of organic matter
mostly planktons. There are many compelling reasons which favor an organic hypothesis.

 First and foremost, the relation and connection between Carbon, Hydrogen and
Organic matter. They are the primary constituent of any organic matter either
Plants or animals. Hydrocarbon sand related compounds occur in many living
organism and are also deposited in sediments with little or no change.

 Porphyrins and Nitrogen are found in all organic matters, and petroleum also
contains porphyrins and nitrogen. So this proves that petroleum is of Organic
origin. Petroleum is from anaerobic condition otherwise there will be oxidation in
the presence of oxygen.

 Optical activity which is a characteristic of petroleum only occurs in organic

matters and it is because of cholesterol and it occurs in vegetables and animal.
This again supports the organic theory of petroleum.

 Almost all petroleum occurs in sediments which are of marine origin and those
which are of non-marine genesis probably have migrated into the areas of marine
source materials. Moreover, temperature has never exceeded where porphyrins are
 available because they will get decomposed above this temperature. This gives an
indication that petroleum has originated from a low temperature environment.

 Presence of brine (sea water) with petroleum.

Petroleum is found only in association with sedimentary rocks. There is no

petroleum associated with igneous or metamorphic rocks.

 Polarized light passing through all petroleum resources undergoes a rotation that is
similar to all organic oils.

 Molecules in hydrocarbons are thought to be similar to that of the organic matter.

 The organic carbon found in plants is depleted into C13 due to photosynthesis
process. In dead organic matter, it is further depleted due to radioactive decaying.
The same depletion was found in petroleum and natural gas.

 Mode of occurrence
 Pyrolysis of shale
Blackford showed that oil and bitumen could be produced by the pyrolysis and
hydrolysis of algae in low temperature because the ash content of algae is similar
of oil and both comprise Iodine, bromine, Phosphorous, and ammonium salts.

 Isolation of kerogen
 Lastly, the close relationship between organic source materials and petroleum in
the sediment leaves no doubt behind that the origin of petroleum is organic
because the hydrocarbons found in the organic materials of a non-reservoir rock
such as shale and carbonates are the same as those hydrocarbons found in the
sediments.

 Petroleum hydrocarbons of modern gulf of mexico sediments are evidence and

additional proof of organic genesis.

All in all, the organic theory of petroleum holds that carbon and hydrogen which are
important to the formation of oil and gas have been derived from the early marine living
organisms on the earth and the most known one is marine planktons. Marine planktons
provide their energy through sun, and they usually exist in deep oceans. When they die
their remains will be directed to the sea bed and form organic source materials. The
organic source material will be concentrated in a source rock, and through heat and
increased temperature, they will get converted to crude oil and natural gas. To conclude,
organic theory of petroleum is most acceptable by scientists because commercial
volumes of hydrocarbons can be found from organic source materials. Plus, organic
theory of petroleum abides by the two sets of geological and chemical observation.
Moreover, there are many stable evidences that support this theory fully. On the other
hand, the inorganic theory which is an old theory is still upheld by some people but it
will not be publicly accepted unless giant, commercial and fruitful amounts of
hydrocarbons can be found through.

The battle between organic and inorganic theories are still persistent till now. All the
supporters from both sides were struggling to prove their theory. According to organic
theory, petroleum is a finite substance formed from organisms decaying at several
kilometers below the ground surface. On the other side, Inorganic origin supporters
consider petroleum a self-regenerating substance produced by the Earth itself with the
assistance of chemical interactions occurring deep within the Earth. In other words, it is
assumed that petroleum is not a finite substance as oil and gas didn't not run out till now.
The most widely accepted one is the organic theory which defines the substantial
conditions for the formation of petroleum such as: saturated soil, absence of oxygen and
high pressure and temperature conditions. All these conditions contribute to the decay of
organic matters which then is transformed into kerogen forming a source rock.

Generation of hydrocarbon accumulations

Petroleum is any hydrocarbon recovered from the subsurface of the earth after drilling
such as oil and gas. Oil and gas provide about 60% of all the energy used by the society
today. They provide fuel for means of transportation and they are a must for the daily
life requirements including: heating, lighting and cooking. They are used in most of
manufacturing processes around us such as: synthetic fabrics, plastics, fertilizers,
detergent and many other purposes. Briefly, no one can imagine the world without oil
and gas.
Most people know the source of petroleum is plants and animals that died millions of
years ago. During this period, this high carbon content matter (plants and animals) was
exposed to high pressure and temperature that caused them to become mature and
generate petroleum. However, the processes that lead to the generation of petroleum are
still not clear enough. Therefore, it is interesting to know these processes and how
petroleum was generated and how did it move (migrates) in the subsurface until it
accumulated waiting for mankind to produce it and make use of it in all fields of life.
The petroleum may be liquid or gas and our mission is to get it.
Petroleum generation process
Petroleum is generated from productive source beds which have high organic carbon
content. This high organic carbon content resulted from the burial of plants and animals.
Since all plants are not of equal carbon content and so do animals, the C range of the
petroleum change when the carbon source changes.
Maturation is the ability of the rock to generate hydrocarbons, and indicates its maturity.
Therefore, the more the rock quality is, the more mature it is. Maturation occurs through
millions of years in which diagenesis and catagenesis processes take place. About 10 to
20% of petroleum is formed during diagenesis. Most petroleum is formed during the
catagenesis and metagenesis of the residual biogenic organic matter. Converting
biomolecules into petroleum is called maturation.
Diagenesis
‘’Diagenesis is defined as the chemical reactions that occurred in the first few thousand
years after burial at temperatures less than 50◦C. it takes place at shallow depths of few
kilometers within the earth( about 2Km). During diagenesis, methane, carbondioxide and
water are released leaving behind kerogen, which is a complex solid waxy material is
formed.
Catagenesis
‘’The reactions that occur between 60 and 200◦C are considered to be catagenetic in
nature.’’]During catagenesis, the organic compounds are exposed to diverse thermal
degradation reactions that include double bonds reduction by adding sulfur or hydrogen
atoms, cracking reactions and condensation reactions.
Metagenesis
‘’Metagenesis takes place at temperatures over 200◦C and is considered to be a type of
very low-grade metamorphism.’’ Figure 2 explains the changes occur in organic matter
during diagenesis, catagenesis and metamorphism
After petroleum generation it migrates until it is trapped. So, a brief overview about the
migration process in indicated in the next section.
HYDROCARBON MIGRATION

This section deals with migration: how and why fluid hydrocarbons migrate from a
source rock (rock material where they formed) to the reservoir rock (rock material where
they are found). We continue to use the basic formula:

Petroleum End Product = [Raw Material +Accumulation + Transformation +

Migration] + Geologic Time

There are three types of migration when discussing the movement of petroleum, primary,
secondary and tertiary migration.

