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1.0 DIRECT CURRENT GENERATORS

1.1 INTRODUCTION

D.C and A.C generators, also D.C and A.C motors are both known as the electric machine. A
"generator" and "motor" are essentially the same thing:
What you call it depends on whether electricity is going into the unit or coming out of it.

Electric Machine

Figure 1A

1.2 GENERATOR

GENERATOR is machine that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy.

Mechanical energy D.C Machine

prime mover from : Electrical energy:
hydroelectric dams, + Lamp, Fan, Motor,
wind turbines, - Computer and ect.
gas turbine and ect.

Figure 1B
The explanation:
Conversion of mechanical energy into electricity is through the conductor cuts the magnetic flux
in which the occurrence of E.M.F in the conductor.

Figure 1C

An emf is produced when a conductor cuts a magnetic field.

This is evidenced by: Faraday's Law , where Faraday states that when the flux cutting the
conductor will be induced in the E.M.F and E.M.F. conductor is proportional to the flux
cutting.

Mathematically, for a conductor of N turns of wire, cutting through a magnetic flux of ∆ in a

time of ∆t, the emf e, induced across the ends of the conductor is :
Know : The magnetic flux is geven by :  = B.A
Where Eemf is the electromotive force in volts and dφ is the change of
magnetic flux in webers in a change of time dt in seconds and N is the
turn-loop.

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1.3 BASIC CONSTRUCTION DC GENERATORS CONSISTS OF TWO PARTS:

i. Moving parts - of the armature.

ii. Stationary part - consists of yok (frame), poles core and fields winding.

1.4 THREE FACTORS DETERMINE THE E.M.F IS GENERATED IN THE ARMATURE.

i. The strength of the magnetic field, (φ)

ii. Number of conductors armature, (Z)
iii. Armature speed rate, (N)
Fleming Left Hand rule is mainly
applicable for electric motor
Single Coil Magnetic and Fleming Right Hand rule is
Flux mainly applicable for electric
generator.

Pole

FLAMING RIGHT HAND RULE

Figure 1D. DC Generator Construction Basic diagram.
FLA
Principle Of Operations
 This generator consists of a pair of poles and a single coil is connected to a pair of
Flaming Right Hand Rule
commutators and carbon brushes.
 If the coil is rotated conductor coil means cutting the magnetic field produced by the
main poles.
 These cuts will generate E.M.F in the coil conductor. E.M.F produced will be through
the commutators and carbon brushes to the load circuit.
 Where is the commutator function is to convert from a.c to d.c.

2.0 DESCRIPTION OF THE WAVES E.M.F. IN THE COIL CONDUCTOR (ARMATURE).

The figure below shows the E.M.F waves generated in the armature conductor when rotated
by 3600. It can be seen in the diagram below, when a conductor is rotated in a magnetic field
induced two poles will E.M.F first half cycle (cycle + ve) and the opposite half of the second cycle
(cycle-ve) resulting E.M.F is shaped shuttle (a.c ). If the conductor loop is connected to the
commutators and carbon brushes to the external circuit that would produce supply at to the
circuit. If the conductor loop is connected with a pair of slip rings and carbon brushes to the
external circuit that would produce a.c. supply to the circuit.

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Figure 2A

3.0 MAIN PARTS OF A D.C. MACHINE (generator and motor)

Figure 3A

Num. Parts Function Construction

1 Armature  Armature conductor, are placed in this  High permeability low

(core and slots. reluctance materials such as
winding)  When armature winding is rotated cast or iron.
using prime mover, the magnetic flux  The lamination is provided so
and voltage gets induced in it as to reduce the loss due to
 Armature winding is connected to eddy current.
external circuit.  Armature winding - it is
made of conducting material
such as coppers.
2 Yok/Frame  It provide mechanical support for  For small machine yoke is
poles. made of cast iron.
 It provide protection to whole  For large machine it is made
machine from dust, moisture etc. of cast steel or rolled steel.
 It carries magnetic flux produced by
the poles.
 Yoke is also called as frame.
3 Commutator  It convert a.c. to d.c.  It is made of a large number
 It collects the current form armature of edge shaped segments of
conductor and pass it load with the hard drawn copper and are
help of brushes. insulated from each other by
thin layer of mica.

