Database Processing: Fundamentals,

Design, and Implementation

Sixteenth Edition

Chapter 2 Part 2
Introduction to Structured
Query Language

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Learning Objectives (1 of 2)
2.1 To understand the use of extracted datasets in business intelligence (BI) systems

2.2 To understand the use of ad-hoc queries in business intelligence (BI) systems

2.3 To understand the history and significance of Structured Query Language (SQL)

2.4 To understand the SQL SELECT/FROM/WHERE framework as the basis for

database queries

2.5 To create SQL queries to retrieve data from a single table

2.6 To create SQL queries that use the SQL SELECT, FROM, WHERE, ORDER BY,
GROUP BY, and HAVING clauses

2.7 To create SQL queries that use the SQL DISTINCT, TOP, and TOP PERCENT
keywords

2.8 To create SQL queries that use the SQL comparison operators, including BETWEEN,
LIKE, IN, and IS NULL

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Learning Objectives (2 of 2)
2.9 To create SQL queries that use the SQL logical operators, including AND, OR, and
NOT

2.10 To create SQL queries that use the SQL built-in aggregate functions of SUM,
COUNT, MIN, MAX, and AVG with and without the SQL GROUP BY clause

2.11 To create SQL queries that retrieve data from a single table while restricting the data
based upon data in another table (subquery)

2.12 To create SQL queries that retrieve data from multiple tables using the SQL join and
JOIN ON operations

2.13 To create SQL queries on recursive relationships

2.14 To create SQL queries that retrieve data from multiple tables using the SQL OUTER
JOIN operation

2.15 To create SQL queries that retrieve data from multiple tables using SQL set
operators UNION, INTERSECT, and EXCEPT

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Chapter 2 Part 2 Coverage
• This Microsoft PowerPoint Slide Show covers multiple
table queries and chapter objectives 2.12-2.15.
• The material in the Microsoft PowerPoint Slide Show for
Chapter Two Part One on single table queries must by
covered before discussing the material in this Slide Show.
• A review of the Cape Codd Outdoor Sports database is
included for continuity.

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Business Intelligence (BI) Systems
• Business Intelligence (BI) systems are information
systems used to support management decisions by
producing information for assessment, analysis, planning,
and control.

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Figure 2-1: Cape Codd Outdoor Sports

The Cape Codd Retail Sales Web Site Home Page

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Cape Codd Outdoor Sports Background
• Cape Codd Outdoor Sports is a fictitious company based
on an actual outdoor retail equipment vendor.
• Cape Codd Outdoor Sports:
– Has 15 retail stores in the United States and Canada
– Has an online Internet store
– Has a (postal) mail order department
• All retail sales are recorded in an Oracle Database 19c D
BMS.

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Figure 2-2: Cape Codd Retail Sales Data
Extraction Process

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Figure 2-3: Components of a Data
Warehouse

BI systems typically store their associated data in a data warehouse.

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Retail Sales and Catalog Content Data
Extraction
• The Cape Codd marketing department needs an analysis
of:
– In-store sales
– Catalog content
• The entire database is not needed for this, only an
extraction of retail sales data and catalog content.
• The data is extracted by the IS department from the
operational database into a separate, offline database
for use by the marketing department.

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Figure 2-4: Cape Codd Extracted Retail Sales
Data Database Tables and Relationships

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Cape Codd Extracted Retail Sales
Data Format (1 of 2)
Table Column Data Type

RETAIL_ORDER OrderNumber Integer

Blank

StoreNumber Integer
Blank

Store ZIP Character (9)

Blank

OrderMonth Character (12)

Blank

OrderYear Integer
Blank

OrderTotal Currency

ORDER_ITEM OrderNumber Integer

Blank

SKU Integer
Blank

Quantity Integer
Blank

Price Currency
Blank

ExtendedPrice Currency

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Cape Codd Extracted Retail Sales
Data Format (2 of 2)
Table Column Data Type
SKU_DATA SKU Integer
Blank

SKU_Description Character (35)

Blank

Department Character (30)

Blank

Buyer Character (35)

BUYER BuyerName Character (35)
Blank

Department Character (30)