Primary Migration

Primary migration is the process by which hydrocarbons are expelled from the source
rock into an adjacent permeable carrier bed.

Secondary Migration

Secondary migration is the movement of hydrocarbons along a "carrier bed" from the
source area to the trap. Migration mostly takes place as one or more separate
hydrocarbons phases (gas or liquid depending on pressure and temperature conditions).
There is also minor dissolution in water of methane and short chain hydrocarbons.

Secondary migration refers to the subsequent movement of hydrocarbons within

reservoir rock; the oil and gas has left the source rock and has entered the reservoir rock.
This occurs when petroleum is clearly identifiable as crude oil and gas although the gas
may be dissolved in the oil. Buoyancy of the hydrocarbons occurs because of differences
in densities of respective fluids and in response to differential pressures in reservoir rock.

Tertiary migration

It is a migration that occurs when petroleum moves from one trap to another or to a seep.
There are two important concepts that must be understood and how they relate to source
rocks and reservoir rocks in order to discuss migration. They are porosity and
permeability.

Permeability and Porosity

Porosity refers to the percentage of total volume of a material that is occupied by voids
or air spaces that exist between the rock grains. The more porous a material is, the
greater the amount of open space, or voids, it contains. Stored in these voids are liquids
and gases. Porosity differs from one material to another. Unconsolidated deposits of clay
have the greatest porosities because of their crystallographic structure; they are
comprised of parallel sheets of clay minerals. Unconsolidated deposits of sand have
lower porosities because of the nature of the sand grains to each other. Source rocks have
high porosities; the best source materials are clays & shales, but these same materials
make poor reservoir rocks.

Permeability (measured in centimeters per second) refers to the ability of a material to

transmit [fluid or gas]. The rate at which a material will transmit a fluid or gas depends
upon total porosity, number of interconnections between voids, and size of
interconnections between voids. For example, although clay has a higher porosity than
sand (clay has a greater number of voids), the voids that make up the clay are not
interconnected and therefore cannot transmit the fluid or gas out of it. The permeability
of a typical clay in Louisiana would be 1 x 10-7 cm/sec, or a movement of about 3 feet
in 30 years. Therefore movement of a fluid or gas out of a clay is very difficult. Sand on
the other hand has a typical permeability of 1 x 10-5 cm/sec, or a movement of about
300 feet in 30 years. Therefore sand has greater permeability than clay.There is
considerable disagreement regarding why and how migration occurs and the theories are
many and varied; it is the last problem in petroleum geology to be solved. Most
scientists agree that the vast majority of petroleum hydrocarbons are generated by
thermal processes from organic material contained in certain types of sedimentary rocks
referred to as source rocks.

PETROLEUM EXPLORATION TECHNICS

Introduction

Deciding where to drill may be as much of an art as it is a science. The primary search
for hydrocarbons frequently begins with observation of surface terrain. Location of faults
at the surface are very important because they indicated where potential structural traps
may lie beneath the surface in reservoir rocks. The observation of
anticlines, another type of structural trap, also indicate potential traps at
depth. Naturally existing crude oil seeps blacken the ground and spread
rainbow films on streams. Such direct evidence is useful, but most such places have long
ago been identified and explored. So the modern exploration geologist (a person who
explores for petroleum) must rely on other techniques.

There are three (3) primary methodologies used to find hydrocarbons in the subsurface:
Geophysical, Remote Sensing, and Wildcatting.

GEOPHYSICAL SURVEYS

Geophysical techniques used for petroleum exploration utilize equipment to measure

such things as: electrical currents, gravitational and magnetic anomalies, heat flow,
geochemical relationships, and density variations from deep within the earth. Each
technique records a different set of characteristics which can be used to locate
hydrocarbons beneath the surface of the earth.

Seismic surveys use vibration (induced by an explosive charge or sound generating

equipment) to provide a picture of subterranean rock formations at depth, often as deep
as 30,000 feet below ground level (BGL). This is accomplished by generating sound
waves downward into the earth's crust which reflect off various boundaries between
different rock strata. On land, the sound waves are generated by small explosive charges
embedded in the ground or by vibrator trucks, sometimes referred to as thumpers which
shake the ground with hydraulically driven metal pads. The human ear can barely hear
the thump, but the frequency generated penetrates the earth's crust. The echoes are
detected by electronic devices called geophones which receive the reflected sound waves
and the data are recorded on magnetic tape which is printed to produce a two-
dimensional graphic illustrating the subsurface geology.
Offshore surveys are conducted in a slightly different manner. Boats tow cables
containing hydrophones in the water, which is similar to geophones on land. Sound
waves use to be created by dynamite, but this method killed a variety of sea life. The
most acceptable method today is to generate sound waves using pulses of compressed air
which creates large bubbles that burst beneath the water surface creating sound. The
sound waves travel down to the sea floor, penetrate the rocks beneath, and return to the
surface where they are intercepted by the hydrophones. Processing and illustration is the
same as the dry land method.

In this type of survey, sound waves are sent into the earth where they are reflected by the
different layers of rock. The time taken for them to return to the surface is measured as a
function of time. This measurement reveals how deep the reflecting layers are; the
greater the time interval, the deeper the rock layer. Moreover, this technique also can
determine what type of rock is present because different rocks transmit sound waves
differently.

The most sophisticated seismic surveys are three-dimensional (3-D). The recorded data
is processed by computer and the results are a detailed, 3-D picture of the formations and
structures below the surface. The process is expensive, on the order of $30,000 per mile
(Satterwhite, pers comm). But drilling a well can cost multiple millions of dollars, so
time and money spent on accurate seismic surveys can be a good investment since it
helps locate prospects and minimize dry holes. In general, seismic surveys can be carried
out without disturbing people or damaging the environment, whether they are being
conducted on land or water. It is a primary tool used by exploration geologists to locate
[hydrocarbon] prospects.