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4 Pole and  Pole of a generator is an  Pole core or pole made of

field electromagnet. cast iron or cast steel.
windings  Pole provides magnetic flux when  It built of these laminations
field winding is excited. of annealed steel. The
 When Current is passed through field laminations is done to reduce
winding it electro magnetize the poles the power lose due to eddy
which produce necessary flux. currents.
 It is connected in series or shunt to  Field winding - The material
from field winding. used for field conductor is
copper.
5 Carbon  Brushes collect the current from  Brushes are made of carbon
brushes commutator and apply it to external or graphite it is rectangular in
load. shape.

4.0 TYPES OF D.C GENERATORS

i. Separate Excitation Generator
ii. Self Excitation Generator
4.1 SEPARATE EXCITATION GENERATOR
o Magnetic field coil connected to an external supply source.
o Can control the field current advantages more effectively.
o Used in automatic control systems.

D.C. Shunt
Generator
Separate
Excitation

Figure 4A

4.2 SELF EXCITATION GENERATOR

Coil fields get energy from currents produced by the generator itself. This
caused by residual magnetism which is slightly magnetic field always found in the polar
enough to allow it to generate e.m.f.

4.2.1 Three Types of Self-excitation of generators.

a. Series generator
b. Parallel generator
c. Compound generators
i. Compound short shunt.
ii. Compound long shunt.

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a. Shunt wound D.C. Generator have field windings and armature windings connected
in parallel (shunt). The output varies inversely with load current. It contains many turns
of fine wires. When a generator is in operation, whether or not it is delivering load
current, the shunt field is always excited.

Shunt Generator

Figure 4C

b. Series wound D.C. Generator have field windings and armature windings connected
in series. Outputs vary directly with load currents. Series-wound generators have few
practical applications. It has few turns of heavy wires. When a generator is in operation,
the series field is excited only when a load current is being supplied. In series generator,
therefore, the terminal voltage is very low at light loads because of the excitation or
load current is low.

Series Generator

Figure 4D

c. Compound wound D.C. Generator have both series field windings and shunt field
windings. These generators combine the characteristics of series and shunt generators.
The output voltage remains relatively constant for all values of load current within the
design of the generator. Compound generators are used in many applications because
of the relatively constant voltage.

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i. Short Shunt - shunt field winding directly in parallel with the armature brushes and
the series field winding connected between the parallel combination of shunt field
and armature.

Short Shunt Compound Generator

Figure 4E

ii. Long Shunt - shunt field is connected in parallel with the series field and armature.

Long Shunt Compound Generator

Figure 4F

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4.3 CHARACTERISTICS SERIES AND SHUNT COIL

Series Coil - a series of large coil of wire size and girth slightly lower resistance and
can carry large currents.
Shunt Coil - shunt coil of small wire size and girth lot, high resistance and capable of
bringing a small currents.

5.0 CHARACTERISTICS OF D.C GENERATORS :

Series Shunt Short Compound Long Compound

Field coil Shunt field coil conductor Loop series and Loop series and
conductor connected in parallel shunt fields merge. shunt fields merge.
connected series with the armature and
with the load.
armature.

Increase the The output voltage Better voltage Better voltage

output voltage decreases when the field adjustment. adjustment.
when the load voltage decreases.
increases.

Loop field a little Loop field a lot but its

and large size. small size. Able to bring a
Capable of little stream.
carrying large
currents.

6.0 TWO TYPES OF ARMATURE WINDINGS IN D.C MACHINES

i. Lap Winding (Belitan Tindih)

In lap winding, the finishing end of the coil
is connected to a commutator segment and
starting end of the following coil.

a=mP
a = number of parallel path between brushes
m = multiplex
P = pole

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ii. Wave Winding (Belitan Gelombang)

In wave winding, a conductor under one pole is
connected at the back to a conductor which
occupies an almost corresponding position under
the next pole which is of opposite polarity coil.

a=2m
a = number of parallel path between brushes
m = multiplex
COMMUTATOR COMMUTATOR
SEGMENTS

Related to the armature winding:

i. The number of armature conductors (or armature slots) per pole. e.g if there are 36
conductors and 4 poles, the pole pitch is 36/4=9.
ii. Winding can be done as single layer or double layer. Winding may be simplex, duplex or
multiplex, and this multiplicity affects number of parallel paths.

Advantages of Lap Winding

i. This winding is necessarily required for large current application because it has more
parallel paths.
ii. It is suitable for low voltage and high current generators.

Disadvantages of Lap Winding

i. It gives less emf compared to wave winding. This winding is required more no. of
conductors for giving the same emf, it results high winding cost.
ii. It has less efficient utilization of space in the armature slots.