Blank

Position Character (10)

Blank

Supervisor Character (35)

CATALOG_SKU_20## CatalogID Integer
Blank

SKU Integer
Blank

SKU_Description Character (35)

Blank

Department Character (30)

Blank

CatalogPage Integer
Blank

DateOnWebSite Date

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Figure 2-6(a): Sample Data in the Cape Codd
Extracted Retail Sales Database

(a) The Linked

RETAIL_ORDER,
ORDER_ITEM, SKU_DATA,
and BUYER Tables

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Figure 2-6(b): Sample Data in the Cape Codd
Extracted Retail Sales Database

(b) The Non-Linked CATALOG_SKU_2020 and CATALOG_SKU_2021 Tables

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Cape Codd Database Available Online (1 of 2)
• Versions of the complete Cape Codd database are
available in the downloadable Student Files available at:
http://www.pearsonhighered.com/kroenke/
• These include versions for:
– Microsoft Access 2019
– Microsoft SQL Server 2019
– Oracle Database
– My SQL 8.0
• We recommend you actually run all material in a live
database!
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Cape Codd Database Available Online (2 of 2)
• To complete setting up the Cape Codd database, set the
referenced materials:
– For Microsoft SQL Server 2019:
▪ See Online Chapter 10A
– For Oracle Database:
▪ See Online Chapter 10B
– For My SQL 8.0
▪ See Online Chapter 10C
• Online chapters 10A, 10B, and 10C are available for download
at:

http://www.pearsonhighered.com/kroenke/
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Querying Two or More Tables with SQL
• SQL provides two different techniques for querying data
from multiple tables:
– The SQL subquery
– The SQL join
• Although both work with multiple tables, they are used for
slightly different purposes.

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Querying Multiple Tables with SQL
Subqueries One

• We want to know the revenue for Water Sports items, which have SKU
values of 100100, 100200, 101100, and 101200.

• Given that we know the SKU values, we can use this query:

/* *** SQ L-Query-CH02-53 *** */

SELECT SUM(ExtendedPrice) AS WaterSportsRevenue
FROM ORDER_ITEM
WHERE S K U IN (100100, 100200, 100300, 100400, 100500,
100600, 101100, 101200);

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Querying Multiple Tables with SQL
Subqueries two

• What if we don’t know the SKU values?

We can determine them with this query:

/* *** SQL-Query-CH02-54 *** */

SELECT S KU
FROM S KU_DATA
WHERE Department = 'Water Sports';

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Querying Multiple Tables with SQL
Subqueries three

We can combine the last two queries as shown in SQL-Query-02-53 and 54.
The second query, which is enclosed in parentheses, is called an SQL
subquery. Note how the subquery returns a set of values for use by the top
level query and note the use of the SQL IN keyword.

/* *** SQL-Query-CH02-55 *** */

SELECT SUM(ExtendedPrice) AS WaterSportsRevenue
FROM ORDER_ITEM
WHERE SK U IN
(SELECT SKU
FROM S KU_DATA
WHERE Department = 'Water Sports');

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The Logic of Subqueries
• An SQL subquery is often described as:
– A nested query
– A query within a query
• Note that SQL queries using subqueries are still
effectively single table queries in the sense that only the
columns of the top level query can be displayed in
the query results!
• Multiple subqueries can be used to process three or even
more tables.

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Query Example Using a Query with Two
Subqueries (1 of 2)
/* *** SQL-Query-CH02-56 *** */
SELECT Buyer, Department
FROM S K U_DATA
WHERE S K U IN
(SELECT SKU
FROM ORDER_ITEM
WHERE OrderNumber IN
(SELECT OrderNumber
FROM RETAIL_ORDER
WHERE OrderMonth = 'January’
AND OrderYear = 2021))

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Query Example Using a Query with Two
Subqueries (2 of 2)
/* *** SQL-Query-CH02-57 *** */
SELECT Buyer, Department, COUNT(S K U) AS Number_Of_S K U_Sold
FROM S K U_DATA
WHERE S K U IN
(SELECT SKU
FROM ORDER_ITEM
WHERE OrderNumber IN
(SELECT OrderNumber
FROM RETAIL_ORDER
WHERE OrderMonth = 'January’
AND OrderYear = 2021))
GROUP BY Buyer, Department
ORDER BY Number_Of_SKU_Sold;

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Querying Multiple Tables with JOINS
In an SQL join operation, the SQL JOIN operator is used
to combine parts or all of two or more tables.
– Explicit join ─ the SQL JOIN operator is used as part
of the SQL statement.
– Implicit join ─ the SQL JOIN operator is not used as
part of the SQL statement.

