Z-NOTES // IGCSE SERIES

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• Natural numbers:
• Used for counting purposes
• Made up off all possible rational and irrational numbers
• Integer:
• A whole number
• Prime numbers:
• Divisible only by itself and one
• 1 is not a prime number
• Rational numbers:
• Can be written as a fraction
• Irrational numbers:
• Cannot be written as a fraction e.g. 𝜋

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• Highest Common Factor and Lowest Common Multiple:

• HCF = product of common factors of x and y

• LCM = product of all items in Venn diagram
• Prime Factorization: finding which prime numbers
multiply together to make the original number

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• Limits of accuracy:
• The degree of rounding of a number
• E.g. 2.1 to 1 d.p. 2.05 ≤ � < 2.15
• Standard form:
• 104 = 10000 10−1 = 0.1
• 103 = 1000 10−2 = 0.01
• 102 = 100 10−3 = 0.001
• 101 = 10 10−4 = 0.0001
• 100 = 1 10−5 = 0.00001

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• Ratio
• Used to describe a fraction
• E.g. 3 : 1
• Foreign exchange
• Money changed from one currency to another using proportion
• E.g. Convert $22.50 to Dinars
$1 : 0.30KD
$22.50 : 6.75KD
• Map scales
• Using proportion to work out map
scales 1km = 1000m
1m = 100cm
1cm = 10mm

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• Direct variation:
• � is proportional to �
• �∝� � = ��
• Inverse variation:
• � is inversely proportional to �
1 �
• �∝ �=
� �

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• Percentage:
• Convenient way of expressing fractions
• Percent means per 100
• Percentage increase or decrease:
������ 𝐼�������
• 𝑃��������� �������� =
�������� ������
• Simple interest:

• 𝐼= ��
�
100
• 𝑃 = 𝑃�������� � = ���� �� 𝐼������� � = 𝑃����� �� ����
• Compound interest:
� �
• �=𝑃 1+
100
• 𝑃 = 𝑃�������� � = ���� �� 𝐼������� � = 𝑃����� �� ����
Page 7
 ��������
• ����� =����

����� ��������
• ������� ����� =
����� ����

• Units of speed: km/hr m/s

• Units of distance: km m
• Units of time: hr sec

5
• ��/ℎ� × = �/���
18

18
• �/��� × = ��/ℎ�
5

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• Function notation:
• �: � → 2� − 1
• Function � such that � maps onto 2� − 1
• Composite function
• Given two functions � � and � � , the composite function of � and � is the function
which maps � onto � � �
• �2
• Substitute � = 2 and solve for � �
• ��(�)
• Substitute � = � �
−1
• � (�)
• Let � = �(�) and make � the subject

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Page 10
• General equation
• ��2 + �� + � = 0
• Solve quadratics by
• Trinomial factorization
• Quadratic formula
−�± �2−4��
• �= 2�
• IMPORTANT!
• When question says “give your answer to two decimal places”, USE FORMULA!

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• Gradient of a Straight Line:
�2−�1
• �������� =
�2−�1
• Equation of Line:
• � = �� + �
• Find the gradient, �
• Find the �-intercept, �
• Midpoint of Graph:
�1+�2 �1+�2
• 2 , 2
• Length between two points:
2
• �1 − �2 2 + �1 − �2

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� � =1 �� =� � � = �2

1
� � = �3 �� = �� =
1
� Page 13
�2
• From O to A : Uniform speed
• From B to C : Uniform speed (return journey)
• From A to B : Stationery (speed = 0)

• Gradient = speed
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• From O to A : Uniform speed
• From A to B : Constant speed (acceleration = 0)
• From B to C : Uniform deceleration / retardation

• Area under a graph = distance travelled.

• Gradient = acceleration.
• If the acceleration is negative, it is called deceleration or retardation. (The moving body is
slowing down.)
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• Sum of angles at a point =360 • Corresponding angles
• Angles on a straight line = 180
• Sum of angles in a triangle =180
• For regular polygon • Alternate angles
360
• External angles =
�
360
• Internal angles = 180 −
�
• For irregular polygon: • Co-interior angles
• Sum of exterior angles =360
• Sum of interior angles =180(n-2)
• Vertically opposite angles • Exterior angle=sum of interior opposite ∠

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• A line of symmetry divides a two-dimensional shape into two congruent (identical) shapes.
• A plane of symmetry divides a three-dimensional shape into two congruent solid shapes.
• The number of times shape fits its outline during a complete revolution is called the order of
rotational symmetry.
Shape Number of Lines of Symmetry Order of Rotational Symmetry