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7.0 ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (E.M.F.) EQUATION IN D.C. GENERATOR

Let know,
Φ = flux/pole in weber
Z = total number of armture conductors
= No. of slots x No. of conductors/slot
P = No. of generator poles
A = No. of parallel paths in armature
N = armature rotation in revolutions per minute (r.p.m)
E = e.m.f induced in any parallel path in armature

E.M.F. GENERATED IN DC GENERATOR

A = m P (for lap winding)

A = 2 m (for-wave winding)

{ m= multipleks and P = Pole }

Where , Z = 2 x C x Nc or
Z = No. of slots x No. of conductors/slot
Z = total number of armture conductor
C = Number of coil and
Nc = Number of turn per coil

Note:
1 revolution = 2π radians and 1 minute = 60 seconds
N = 1 revolution per minute = ( 2π radians)/(60 seconds)

8.0 ARMATURE REACTION

Is the effect of the reaction magnetic field produced by the armature currents of main pole flux
distribution.
Old Neutral Plane

Rotation
New Neutral Plane

Magnetic Field
Resulting from
Interaction

Figure (8A)

Figure above (8A), shows a combination of main pole field flux and armature flux.

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The effect of main reaction flux and flux pole armature, causing the magnetic field of main poles
down. If referred to the carbon brush (neutral axis) is changed forward slightly as the
rotation of the armature. If the carbon brushes (neutral axis) does not change the original position,
it will produce a spark. This condition can cause the generator voltage output is affected.

8.1 Impact From Reactions Armature Will Cause:

i. Main poles flux is weak.

ii. The output voltage is affected.
iii. Position of neutral axis changes.

8.2 Armature Reaction How To Resolve Are:

i. Pole surface is made slot.,

ii. End poles made slot.
iii. Create a compensating winding.
iv. Increasing poles between

Between the poles - is a small pole that is located between the main poles. Saiz and the
windings of the strings a bit.

9.0 LOSSES IN THE GENERATORS

a. There are two types of Copper Losses, namely:

i. Armature losses
Pa = Ia2 x Ra
ii. Field losses
Pf = Ish2 x Rsh and Pse = Ise2 x Rse

iii. Total Copper Loss = (Ia2 x Ra) + (Ish2 x Rsh) + (Ise2 x Rse)
b. The are two types of Magnetic Losses, namely:
i. Hysteresis losses
Caused by magnetic field inversion occurs in the iron core when spinning
under the north and south poles. Can be reduced by selecting the
appropriate metal.

ii. Eddy current losses

Caused by the EMF resulting in the deletion flux armature core. EMF produced
small, but its current is large because a large armature core and a low resistance.
Can be reduced by making multi-layered core.

c. Mechanical Losses
Due to friction in the bearings and the commutators and the wind resistance when the
armature rotates.

** Stray Losses
The magnetic and mechanical losses together are called stray losses. For the shunt and
compound d.c. machines where field current is constant, field copper losses are also
constant. Thus stray losses along with constant field copper losses are called constant losses.

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While the armature current is dependent on the load and thus armature copper losses are
called variable losses.

10. EFFICIENCY
D.C. generator power level in which there are three levels,

i. Machnical Power , Input from Prime Mover (Pin = 1hp x 746 watts) ---> Pinput A
@ (Pinput = Poutput + Total Losses)

ii. Electrical Power , Produced in the Armature (Pa = Eg x Ia) --------------> Pgenerated B

iii. Electric Power , Output to the Load circuit (Pout = VL x IL) -----------------> Poutput C

Machnical Efficiency = (Eg x Ia) / (hp x 746 watts) B/A

Electrical Efficiency = (VL x IL) / (Eg x Ia) C/B
Overall efficiency = (VL x IL) / (hp x 746 watts) C/A
Efficiency,  = Poutput / Pinput,
Torque force Mover (TSH)

Tsh = (Total Pinput)  (2 N / 60)

= (Poutput /  )  (2 N / 60)

11. SERIES GENERATOR CHARACTERISTICS

Armature and field circuit is connected series. So magnatic field current and directly proportional
to load current.
When generating a series conducted without the burden of connection there is little e.m.f.
terminal voltage is generated.
When the load is connected to the terminal voltage will increase, due to a series circuit to be
complete circuit .

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When the circuit is complete with a large current can flow and cause flux and generated voltage
increases. This situation occurs as the magnetic circuit becomes saturated.