There are a number of other geophysical techniques such as magnetometers and

gravimeters, and geochemical prospecting, a relatively new technique. A magnetometer
is a device that is pulled behind an airplane on a long cable that detects variations in the
earth's magnetic field. Sedimentary rocks generally have low magnetic properties
compared to other rock types. A gravimeter measures minute differences in the pull of
gravity at the earth's surface. Mapping these differences reveals large masses of dense
subsurface rock which allows geologists to have a better idea of the structures below
ground. Geochemical prospecting uses sensitive instruments to detect minute quantities
of gases that seep upward from petroleum deposits. This is a relatively new technique,
but is one that is gaining wider acceptance.

REMOTE SENSING

Remote Sensing (RS) is the use of aerial photographs to locate and map surface features.
Increasing use of satellite imagery is being made because it shows large areas on the
surface of the earth. Even though the photographs are taken form several hundred miles
up in space, they are able to show features only a few feet in size. And satellite imagery
not only indicates what the human eye can see, but they can also reveal subtle variations
in soil moisture, mineral and vegetation distribution, and soil type, all of which are
import pieces to the exploration puzzle.

Once an area is selected and the satellite imagery obtained, the exploration geologist
utilizes mapping techniques to produce a geologic map (a map that indicates geological
structures by using conventional symbols) for the area. The series of lines and arrows
indicate the type of structure that exists at the surface. For example, taken in November
1972 by a NASA satellite orbiting over 500 miles out in space, shows the surface
topography very clearly for an area in Southeastern Oklahoma known as the Ouachita
Mountains. These mountains are comprised of folded and faulted Paleozoic strata which
are buried beneath younger sediments toward the south. These mountains are made of a
combination of structures called anticlines, synclines, and faults, all of which form
various types of hydrocarbon traps.

Another type of RS technique uses imagery that was created from a radar looking at the
ground called Side Looking Airborne Radar (SLAR). Some of this imagery is flown
with an aircraft while some of it is onboard satellites or the US Space Shuttle. It
produces an image much like a photograph that also shows earth structure at the surface

WILDCAT

A wildcat well is one that is drilled in a new area where no other wells exist and
generally with scant information. It is drilled in an effort to locate undiscovered
accumulation of hydrocarbons. About 1 in 10 wildcat wells strike oil or gas, but only one
in perhaps 50 locate economically significant amounts. Many wildcat wells are drilled
on a hunch, intuition, or a small amount of geology. Many times they are based on
photography and experience in a particular area. Wildcat wells are generally drilled at a
smaller diameter than normal because this saves money (the average onshore well at
present costs about 10 MM dollars to drill).

One of the earliest exploration tools was referred to as Creekology, discussed earlier.
But recent technological advances have lead to computer-enhanced capabilities using
laptops that has had a major affect on the petroleum industry. New seismic techniques,
for example, have created more mobile, less expensive, and easier to operate exploration
tools that has created a wealth of information designed specifically for hydrocarbon
exploration. Field equipment is smaller, lighter, more accurate and reliable and provides
far greater detailed data.

But the basic tool needed for the search for hydrocarbons still remains a knowledge of
the Earth and earth processes of formation, lithology, and structure. But even with all of
this, wildcat wells are still drilled, but their success rate is substantially lower than a well
spudded in (to begin a new well) using all of the geological tools available.

Petroleum Exploration

There are some requirements to meet a petroleum reservoir:

 1. Source Rock
2. Reservoir Rock
3. Hydrocarbon Trap

Source rock maturity for the petroleum reservoir depends on pressure and temperature
during the lithification process, time, and a chemical reaction between carbon and
hydrogen.

The maturity of the source rock is very important to whether the reservoir can be
produced or not. Limestone and shale are the major type of source rocks. Coal may also
be considered as a source rock, even though it is present in relatively small quantities
within the earth. These source rocks can or can not be a reservoir rock. The concept of
reservoir rock is a storage that contain hydrocarbon gas, hydrocarbon liquid, and salt
water. The hydrocarbon fluids is less dense than the salt water. So, when it meets salt
water, the hydrocarbon fluids will force salt water to migrate downward below. This
migration is controlled by rock’s permeability and porosity.


 Figure 1 Temperature window for generating hydrocarbons (Source: Saudi
Aramco[1])

Figure 2 Hydrocarbon reservoir with gas cap, oil zone, and water zone (Source:
Saudi Aramco[1])


Figure 3 Hydrocarbon reservoir with no gas cap (oil and water zones only; Source:
Saudi Aramco<ref name = SaudiAramco /)

During the migration, the reservoir rock needs a trap or seal, so when the fluid migrate it
will encounter an impermeable rock. If the fluids continue to migrate when there is no
trap or seal, it would go to the surface and dissipate.

Many hydrocarbon reservoirs needs to be mapped before we know the volume and shape
of a reservoir. We use petroleum exploration which means process of exploring for oil
and gas resources in the earth. How do we explore our huge earth? By some steps, it can
be done. Desk study, aerial survey, seismic survey, exploratory drilling, appraisal,
development and production are steps to assess a designate field for oil or gas prone.

Desk study
Petroleum Exploration Flowchart

A desk study is the most basic way to define the geological conditions, and the
possibility of a petroleum system, below the surface. It can be finished by learning the
topographic map, geological map, and literature review of an area. Literature review is
the main study research to review the current issues of petroleum exploration and
development, planning, and project issues of natural resources and other relevant
secondary data information. This secondary data is collected during literature review and
during fieldwork interviews by collecting data statistics, documents, or literature about
the area. It can be proceeded through a review of academic sources information and
discussions.

Aerial survey
After a desk study finds favorable geological features for a petroleum system, an aerial
survey is conducted by remote sensing. A remote sensing image analysis can be carried
out with geomorphologic information, structure, and to define rock type classification.
Seismic survey will be done when aerial survey informations are prospective for a
explorers.

Seismic survey

In petroleum survey, conducting seismic survey is important to achieve subsurface

imagery of survey area. It is operated by contractors (oil field service company) or the
oil company itself. Seismic survey can be conducted whether in land, marine, or
transition zone; and the procedure of all types of seismic survey is quite the same, when
source used in field acquisition is geophone and marine is hydrophone.

Figure 4 Marine Seismic Acquisition (Source: Sosina UK)



Figure 5 Land Seismic Acquisition (Source: Oil in Uganda)

The survey is started with laying out the line to determine the position of source point
and center of geophone group. This work is conducted by the surveyors who also
responsible to plan the access route for all survey crew and following works.