Square 4 4

Rectangle 2 2

Parallelogram 0 2

Rhombus 2 2

Trapezium 0 1

Kite 1 1

Equilateral triangle 3 3

Regular hexagon 6 6

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• Rectangle: Opposite sides parallel and
equal, all angles 90°, diagonals bisect each
other.
• Parallelogram : Opposite sides parallel
and equal, opposite angles equal,
diagonals bisect each other
• Rhombus: A parallelogram with all
sides equal, opposite angles equal,
diagonals bisect each other
• Trapezium: One pair of sides parallel

• Kite: Two pairs of adjacent sides equal,

diagonals meet at right angles bisecting
one of them
Page 18
 = universal set ∉ = does not belongs to
∪ (union) = all the elements ⊆ = Subset
∩ (intersection) = common elements 𝐴′ = compliment of A
Ø or { } = empty set n(A) = the number of elements in A.
∈ = belongs to

� ∩ � is shaded � ∪ � is shaded ⊂ ‘is a subset of’

�∈𝑋 = {a, b, c, d, e} A’ is shaded

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Angle at centre = twice Angle subtended by same arc Angles in semicircle
angle on circumference at circumference are equal are 90°

Opposite angles in a cyclic Tangents from one point are equal Alternate segment
quadrilateral = 180° ∠ between tangent and radius is 90° theorem
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• Right angled triangles:
��������
• sin � = ℎ���������

��������
• cos � = ℎ���������

��������
• tan � = ��������

• For any other triangle:

• Sine rule: • Cosine rule
� � �
• = = • To find the angle given 3 sides
sin � sin sin 2 2 2
� �
One pair of information needed � +� −�
• cos � = 2��
• To find side given angle and two sides
• �2 = �2 + �2 − 2�� cos �
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• Pythagoras theorem
• To find hypotenuse
• �2 + �2 = �2
• To find one of the shorter sides
• �2 = �2 − �2
• �2 = �2 − �2

• Angle of elevation:
• Angle above the horizontal line.
• Angle of depression:
• Angle below the horizontal line.

1
• Area of a triangle: ��
sin �
2
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• The bearing of a point B from another point A is:
• An angle measured from the north at A.
• In a clockwise direction.
• Written as three-figure number (i.e. from 000 ° to 360°)

• Eg: The bearing of B from A is 050°

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• Area:
• Parallelogram = � × ℎ OR �� sin 𝜃
1
• Triangle= � × ℎ
2
1
• Trapezium= �+�ℎ
2
• Circle= 𝜋�2
𝜃
• Sector= 𝜋�2 ×
360
• Volume and surface area:
• Cylinder • Sphere
• ������ ������� • ������� ���� = 4𝜋�2
4
���� = 2𝜋�ℎ • 𝑉����� = 𝜋�3
3
• 𝑉����� = 𝜋�2ℎ
• Cone • Hemisphere
• ������ ������� • ������� ���� =
���� = 𝜋�� 2𝜋�2
1 2
• 𝑉����� = (𝜋�2ℎ) • 𝑉����� = 𝜋�3
3 3 Page 24
• Volume:

• Capacity and Mass:

• Connecting volume and

capacity:
• 1�� = 1��3
• 1�� = 1�3
𝑀���
• Density =
𝑉����� Page 25
 � � ��
�
• � ×� = � • =
� ��
��+�
�
� �
• � =��
• �� ÷ �� =
��−�
• �× �= �×�

• �� � = ��� � �
• � = �

• �0 = 1

1
• �−� = • Exponenti i
�� al n
equations v
• �×� �
= �� × �� : o
• Equa l
tions v
ing unknown indices 2
• � =
�

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• Condition 1: Given distance from a point • Condition 2: Given distance from a straight
line

• Condition 3: Equi-distant from two • Condition 4: Equi-distant from two

given
intersecting lines
points

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• A vector quantity has both magnitude and direction.
• E.g. Vectors a and b represented by the line segments can be added using the
parallelogram rule or the nose-to-tail method.
• Multiplication by a scalar:
• A scalar quantity has a magnitude but no direction
• The negative sign reverses the direction of the vector
• Column vector:
• Top number is the horizontal component and bottom number is the vertical component
• Parallel vectors:
• Vectors are parallel if they have the same direction
� �
• In general the vector � � is parallel to �
• Modulus of a vector:
�
• In general, if � = � , � = (�2 +
�2
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• Addition:
� �
• + � � �+� �+�
� � � � �+� �+�
=
• Multiplication by scalar
� � �� ��
• � � � = �� ��
• Multiplication by vector:
� � � � �� + �� �� + ��
• ×
� � � � �� + �� �� + ��
=
• You can only multiply if no. of columns in left equals to no. of rows in right
• Determinant:
• Determinant = leading diagonal – secondary diagonal
� �
• A = � = �� − (��)
� �
• Inverse:
1
• To work out inverse, switch leading diagonal, negate secondary diagonal, multiply by
�
 � � �
• A = 1
� � �−1 =(��−�� −�
−� � Page 29
• Reflection:
• When describing a reflection, the position of the mirror line is essential.
• Rotation:
• To describe a rotation, the centre of rotation, the angle of rotation and the direction
of rotation are required.
• A clockwise rotation is negative and an anticlockwise rotation is positive.
• Translation:
• When describing a translation it is necessary to give the translation vector
• Enlargement:
• To describe an enlargement, state the scale factor, K and the centre of enlargement
• ����� ������ =
�����ℎ ���� �� ����� = 𝐾2���� ��
�� ����� ������
�����ℎ ��
������
• If K > 0, both object and image lie on same side of the centre of • If
enlargement. K
<
0, object and image lie on opposite side of the centre of enlargement.