12. SHUNT GENERATOR CHARACTERISTICS

When the generator armature is rotated loop will cut flux magnetic balance, the e.m.f. will be
produced in the armature coil.
Given that the shunt field coil connected in parallel with the armature coil, the current to flow in a
bypass loop field.
Current flow in the shunt field will increasingly seek to strengthen flux magnetic field, due to the
stronger magnetic field generated by the e.m.f is also increasing.
The process of increase in voltage in the generator will continue until the magnetic circuit becomes
saturated.
When the saturation point has been reached e.m.f. generated will decrease the field current as
well. So e.m.f. field current will generate just enough to maintain current flow only field.

13. COMPOUND GENERATOR CHARACTERISTICS

When e.m.f. generated increased, as the load increases, then it was termed the first compound.
(This type of motor used if the distance between the generator with remote load. Increase in
e.m.f. can menatasi fell in line voltage supply)
When e.m.f. generated almost the same at no load or full load conditions, it is termed a

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compound distribution. (This type of motor used in the place where the location is close to the
generator load)
When e.m.f. generated during a full load of less than e.m.f. at no load, it was termed the
reduced compound. (This type of motor is used where a simple short circuit occurs).

14. VOLTAGE REGULATION

The change in terminal voltage of a generator between full and no load (at constant speed) is
called the voltage regulation, usually expressed as a percentage of the voltage at full-load.

VNL - VFL
% Voltage regulation = x 100
VFL

where VNL = Terminal voltage of generator at no load.

VFL = Terminal voltage of generator at full load

Note that voltage regulation of a generator is determined with field circuit and speed held
constant. If the voltage regulation of a generator is 10%, it means that terminal voltage increases
10% as the load is changed from full load to no load

Example Question:

1) A four-pole generator, having lap-wound armature winding has 51 slot, each slot containing 20
conductors. What will be the voltage generated in the machine when driven at 1500 r.p.m
assuming the flux per pole to be 7 mWb.

(Answ. Z = 1020 and Eg=178.5Volt)

2) A shunt generator delivers 450A at 230V and the resistance of the shunt field and armature are 50Ω
and 0.03Ωrespectively. Calculate the generated e.m.f.

(Answ. Ish=4.6A, Ia=454.6A, Va=13.6Volt, Eg=243.6 Volt)

3) An 8-pole D.C shunt generator with 778 wave-connected armature conductors and running at 500 r.p.m
. Supplies a load of 12.5Ω resistance at terminal voltage of 250V. The armature resistance is 0.24Ω and
the field resistance is 250Ω. Find the armature current, the induced e.m.f and the flux per pole.

(Answ. IL=20A, Ish=1A, Ia=21A, Eg = 255.04Volt ,  = 9.823mWeber)

4) A 4-pole, long-shunt lap-wound compound generator delivers a load current of 50A at 500V. The
armature resistance is 0.03 Ω, series field resistance is 0.04Ω and shunt field resistance is 200Ω. The
brush drop may be taken as 1V. Determine the e.m.f. generated. Calculate also the no. of
conductors if the speed is 1200 r.p.m and flux per poles 0.02 Wb. Neglect armature reaction.

(Answ. Ish=2.5A, Ia=52.5A, Vs=2.1Volt, Va=1.575Volt, Vbrush=2Volt, Eg=505.67Volt, Z=1264 loop)

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5) A shunt DC generator running at 1000 r.p.m delivers 22 KW at terminal voltage of 220V. The
resistances of the armature and the shunt field are 0.05 and 110 ohm respectively. The overall
efficiency at the above load is 88%. Find:
a) Copper losses
b) Core and friction losses
c) The input torque to the generator
d) The developed power
e) If the number of conductors of the armature is 540, lap winding, find the flux per pole.

6) What term is used for the power-producing component of an alternator, generator, dynamo or
motor?
a. Rotor b. Stator c. Armature d) Field

7) What term is used for the magnetic field component of an alternator, generator, dynamo or
motor?
a. Rotor b. Stator c. Armature d) Field

8) In series motor ,torque is ?

a. directly proportional to I b. directly proportional to square of I
c. inversaly proportional to I d. inversaly proportional to square of I

9) Which are the two main mechanical parts in a generator?

a. Rotor and Stator b. Wire and Copper Disk
c. Armature and Field d. Magnet and Copper Disk

10) What term is used for the power-producing component of an alternator, generator, dynamo or motor?
a. Rotor b. Stator c. Armature d) Field

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