In seismic survey, determining field layouts is needed to get expected result. Once the
layout is assigned, the rest of survey’s procedure must follow the layout plan. The
layouts that must be planned include spread type, common-midpoint method, array
concept, and other special methods.

Spread is relative location of source and center of geophones used to record reflected
seismic wave. Particular type of spread to reduce the noise and unusable trace recorded
by geophone group which lies adjacent with the source. The common spread type used is
asymmetrical spread.
Figure 7 Vertical section illustrating CMP recording The 0 represent source location and
x represent geophone group location (source: Sheriff[2])


 Figure 6 Types of spread. The 0 represent source location and x represent geophone
group location (source: Sheriff).

Figure 8 Seismic section as result of seismic data processing (Source: CGG)

Common-Midpoint (CMP) methods is used when each reflecting point is sampled than
one. Although some surveys conduct singlefold recording, CMP method is common in
seismic survey. Recorded data can be displayed in common-shot gather, common-
receiver gather, or common-midpoint gather.

Array is distribution of sources that fired simultaneously.[2] Arrays will provide a way to
discriminate waves which arrived from different directions, either vertically or
horizontally from source arrays. Determining array concepts will include tapered arrays,
areal arrays, and array constraints. Types of arrays used are sometimes determined from
preliminary noise analysis.

After planning field layout, determining field parameters is not less important. Some of
field parameters are maximum offset, minimum offset, array length, group interval, and
number of channel. Other field parameters sometimes are obtained with field testing. To
define the near surface, uphole survey is conducted to find the thickness and velocity of
low- velocity layer; which will be followed by seismic refraction.
When the acquisition is complete, data processing is conducted to increase signal to
noise ratio and obtain imagery of the subsurface. The process include noise attenuation,
velocity analysis, deconvolution, migration, stacking, and so on. Once the data have
been processed and resulted in form of seismic section, the seismic sequence will be
interpreted to find out the underlying structure, stratigraphic sequence, and find the
petroleum system.

Exploratory Drilling

The data collected from the geologic and geophysical surveys will conclude to a
possibility of oil resources location. However, the conclusion is not definite enough
before petroleum is now to be existed in the trap, and the quantity is sufficient to make
the production activity economical. The only way to provide a definite answers is to drill
and test exploratory well(s).

Figure 9 Standard cable tool drilling system (Source: Assaad[3] courtesy AIME)


Figure 10 Well log obtained from wireline logging (Source: U.S. Geological Survey)

The exploratory well location is determined by geologists and geophysicists. Samples of

the rock cuttings obtained from exploratory drilling are collected and examined to
identify the type of formation and the presence of hydrocarbon materials within the rock
based on sample’s composition.

Besides rock cutting examination, well logging are also run. Well logging will provide
information about rock and fluid properties based on type of logging operated. The tools
are placed to the well using electric cable (wireline). There are various type of wireline
logging: radioactive log, consists of Gamma Ray, Neutron, and Density; electric log,
consists of SP and resistivity; acoustic log; image log; and sampling. Logging will
provide information of rock or fluid properties versus depth.

The data provided by one exploratory well may not be sufficient, so additional
exploratory drilling is needed to provide better information of the petroleum system.
Along with seismic section, well logs will provide data to calculate volume of
hydrocarbon stored and conclude whether the production will be economically feasible.

Appraisal

You can interpret your subsurface area after you got the exploratory drilling data. From
that, you can predict the petroleum system there. First of all, you have to know is there
any source rock in your target or not. If your target doesn’t have any source rock, it will
absolutely no petroleum system there. After you find the source rock, you need to know
is the source rocks mature enough or not. It depends on when formed. If it is not mature
enough, it can’t generated any oil or expelled it. Then, if there any source rock, we have
to look at the other elements of petroleum system. It should has reservoir rock to absorb
oil, seal rocks to seal the oil, trap to keep the oil accumulation, and you have to know
when and where is the migration path. Afterward, thing that need to know before
calculating the resources is, is it oil or gas prone, because oil and gas has their own
treatment to maintain the production.

This appraisal is used to know the extent of the discovery. Hydrocarbon reservoir
properties, connectivity of petroleum system, hydrocarbon type and gas-oil and oil-water
contacts are determined to calculate potential recoverable volumes. This is usually done
by drilling more appraisal wells around the initial exploration well. Production tests may
also give insight in reservoir pressures and connectivity. And so geochemical and
petrophysical analysis is also gives more information of the type of the target like its
viscosity, chemistry, API, carbon content, etc.

You need to calculate the total reserve of the reservoir.

Production and development

After a hydrocarbon occurrence has been discovered and appraisal has indicated it is
economicaly feasible enough to develope. You can focusses on extracting hydrocarbon.
Production wells are drilled and prepared for producting the oil. For optimal recovery 3D
seismic is usually available and it can mapped the subsurface area. After produting the
oil, we need to prepare for enhanced recovery like steam injection, pumps, or any
chemical way. This enhanced recovery can extract more hydrocarbon so it can redevelop
fields.

Figure 11 Oil Production well (Source: Wikipedia)

Figure 12 Example of multi-attribute analysis for reservoir (Source: ARCIS)

Mostly, well is conducted to take oil from reservoir rocks. A reservoir rock like
sandstone and fractured limestone can determined through a combination of regional
studies. And it can determined from analysis of other wells in target area., stratigraphy
and sedimentology, and seismic interpretation. Once a possible hydrocarbon reservoir is
identified, the key physical characteristics of a reservoir that are of interest to a
hydrocarbon explorer are its bulk rock volume, net-to-gross ratio, porosity and
permeability.

Bulk volume of the rock is total volume of rock above any oil-water contact or gas-
water contact, can determined by mapping and correlating sedimentary packages. The
net-to- gross ratio, typically estimated from analogues and wireline logs, is used to
calculate the proportion of the sedimentary packages that contains reservoir rocks. The
bulk rock volume multiplied by the net-to-gross ratio gives the net rock volume of the
reservoir. The net rock volume multiplied by porosity gives the total hydrocarbon pore
volume i.e. the volume within the sedimentary package that fluids (importantly,
hydrocarbons and water) can occupy. The summation of these volumes for a given
exploration prospect will allow explorers and commercial analysts to determine whether
a prospect is financially viable.
Porosity and permeability were determined through the study of drilling samples,
analysis of cores obtained from the wellbore, examination of contiguous parts of the
reservoir that outcrop at the surface and by the technique of log analysis using GR, SP,
resistivity, or neutron log, that integrated each other. Modern advances in siesmic data
acquisition and processing have meant that seismic attributes of subsurface rocks are
available and can be used to infer physical/sedimentary properties of the rocks

Geophysical Methods

Several types of common geophysical surveys are in use in petroleum exploration. They
provide some direct and some indirect structural data for interpreting subsurface geology.
In most instances, geophysical survey methods provide no direct indications of
petroleum occurrences, although scientific advances in recent years have led to the
development and rapid improvement of technology for the identification of so-called
“direct hydrocarbon indicators” or DHI’s, based on seismic data.