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Querying Multiple Tables with an SQL
CROSS JOIN
• An SQL CROSS JOIN combines each row in one table
with every row in another table.

/* *** S QL-Query-CH02-58 *** */

SELECT *
FROM RETAIL_ORDER, ORDER_ITEM;

• This is known mathematically as a Cartesian product of

the rows in the tables.
• This is illogical in database work because we only need
rows that somehow logically correspond in the two tables.

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Figure 2-29: Example of an Implicit
Join (1 of 3)
• By selecting rows matching the primary key values of one table
with the foreign key values of a second table, we produce an S
QL INNER JOIN.

• Because the SQL JOIN keyword does not appear in the

SQL statement, this is an implicit join. Results of this query
appear on the next slide.
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Figure 2-29: Example of an Implicit Join
(2 of 3)

/* *** SQL-Query-CH02-59 *** */

SELECT *
FROM RETAIL_ORDER, ORDER_ITEM
WHERE RETAIL_ORDER.OrderNumber = ORDER_ITEM.OrderNumber;

Note that whenever the field name is the same in both tables, you need
to add the table name the field is from to the SQL statement.

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Figure 2-29: Example of an Implicit
Join (3 of 3)
It will be easier to interpret the results of the previous query if we sort the
results using an ORDER BY clause.

/* *** SQL-Query-CH02-60 *** */

SELECT *
FROM RETAIL_ORDER, ORDER_ITEM
WHERE RETAIL_ORDER.OrderNumber =
ORDER_ITEM.OrderNumber
ORDER BY RETAIL_ORDER.OrderNumber, ORDER_ITEM.S K U;

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Querying Multiple Tables with an SQL
EQUIJOIN
• The process of using an SQL JOIN operation to join two
tables is called joining the two tables.
• When tables are joined using an equal to condition as in the
example above, the join is called an equijoin.
• When people say “join,” 99.99999 percent of the time they
mean equijoin.
• Multiple joins can be used to process three or even more
tables.
• All parts of the SQL SELECT statement syntax can be applied
to the table displaying the results of an SQL query using joins.

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Using a Join to Obtain Data from Two or
More Tables (1 of 2)
/* *** SQL-Query-CH02-61 *** */
SELECT Buyer, S K U_DATA.SK U, S K U_Description,
OrderNumber, ExtendedPrice
FROM SK U_DATA, ORDER_ITEM
WHERE S KU_DATA.S K U = ORDER_ITEM.S KU;

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Using a Join to Obtain Data from Two or
More Tables (2 of 2)
To obtain the total revenue from each SKU managed by each
buyer, just add the GROUP BY and ORDER BY clause.
/* *** SQL-Query-CH02-62 *** */
SELECT Buyer, S K U_DATA.SKU, SK U_Description,
SUM(ExtendedPrice) AS BuyerS K URevenue Since these
FROM SK U_DATA, ORDER_ITEM attributes are NOT
WHERE SK U_DATA.S KU = ORDER_ITEM.SK U in a function, they
GROUP BY Buyer, S K U_DATA.SKU, SK U_Description MUST be
ORDER BY BuyerSK URevenue DESC;
mentioned in
GROUP BY

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Comparing Subqueries with Joins
• SQL subqueries and SQL joins both process multiple
tables.
• An SQL subquery can only be used to retrieve data from
the “top table.”
• An SQL join can be used to obtain data from any number
of tables, including the “top table” of the subquery.
• In Chapter 8, we will study the correlated subquery.
That kind of subquery can do work that is not possible
with joins.

