HISTORICAL ANTECEDENTS OF SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY

The Three Age System of the Ancient Age

1. The Stone Age

is the longest time period in the human timeline...

You could take all the following time periods (to the modern day) together, multiply them several times,
and the Stone Age would still be longer. However the Stone Age starts and ends in different places at
different times. The first period in the Stone Age: The Palaeolithic, is longer than the following time
periods put together too! In Britain, the Palaeolithic lasts at least 900,000 years, while the following time
periods to the modern day are only around 12,000 years combined!

Paleolithic Period or the Old Stone Age

When did the Paleolithic Period begin? The onset of the Paleolithic Period has traditionally coincided
with the first evidence of tool construction and use by Homo some 2.58 million years ago, near the
beginning of the Pleistocene Epoch (2.58 million to 11,700 years ago).

The three main characteristics of the Paleolithic Age are as follows:

The inhabitants were dependent on their environment. Men were hunters and women were gatherers.

Used simple tools.

Nomadic style of life was practiced.

Mesolithic Period/ Middle Stone Age

During the Mesolithic period (about 10,000 B.C. to 8,000 B.C.), humans used small stone tools, now also
polished and sometimes crafted with points and attached to antlers, bone or wood to serve as spears
and arrows.

The main characteristics of this period are mentioned below : (i) During this age man had invented the
small tools like spearheads, arrow heads etc. (ii) The man of Mesolithic Age had started taming the dogs
for the hunting purpose. (iii) The man of this age was still a food collector and not a food producer.

The Neolithic Era began when some groups of humans gave up the nomadic, hunter-gatherer lifestyle
completely to begin farming. It may have taken humans hundreds or even thousands of years to
transition fully from a lifestyle of subsisting on wild plants to keeping small gardens and later tending
large crop fields.

The Neolithic period is the final division of the Stone Age, with a wide-ranging set of developments that
appear to have arisen independently in several parts of the world.

The period from the beginning of agriculture to the widespread use of bronze about 10, 000- 4, 500 BC is
called the Neolithic Period (New Stone Age).
 2. The Bronze Age marked the first time humans started to work with metal. Bronze tools and
weapons soon replaced earlier stone versions. Ancient Sumerians in the Middle East may have
been the first people to enter the Bronze Age.

What was life like in the Bronze Age?

Large areas of land were covered by forest, so it was much easier to transport goods by river. By the
start of the Bronze Age, people in Britain had learned to tame horses. Then, around 1000BC, they
learned to make carts with wheels. Some farmers travelled on horseback or used wooden carts, pulled
by horses or oxen.

The Bronze Age was characterized by the production of the metal bronze (an alloy of copper and tin),
the development of a wide range of functional and precious metalwork, and an increase in economic
productivity and the consequent emergence of skilled workers, many of whom were involved in artistic
activity, albeit of a semi-functional nature. Ornamental and decorative designs on helmets, body
armour, swords, axe-heads and other weapons became more widespread. Ceramic designs became
more elegant, and a new range of ceremonial/religious artifacts and artworks began to emerge. Also,
late prehistoric sculpture blossomed, taking full advantage of bronze casting methods.

3. IRON AGE

What are the technology during the Iron Age?

By the time tin became available again, iron was cheaper, stronger and lighter, and forged iron replaced
bronze tools permanently. During the Iron Age, the best tools and weapons were made from steel,
particularly carbon alloys. Steel weapons and tools were nearly the same weight as those of bronze, but
much stronger.

Iron was tougher than bronze, so Iron Age people could create sharp tools like swords and spears. They
also made harvesting devices from iron, like plough (Ard) and sickles. Iron tools played a very important
role within the development of cultures and societies and therefore the establishment of kingdoms.

Middle Ages (450 AD- 1450AD)

Though there is a dispute as to the exact years that bookend the Middle Ages, most sources say 500 A.D.
to 1450 A.D. Many history books call this time the Dark Ages as it reflected a lull in learning and literacy,
but, in fact, there were plenty of inventions and highlights during this time.