The physical properties of rocks have been used to devise geophysical methods that are
essential in the search for minerals, oil and gas and other geological and environmental
problems.

These methods are:

 Gravity method
 Seismic method
 Electromagnetic method
 Geothermal method
 Magnetic method
 Electrical method
 Radiometric method
Geophysical methods respond to the physical properties of the subsurface media (rocks,
sediments, water, voids, etc.. ) and can be used Successfully when one region differs
sufficiently from another in some physical property.

Passive methods

Which detect variations within the natural fields associated with the earth, like the
gravitational and magnetic fields, such as gravity, magnetic, some electric and some
electromagnetic methods, radioactive and geothermal methods

Active motheds

These artificially generated signals transmitted into the ground and then modify the
received signals in ways that are characteristic of the materials through which they travel.
Examples of these methods are seismic and some electrical methods.

Generally, natural field methods (passive methods) can provide information on earth
properties to greater depths and are simpler to carry out than artificial source methods
(active methods). Moreover, the artificial source methods are capable of producing a
more detailed and better resolved picture of the subsurface geology.

Geophysical methods may from part of a larger survey and thus geophysicists must be in
contact with the whole survey team and particularly to the client.

Few, if any geophysical methods provide a unique solution to a particular geological

situation. It is possible to obtain a very large number of geophysical solutions to some
problems, some of which may be geologically non-sensical. It is necessary, therefore,
always to ask the question: “Is the geophysical model geologically plausible?. If it is not,
then the geophysical model has to be rejected and a new one developed which does
provide a reasonable geological solution.
Applications

1. Hydrocarbon exploration (coal, gas, oil)

2. Regional geological studies (over areas of 100s of km2 )
3. Exploration of mineral deposits.
4. Engineering site investigation.
5. Hydrogeological investigation.
6. Detection of subsurface cavities.
7. Mapping of leachate and contaminant plumes.
8. Location and definition of buried metallic objects.
9. Archaeo-geophysics.
10.Forensic geophysics.

Several geophysical surveying methods can be used at sea (marine geophysics) or in the
air (aero geophysics)

Reconnaissance surveys are often carried out from the air because of the high speed of
operation.

Airborne versus ground geophysical methods:

 Airborne geophysical methods are used in reconnaissance work, but the ground
methods are used in more detailed investigations.
 They are fast and are relatively inexpensive per unit area.
 Several kinds of surveys can be done at once.
 They can provide a more objective coverage than ground surveys in many
kinds of terrains.
 For example: several hundred line kilometers of airborne electromagnetic
surveying can be done in a day compared with three to five line kilometers per
crew in a ground EM survey .
  The cost of an airborne electromagnetic survey, with magnetic and radiometric
data included is likely to be 1/4 to 1/5 the cost of an equivalent ground EM
survey
 Airborne survey patterns are reasonably uniform and complete because they do
not have the access and traverse problems of ground survey in swamps, dense
brush and rugged topography.
 An airborne survey will give more accuracy than a ground survey in some areas,
but it will seldom provide such detail or such sharp signals as a ground survey.

Gravity method:

In gravity surveys, differences in the density of crustal rocks are measured by a

gravimeter. Low density rocks are represented as negative anomalies and high density
rocks as positive anomalies. Gravity surveys are particularly useful in exploration of salt
dome terrains. Salt domes have low density and appear as negative closed anomalies on
gravity maps. Gravity surveys provide indirect structural and lithologic data.

 It is mainly used for oil exploration. Sometimes in mineral and ground water
prospecting.
 Gravity prospecting involves the measurement of variations in the gravitational
field of the earth (i.e. minute variations in the pull of gravity from rock within
the first few miles of the earth’s surface).
 Different types of rock have different densities and the denser rocks have the
greater gravitational attraction.
 If the higher–density formations are arched upward in a structural high, such as
an anticline, the earth’s gravitational field will be greater over the axis of the
structure than along its flanks.

A salt dome which is generally less dense than the rock into which it is intruded, can be
detected from the low value of gravity recorded gravity recorded above it compared with
that measured on either side.
Anomalies in gravity which are sought in oil exploration may represent only one –
millionth or even one – ten – millionth of the earth’s total field.

For this reason, gravity instruments are designed to measure variations in the force of
gravity from one place to another than the absolute force itself.

The gravity method is useful wherever the formations of interest have densities which
are appreciably different from those of surrounding formations.

Gravity is an effective means of mapping sedimentary basins where the basement rocks
have a higher density than the sediments.

Gravity is also suitable for locating and mapping salt bodies because of the low density
of salt compared with that of surrounding formations.

Gravity can be used for direct detection of heavy minerals such as chromite

Magnetic method:

Magnetic surveys utilize a magnetometer to measure variations in magnetic intensity.

Basement rocks usually contain more magnetically susceptible iron-bearing minerals. So,
for example, when basement rocks are deformed and raised as fault blocks they are
placed closer to the ground surface and produce stronger magnetic values. Such features
appear as positive magnetic anomalies and indirectly indicate possible basement-related
structure.
Unfortunately, variations in the magnetic susceptibility of the basement can be a
function of compositional differences. Therefore, a level basement surface consisting of
a variety of rock types can produce apparent positive anomalies, which can be confused
with structural deformation. To overcome these problems, modeling of magnetic data to
produce plausible structural patterns is essential to interpretation. Magnetic surveys
provide indirect structural and lithologic data sections.

Magnetic method deals with variations in the magnetic field of the earth which are
related to changes of structures or magnetic susceptibility in certain near surface rocks.

Magnetic surveys are designed to map structure on or inside the basement rocks or to
detect magnetic mineral directly.

In mining exploration, magnetic methods are employed for direct location of ores
containing magnetic minerals such as magnetite.