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Querying Multiple Tables with the SQL
JOIN ON Syntax
• In the SQL JOIN ON syntax:
– The SQL JOIN keyword is placed between the table names in
the SQL FROM clause, where it replaces the comma that
previously separated the two table names.
– The SQL ON keyword now leads into an SQL ON clause,
which includes the statement of matching key values that was
previously in an SQL WHERE clause.
– The SQL WHERE clause is no longer used as part of the
join, which makes it easier to read the actual restrictions on the
rows in the query in the SQL WHERE clause itself.
• The explicit SQL JOIN ON syntax is currently considered as
the proper way to write SQL join operations, and the older
implicit SQL syntax is considered an archaic, older syntax (but
it still works).
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Example of the JOIN ON Query (1 of 3)
This query uses the JOIN ON syntax of the SQL-Query-CH02-60 query.

/* *** SQL-Query-CH02-65 *** */

SELECT *
FROM RETAIL_ORDER JOIN ORDER_ITEM
ON RETAIL_ORDER.OrderNumber = ORDER_ITEM.OrderNumber ORDER BY
RETAIL_ORDER.OrderNumber, ORDER_ITEM.SKU;

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Example of the JOIN ON Query (2 of 3)
Figure 2-30: Using Primary Key and Foreign Key Values in
the SQL ON Clause in an SQL JOIN.

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Example of the JOIN ON Query (3 of 3)
Records can be limited to those for the OrderYear of 2020 as seen below.

/* *** SQL-Query-CH02-66 *** */

SELECT *
FROM RETAIL_ORDER JOIN ORDER_ITEM
ON RETAIL_ORDER.OrderNumber = ORDER_ITEM.OrderNumber
WHERE OrderYear = 2020
ORDER BY RETAIL_ORDER.OrderNumber, ORDER_ITEM.S KU;

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Example of the SQL JOIN ON for Three or
More Tables (1 of 2)
/* *** SQL-Query-CH02-67 *** */
SELECT RETAIL_ORDER.OrderNumber, StoreNumber, OrderYear,
ORDER_ITEM.S KU, SKU_Description, Department
FROM RETAIL_ORDER JOIN ORDER_ITEM
ON RETAIL_ORDER.OrderNumber = ORDER_ITEM.OrderNumber
JOIN S K U_DATA
ON ORDER_ITEM.SK U=S KU_DATA.S K U
WHERE OrderYear = 2020
ORDER BY RETAIL_ORDER.OrderNumber, ORDER_ITEM.S K U;

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Example of the SQL JOIN ON for Three or
More Tables (2 of 2)
You can create a table alias for one or more tables as well as naming output columns as
seen below.

/* *** SQL-Query-CH02-68 *** */

SELECT RO.OrderNumber, StoreNumber, OrderYear,
OI.SKU, SK U_Description, Department
FROM RETAIL_ORDER AS RO JOIN ORDER_ITEM AS OI
ON RO.OrderNumber = OI.OrderNumber
JOIN SKU_DATA AS SD
ON OI.S K U = SD.SKU
WHERE OrderYear = 2020
ORDER BY RO.OrderNumber, OI.S K U;

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SQL Queries on Recursive Relationships
(1 of 3)

• Recursive means that something recurs or repeats.

• A recursive procedure (in computer programming
languages) is a block of code that calls itself.
• A recursive relationship (in database structures) is a
relationship between two columns in the same table.

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SQL Queries on Recursive Relationships
(2 of 3)

In the Cape Codd Outdoor Sports data extract below, the BUYER table
has a recursive relationship: the Supervisor column holds value of the
BuyerName column as data and serves as a foreign key referencing
BuyerName as the associated primary key.