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• Shear:
• To describe a shear, state; the shear factor, the invariant line and the direction of the
shear
�������� � ����� ����� ��� �� �ℎ� �ℎ��� �
• �ℎ��� ������ =
������������� = ����
�������� �� �ℎ� ����� ���� �ℎ� ����� �
• ���� �� ����� = ���� �� ������

• Stretch:
• To describe a stretch, state; the stretch factor, the invariant line and the direction of the
stretch
������������� �������� �� �′���� ��
• ������ℎ ������ =
������������� �������� �� � ���� ��
• ���� �� ����� = ������ℎ ������ × ���� �� ������

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• Reflection:
1 0
•
Reflection in the � − ����
0 −1
−1 0
•
Reflection in the � − ����
0 1
0 1
•
Reflection in the line � = �
1 0
0 −1
•
Reflection in the line � = −�
−1 0

• Enlargement:
� 0
•
where k=scale factor and centre of enlargement = (0,0)
0 �

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• Rotation:
0 −1
•
Rotation 90° anticlockwise, centre (0,0)
1 0
0 1
•
Rotation 90° clockwise, centre (0,0)
−1 0
−1 0
•
Rotation 180° clockwise/anticlockwise, centre (0,0)
0 −1

• Stretch:
1 0
•
Stretch factor k, invariant line x-axis & parallel to y-axis
0 �
� 0
•
Stretch factor k, invariant line y-axis & parallel to y-axis
0 1

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• Shear:
1 �
•
Shear factor k, invariant line x-axis & parallel to x-axis
0 1
1 0
•
Shear factor k, invariant line y-axis & parallel to y-axis
� 1

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• Histograms:
• A histogram displays the frequency of either continuous or grouped discrete data in the
form of bars.
• The bars are joined together.
• The bars can be of varying width.
• The frequency of the data is represented by the area of the bar and not the height.
• When class intervals are different it is the area of the bar which represents
the frequency not the
• height
• Instead of frequency being plotted on the vertical axis, frequency density is plotted.
• Class width = Interval
• Frequency density = Height
• ��������� = ����� ����ℎ × ��������� �������
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• Mean:
��� �� ������
• ������ �� ������
• Median:
• The middle value when the data has been written in ascending or descending order
5+1
• Odd no. of values = 3�� �����
2
6+1
• Even no. of values = 3.5�ℎ ����� (add two values divide by 2)
2
• Mode:
• Most frequently occurring value
• Range:
• Difference between highest and lowest values
• Estimated mean of grouped data:
• Work out midpoints of each group and multiply by
frequency
• Divide by number of values
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• Cumulative frequency is the total frequency up to a given point.
• Inter-quartile range = ����� �������� − ����� ��������

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• Probability is the study of chance, or the likelihood of an event happening.
������ �� ���������� ��������
• Probability of an event =����� ������ �� ��������
• If probability = 0, the event is impossible and if probability =1, the event is certain to happen
• All probabilities lie between 0 and 1.
• Exclusive events:
• Two events are exclusive if they cannot occur at the same time.
• The OR Rule:
• For exclusive events A and B
• p(A or B) = p(A) + p(B)
• Independent events:
• Two events are independent if occurrence of one is unaffected by occurrence of other.
• The AND Rule:
• p(A and B) = p(A) × p(B)
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• Linear sequences:
• Find common difference e.g. 3 then multiply by � and work out what needs to be added
• Quadratic sequences:
• Format: ��2 + �� + �
�+�+�=
3� + � =
2� =
• Work out the values and then place into formula to work out nth term formula
• Geometric progression:
• Sequence where term has been multiplied by a constant to form next term
• ��ℎ ���� �� �. 𝑃. = ��(�−1)
• a = 1st term r = common difference

Page 39