Intrusive bodies such as dikes can often be distinguished on the basis of magnetic
observations alone.

Electrical methods:

Electrical prospecting uses many techniques, based on different electrical properties of

the earth’s materials such as:

 The resistivity method is designed to give information about the electrical

conductivity of the earth’s rocks.
 In resistivity method the current is driven through the ground using a pair of
electrodes and the resulting distribution of the potential in the ground is
mapped by using another pair of electrodes connected to a sensitive voltmeter.
  The resistivity method has been used to map boundaries between layers having
different conductivities.
 It is employed in engineering geophysics to map bedrock.
 It is used in groundwater studies to determine salinity. – The induced
polarization (IP) makes use ionic exchanges on the surfaces of metallic grains
(disseminated sulphides).
 Telluric current and magneto-telluric methods use natural earth currents and
anomalies are sought in the passage of such currents through earth materials.
 The self potential method is used to detect the presence of certain minerals
which react with electrolytes in the earth to generate electrochemical potentials.
 Electromagnetic methods detect anomalies in the inductive properties of the
earth’s subsurface rocks.
 The method involves the propagation of time varying, low frequency
electromagnetic fields in and over the earth.
 An alternating voltage is introduced into the earth by induction from
transmitting coils and the amplitude and phase shift of the induced potential
generated in the subsurface are measured by detecting coils and recorded.
 Electromagnetic methods are used to detect metallic ore bodies.

Radioactive Method

This method is used to detect radioactive minerals such as uranium and thorium.

Well logging method

 This involves probing the earth with instruments which give continues readings
recorded at the surface as they are lowered into boreholes.
  The rock properties which are covered by well logging techniques are electrical
resistivity, self-potential, gamma ray generation density, magnetic
susceptibility and acoustic velocity.

Well logging is one of the most widely used of all geophysical techniques

Seismic surveys

Seismic surveys are the best and most definitive geophysical means of subsurface
structural and stratigraphic representation currently in use. As described earlier, in
special instances, seismic data can also sometimes provide direct hydrocarbon indicators
or DHI’s. However, this is still a developing technology and these DHI’s are very
specialized and intimately related to local geologic conditions.

In petroleum exploration and development, the seismic technology most widely used is
called Reflection Seismic Data. New technology in 3-D and color rendered reflection
seismic surveys is increasingly more geologically accurate. In the reflection seismic
method, waves generated by an energy source at the earth’s surface go down into the
subsurface, where they reflect off rock layers and return to the surface, where they are
received by devices called “geophones” and recorded in a nearby computerized unit. For
onshore seismic surveys, there are two basic types of energy sources used, explosive
charges and strong vibrations created by vibrator or “viboseis” trucks.

Offshore or marine seismic surveys are conducted using specially designed vessels that
tow an energy source and a group of cable-mounted detectors over the survey area. The
energy source used in marine surveys is an “air gun”, which periodically generates
waves that propagate down into the subsurface, where they reflect off rock layers and
return to the surface, where they are received by detectors called “hydrophones” and
recorded in a computerized unit onboard the seismic vessel. The receiving cables or
“streamer cables” towed behind a seismic vessel are about 2.5 miles long.
In order to understand seismic surveys, there is the need to understand the different
seismic waves

Seismic Waves

When an earthquake occurs, it makes seismic waves, which cause the shaking we feel.
Seismic waves are essentially just the jiggling of the ground in response to the force put
on the ground by the earthquake, similar to the way the jello in a bowl responds to a tap
to the side of the bowl. There are three major kinds of seismic waves: P, S, and surface
waves. P and S waves together are sometimes called body waves because they can travel
through the body of the earth, and are not trapped near the surface.

A P wave is a sound wave traveling through rock. In a P wave, the rock particles are
alternately squished together and pulled apart (called compressions and dilatations), so P
waves are also called compressional waves. These waves can travel through solids,
liquids, and gases. P waves can travel through the liquid outer core.

An S wave is a different beast. In an S wave, the rock particles slide past one another,
undergoing shear -- so an S wave is also called a shear wave. You can make shear waves
by, for example, tying a rope to a tree and shaking the free end of the rope up and down
or side-to-side. The waves themselves will travel forward, toward the tree. But the rope
particles will stay in one place, sliding back and forth past each other. Shear waves
cannot travel in liquids or gases -- so, for example, S waves don't travel through the
ocean or through the outer core.
Surface waves are called surface waves because they are trapped near the Earth's
surface, rather than traveling through the ``body'' of the earth like P and S waves. There
are two major kinds of surface waves: Love waves, which are shear waves trapped near
the surface, and Rayleigh waves, which have rock particle motions that are very similar
to the motions of water particles in ocean waves.

Applications of seismic waves

1. To map details of the internal structure of the earth’
2. It helps in earthquake prediction
3. It reveals information of the earth’s composition and features
Seismic methods:

There are two main seismic methods, reflection and refraction:

Seismic reflection method

This method is used to map the structure of subsurface formations by measuring the
times required for a seismic wave, generated in the earth by a near surface exploration of
dynamite, mechanical impact or vibration, to return to the surface after reflection from
interface between formations having different physical properties.

The reflections are recorded by detecting interments which are called geophones
responsive to ground motion.

Variations in the reflection times from place to place on the surface indicate structural
features in the strata below.

Depths to reflecting can be determined from the times using seismic velocity information.
Reflections from depths as great as 20,000 feet can be observed from a single explosion,
so that in most areas, geologic structures can be determined throughout the sedimentary
section. S.P. G Reflected Ray Layer 1, V1 Layer 2, V2 Reflector

With reflection method one can locate and map such features as anticlines, faults, salt
domes and reefs. Many of these are associated with the accumulation of oil and gas.

Seismic refraction method:

In refraction method, the detecting instruments recorded the arrival times of the seismic
waves when refracted from the surface of discontinuity.

These times give information on the velocities and depths of the subsurface formations
along which they propagate. Refracted Ray Refractor Layer 1, V1 Layer 2, V2 S.P. G

Refraction method makes it possible to cover a given area in a shorter time and more
economically than with the reflection method.
Diagrams to study

Fault and Types of Faults

Weathering Types

Bowen’s Reaction Series

The Rock Cycle
Stratigraphy (an outcrop of shales)

Geophysics

Geochemical prospecting

Geochemical prospecting involves analyzing the chemical properties of rock samples,

drainage sediments, soils, surface and ground waters, mineral separates, atmospheric
gases and particulates, and even plants and animals. Properties such as trace element
abundances are analyzed systematically to locate anomalies.