/* *** SQL-Query-CH02-70 *** */

SELECT BuyerName, Department, Position, Supervisor
FROM BUYER
ORDER BY Position DESC;

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SQL Queries on Recursive Relationships
(3 of 3)

The solution is to use table aliases to create two aliased versions of the same
single table. Thus, the query below lists each BuyerName and that person’s
Supervisor:

/* *** SQL-Query-CH02-71 *** */

SELECT S.BuyerName AS SupervisorName,
S.Position AS SupervisorPosition,
B.BuyerName, B.Position
FROM BUYER S JOIN BUYER B
ON S.BuyerName = B.Supervisor
ORDER BY S.BuyerName

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Figure 2-32: The Logic of Joins (1 of 4)
(a) The STUDENT and LOCKER Tables Aligned to Show
Row Relationships

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Figure 2-32: The Logic of Joins (2 of 4)
(b) INNER JOIN of the STUDENT and LOCKER Tables

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Figure 2-32: The Logic of Joins (3 of 4)
(c) LEFT OUTER JOIN of the STUDENT and LOCKER
Tables

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Figure 2-32: The Logic of Joins (4 of 4)
(d) RIGHT OUTER JOIN of the STUDENT and LOCKER
Tables

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Example of the SQL LEFT OUTER JOIN
Syntax
/* *** EXAMPLE CODE – DO NOT RUN *** */
/* *** SQL-Query-CH02-75 *** */
SELECT StudentPK, StudentName, LockerFK, LockerPK,
LockerType
FROM STUDENT LEFT OUTER JOIN LOCKER
ON STUDENT.LockerFK = LOCKER.LockerPK
ORDER BY StudentPK;

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Example of the SQL RIGHT OUTER JOIN
Syntax
/* *** EXAMPLE CODE – DO NOT RUN *** */
/* *** SQL-Query-CH02-76 *** */
SELECT StudentPK, StudentName, LockerFK, LockerPK,
LockerType
FROM STUDENT RIGHT OUTER JOIN LOCKER
ON STUDENT.LockerFK = LOCKER.LockerPK
ORDER BY LockerPK;

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Mathematical Set Theory
• Mathematicians use the term set theory to describe
mathematical operations on sets, where a set is defined
as a group of distinct items.
• A relational database table meets the definition of a set,
so it is little wonder that SQL includes a group of set
operators for use with SQL queries.

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Venn Diagrams
• Venn diagrams are the standard method of visualizing sets and their
relationships.
– A set is represented by a labeled circle.
– A subset is a portion of a set that is contained entirely within the
set.
– The union of two sets represents a set that contains all values in
both sets. This is equivalent to an OR logical operation
(A OR B).
– The intersection of two sets represents the area common to both
sets. This is equivalent to an AND logical operation
(A AND B).
– The complement of set B in set A represents everything in set A
that is not in set B. This is equivalent to a logical operation using
NOT (A NOT B).
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Figure 2-33: Venn Diagrams

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Figure 2-34: SQL Set Operators
Note that in order to use SQL set operators, the table
columns involved in the operations must be the same
number in each SELECT component, and corresponding
columns must have the same or compatible (e.g., CHAR
and VARCHAR) data types!

SQL Set Operators

Operator Meaning

UNION The result is all the row values in one or both tables

INTERSECT The result is all the row values common to both tables

EXCEPT The result is all the row values common to both tables

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SQL UNION Operator
“What products were available for sale (by either catalog or Web site)
in 2020 and 2021?”
/* *** SQL-Query-CH02-78 *** */
SELECT S KU, S KU_Description, Department
FROM CATALOG_S KU_2020
UNION
SELECT S KU, S KU_Description, Department
FROM CATALOG_S KU_2021;

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SQL INTERSECT Operator
“What products were available for sale (by either catalog or Web site) in
both 2020 and 2021?” [Neither Microsoft Access 2019 nor MySQL 8.0
support the INTERSECT Operator]
/* *** SQL-Query-CH02-79 *** */
SELECT S KU, S KU_Description, Department
FROM CATALOG_S KU_2020
INTERSECT
SELECT S KU, S KU_Description, Department
FROM CATALOG_S KU_2021;

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SQL EXCEPT Operator
“What products were available for sale (by either catalog or Web site) in
2020 but not in 2021?” [Oracle Database calls this the SQL MINUS
operator, and neither Microsoft Access 2019 nor MySQL 8.0 support
this operation]

/* *** SQL-Query-CH02-80 *** */

SELECT SK U, S K U_Description, Department
FROM CATALOG_SKU_2020
EXCEPT
SELECT SK U, S K U_Description, Department
FROM CATALOG_SKU_2021;

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Copyright

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