GEOCHEMICAL SURVEYS

Geochemical surveys are surveys of the chemistry of mineral deposits. They are done
by, among other things, sampling soils, waters, and bedrock to identify areas of
anomalous mineral values and quantities that may in turn identify mineral deposits.

A survey involving the chemical analysis of systematically collected samples of rock,

soil, stream sediments, plants, or water; this expression may be further modified by
indicating specif. the material sampled, as, for example, geochemical soil survey.
Types of Geochemical Surveys

Geochemical surveys are carried out under two broad stages: reconnaissance and
detailed. The key purpose of a reconnaissance survey is preliminary assessment of a very
large area using a small scale of mapping. Such surveys are normally done by
sampling stream sediments. Detailed surveys use closely spaced samples over an area of
a few square kilometers, and individual samples may be as close as few meters apart.
The purpose of a detailed survey is identification and delineation of a geochemical
anomaly that would aid in locating a deposit of particular mineral or the probable
contiguity of an already identified deposit.
Regional geochemical surveys are used to locate large geochemical provinces, i.e., to
describe large-scale variation of element concentrations, while local-scale surveys and
detailed studies are aimed at revealing ore sub outcrops or point sources of
contamination. The geochemical information obtained from regional-scale surveys is
also important as background information for environmental legislation describing the
natural geological level of element concentrations. Thus the surveys are often
multipurpose/multidisciplinary studies that include several different sample materials
such as soils, sediments, water or biota collected at one time for different purposes. The
sampling network can be based on drainage basins or on more or less regular grids.
Sample density varies from one sample per square kilometer to one sample per
thousands of square kilometers.

Analysis of soil samples, river water, formation water, and oil can be useful in some
exploration programs.

► Soil analyses can indicate the presence of hydrocarbons beneath the surface, although
they can indicate little about the depth of the reservoir.

► Analysis of surface water from rivers and streams might be indicative of the locations
of oil seeps along the river banks. Sampling from several locations might be necessary to
locate the seeps.
► Chemical analysis of subsurface formation water is often useful in correlations within
a reservoir or establishing the differentiation of reservoirs.

► Oil composition analysis can provide age determinations of crude oil being produced
from a well. In many cases, this compositional data can provide a link to the source
rocks that generated the oil.

Compositional variations of crude oil are also useful in discriminating between different
reservoir horizons. In some cases, oil ages and migration histories can be also
determined by oil analyses.

MAPS AND CROSS-SECTIONS

Practically any type of geologic data can be represented on a map. Some of the most
useful maps are those that present clear pictures of the distribution of geologic
parameters. A surface geologic map is an example of this because it shows the
distribution of individual rock formations over the area of the earth’s surface covered the
map.

Contour maps can be used to illustrate many important parameters, such as rock unit or
sedimentary facies thickness, or structural elevation. They show variations that are
useful in interpreting the complete geology of an area or individual characteristics within
the entire data set.

Whereas maps represent information in plan view and provide a graphic view of
geographic distribution, cross-sections present the same information in vertical view, and
illustrate vertical relationships such as depth and thickness, as well as lateral changes of
geologic properties

Elements of a petroleum prospect

A prospect is a potential trap which geologists believe may contain hydrocarbons. A

significant amount of geological, structural and seismic investigation must first be
completed to redefine the potential hydrocarbon drill location from a lead to a prospect.
Four geological factors have to be present for a prospect to work and if any of them fail
neither oil nor gas will be present.

Source rock

When organic-rich rock such as oil shale or coal is subjected to high pressure and
temperature over an extended period of time, hydrocarbons form.

Migration

The hydrocarbons are expelled from source rock by three density-related

mechanisms: the newly matured hydrocarbons are less dense than their precursors,
which causes over- pressure; the hydrocarbons are lighter, and so migrate upwards due
to buoyancy, and the fluids expand as further burial causes increased heating. Most
hydrocarbons migrate to the surface as oil seeps, but some will get trapped.

Reservoir

The hydrocarbons are contained in a reservoir rock. This is commonly a

porous sandstone or limestone. The oil collects in the pores within the rock although
open fractures within non-porous rocks (e.g. fractured granite) may also store
hydrocarbons.
The reservoir must also be permeable so that the hydrocarbons will flow to surface
during production.

Petroleum trap

The hydrocarbons are buoyant and have to be trapped within a structural

(e.g. Anticline, fault block) or stratigraphic trap. The hydrocarbon trap has to be
covered by an impermeable rock known as a seal or cap-rock in order to prevent
hydrocarbons escaping to the surface

Fault trap

In petroleum geology, a trap is a geological structure affecting the reservoir

rock and cap rock of a petroleum system allowing the accumulation of hydrocarbons in
a reservoir. Traps can be of two types: stratigraphic or structural. Structural traps are the
most important type of trap as they represent the majority of the world's discovered
petroleum resources.. Structural traps are formed by deformation of reservoir rock, such
as by folding or faulting. Stratigraphic traps are formed by deposition of reservoir rock,
such as river channel or reef, or by erosion of reservoir rock, such as an angular
unconformity

Structural traps
Structural trap in an anticline.

Structural trap along a fault plane.

yellow : reservoir rock ; green : cap rock ; red : hydrocarbons

A structural trap is a type of geological trap that forms as a result of changes in the
structure of the subsurface, due to tectonic, diapiric, gravitational
and compactional processes.

Anticlinal trap

Anticlinal trap

An anticline is an area of the subsurface where the strata have been pushed into forming
a domed shape. If there is a layer of impermeable rock present in this dome shape, then
hydrocarbons can accumulate at the crest until the anticline is filled to the spill point -
the highest point where hydrocarbons can escape the anticline. This type of trap is by far
the most significant to the hydrocarbon industry. Anticline traps are usually long oval
domes of land that can often be seen by looking at a geological map or by flying over the
land.

Fault trap

This trap is formed by the movement of permeable and impermeable layers of rock along
a fault plane. The permeable reservoir rock faults such that it is now adjacent to an
impermeable rock, preventing hydrocarbons from further migration. In some cases, there
can be an impermeable substance smeared along the fault surface (such as clay) that also
acts to prevent migration. This is known as clay smear.

Stratigraphic trap

Stratigraphic trap under an unconformity.

Stratigraphic trap in a coral reef (reservoir rock) sealed in mudstones (caprock).

Stratigraphic trap associated with an evaporite diapir (pink).

blue : source rock ; yellow : reservoir rock ; green : cap rock ; red : hydrocarbons

In a stratigraphic trap, the geometry allowing the accumulation of hydrocarbons is of

sedimentary origin and has not undergone any tectonic deformation. Such traps can be
found in clinoforms, in a pinching-out sedimentary structure, under an unconformity or
in a structure created by the creep of an evaporite.

Salt dome trap

Salt dome trap

Masses of salt are pushed up through clastic rocks due to their greater buoyancy,
eventually breaking through and rising towards the surface (see salt dome). This salt is
impermeable and when it crosses a layer of permeable rock, in which hydrocarbons are
migrating, it blocks the pathway in much the same manner as a fault trap. This is one of
the reasons why there is significant focus on subsalt imaging, despite the many technical
challenges that accompany it.

Hybrid trap

Hybrid trap formed by the mudtsone drapping of tilted blocks

Hybrid traps are the combination of two types of traps. In the case of tilted blocks, the
initial reservoir geometry is the one of a fault-controlled structural trap but the caprock is
generally made by the draping sedimentation of mudstones during
the oceanisation process.

Exploration risk

Oil exploration expenditures are greatest when crude oil prices are high

Hydrocarbon exploration is a high risk investment and risk assessment is paramount for
successful project portfolio management. Exploration risk is a difficult concept and is
usually defined by assigning confidence to the presence of the imperative geological
factors, as discussed above. This confidence is based on data and/or models and is
usually mapped on Common Risk Segment Maps (CRS Maps). High confidence in the
presence of imperative geological factors is usually coloured green and low confidence
coloured red.[2] Therefore, these maps are also called Traffic Light Maps, while the full
procedure is often referred to as Play Fairway Analysis.[3] The aim of such
procedures is to force the geologist to objectively assess all different geological factors.
Furthermore, it results in simple maps that can be understood by non-geologists and
managers to base exploration decisions on.

Terms used in petroleum evaluation

Bright spot

On a seismic section, coda that have high amplitudes due to a formation

containing hydrocarbons.

Chance of success

An estimate of the chance of all the elements (see above) within a prospect
working, described as a probability.

Dry hole

A boring that does not contain commercial hydrocarbons. See also Dry-hole clause

Flat spot

Possibly an oil-water, gas-water or gas-oil contact on a seismic section; flat due to

gravity.

Full Waveform Inversion

A supercomputer technique recently use in conjunction with seismic sensors to

explore for petroleum deposits offshore.[4]

Hydrocarbon in place

Amount of hydrocarbon likely to be contained in the prospect. This is calculated

using the volumetric equation - GRV x N/G x Porosity x Sh / FVF

Gross rock volume (GRV)

Amount of rock in the trap above the hydrocarbon water contact

Netsand
Part of GRV that has the lithological capacity for being a productive zone; i.e. less
shale contaminations.[5]

Net reserve

Part of net sand that has the minimum reservoir qualities; i.e. minimum porosity
and permeability values.

Net/gross ratio (N/G)

Proportion of the GRV formed by the reservoir rock (range is 0 to 1)

Porosity

Percentage of the net reservoir rock occupied by pores (typically 5-35%)

Hydrocarbon saturation (Sh)

Some of the pore space is filled with water - this must be discounted

Formation volume factor (FVF)

Oil shrinks and gas expands when brought to the surface. The FVF converts volumes
at reservoir conditions (high pressure and high temperature) to storage and sale
conditions

Lead

Potential accumulation is currently poorly defined and requires more data

acquisition and/or evaluation in order to be classified as a prospect.[6]

Play

An area in which hydrocarbon accumulations or prospects of a given type occur. For

example, the shale gas plays in North America include the Barnett, Eagle
Ford, Fayetteville, Haynesville, Marcellus, and Woodford, among many others.

Prospect

A lead which has been more fully evaluated.

Recoverable hydrocarbons

Amount of hydrocarbon likely to be recovered during production. This is typically

10- 50% in an oil field and 50-80% in a gas field.

Licensing

Petroleum resources are typically owned by the government of the host country. In
the United States, most onshore (land) oil and gas rights (OGM) are owned by
private individuals, in which case oil companies must negotiate terms for a lease of
these rights with the individual who owns the OGM. Sometimes this is not the
same person who owns the land surface. In most nations the government issues
licences to explore, develop and produce its oil and gas resources, which are
typically administered by the oil ministry. There are several different types of
licence. Oil companies often operate in joint ventures to spread the risk; one of the
companies in the partnership is designated the operator who actually supervises the
work.

Tax and Royalty

Companies would pay a royalty on any oil produced, together with a profits tax
(which can have expenditure offset against it). In some cases there are also various
bonuses and ground rents (license fees) payable to the government - for example a
signature bonus payable at the start of the licence. Licences are awarded in
competitive bid rounds on the basis of either the size of the work programme
(number of wells, seismic etc.) or size of the signature bonus.
Production Sharing contract (PSA)
 A PSA is more complex than a Tax/Royalty system - The companies bid on
the percentage of the production that the host government receives (this may
be variable with the oil price), There is often also participation by the
Government owned National Oil Company (NOC). There are also various
bonuses to be paid. Development expenditure is offset against production
revenue.

Service contract

This is when an oil company acts as a contractor for the host government,
being paid to produce the hydrocarbons.
Reserves and resources

Resources are hydrocarbons which may or may not be produced in the future.
A resource number may be assigned to an undrilled prospect or an
unappraised discovery. Appraisal by drilling additional delineation wells or
acquiring extra seismic data will confirm the size of the field and lead to
project sanction. At this point the relevant government body gives the oil
company a production licence which enables the field to be developed. This
is also the point at which oil reserves and gas reserves can be formally
booked.

Oil and gas reserves

Oil and gas reserves are defined as volumes that will be commercially
recovered in the future. Reserves are separated into three categories: proved,
probable, and possible. To be included in any reserves category, all
commercial aspects must have been addressed, which includes government
consent. Technical issues alone separate proved from unproved categories.
56
 All reserve estimates involve some degree of uncertainty.

Reserve booking

Oil and gas reserves are the main asset of an oil company. Booking is the process
by which they are added to the bala

57