The time period was known for its famine, plague, feuding and warring, namely the biggest period of
bloodshed was during the Crusades. The church was the overwhelming power in the West and the most
educated people were the clergy. While there was a suppression of knowledge and learning, the Middle
Ages continued to be a period full of discovery and innovation, especially in the Far East. A lot of
inventions sprouted from Chinese culture. The following highlights range from the year 1000 to 1400.
Paper Money as Currency

In 1023, the first government-issued paper money was printed in China. Paper money was an innovation
that replaced paper money that had been issued by private enterprises in the early 10th century in the
Szechuan province. When he returned to Europe, Marco Polo wrote a chapter about paper money, but
paper money did not take off in Europe until Sweden began printing paper currency in 1601.

Movable Type Printing Press

Although Johannes Gutenberg is usually credited with inventing the first printing press about 400 years
later, it was, in fact, Han Chinese innovator Bi Sheng (990–1051) during the Northern Song Dynasty
(960–1127), who gave us the world's first movable type printing press technology. He printed paper
books from ceramic porcelain china materials around 1045.

Magnetic Compass

The magnetic compass was "rediscovered" in 1182 by the European world for maritime use. Despite
European claims to the invention, it was first used by the Chinese around 200 A.D. mainly for fortune-
telling. The Chinese used the magnetic compass for sea travel in the 11th century.

Buttons for Clothing

Functional buttons with buttonholes for fastening or closing clothes made their first appearance in
Germany in the 13th century. Prior to that time, buttons were ornamental rather than functional.
Buttons became widespread with the rise of snug-fitting garments in 13th- and 14th-century Europe.

The use of buttons used as adornment or decoration have been found dating back to the Indus Valley
Civilization around 2800 B.C., China around 2000 B.C. and the ancient Roman civilization.

The oldest button was found in the Mohenjo-daro region in the Indus Valley, now known as modern day
Pakistan. It is estimated to be around 5000 years old, with a decorative flat face that fits into a loop, and
is primarily made out of curved shell.

Numbering System

Italian mathematician, Leonardo Fibonacci introduced the Hindu-Arabic numbering system to the
Western World primarily through his composition in 1202 of Liber Abaci, also known as "The Book of
Calculation." He also introduced Europe to the sequence of Fibonacci numbers.

Gun

It is hypothesized that the Chinese invented black powder during the 9th century. A couple hundred
years later, a gun or firearm was invented by Chinese innovators around 1250 for usage as a signaling
and celebration device and remained as such for hundreds of years. The oldest surviving firearm is the
Heilongjiang hand cannon, which dates back to 1288.

Eyeglasses

It is estimated about 1268 in Italy, the earliest version of eyeglasses was invented. They were used by
monks and scholars. They were held in front of the eyes or balanced on the nose. Eyeglasses were said
to have been created by Salvino D'Armati in Italy during the 13th century. It all started with the
invention of two convex lenses placed in a wooden setting, with a shaft held together with a rivet. The
wearer held it to his face to improve his vision.

Mechanical Clocks

A major advance occurred with the invention of the verge escapement, which made possible the first
mechanical clocks around 1280 in Europe. A verge escapement is a mechanism in a mechanical clock
that controls its rate by allowing the gear train to advance at regular intervals or ticks. Pope Sylvester II
built a clock for a German town in 996 and it is considered one of the oldest clocks. By the 11th century,
clocks were being used in different parts of Europe.

Windmills

The earliest recorded use of windmills found by archaeologists is 1219 in China. Early windmills were
used to power grain mills and water pumps. The concept of the windmill spread to Europe after the
Crusades. The earliest European designs, documented in 1270. In general, these mills had four blades
mounted on a central post. They had a cog and ring gear that translated the horizontal motion of the
central shaft into vertical motion for the grindstone or wheel which would then be used for pumping
water or grinding grain.

Modern Glassmaking

The 11th century saw the emergence in Germany of new ways of making sheet glass by blowing
spheres. The spheres were then formed into cylinders and then cut while still hot, after which the sheets
were flattened. This technique was perfected in 13th century Venice around 1295. What made Venetian
Murano glass significantly different was that the local quartz pebbles were almost pure silica, which
made the clearest and purest glass. The Venetian ability to produce this superior form of glass resulted
in a trade advantage over other glass producing lands.

First Sawmill for Shipmaking

In 1328, some historical sources show that a sawmill was developed to form lumber to build ships. A
blade is pulled back and forth using a reciprocating saw and water wheel system.
Brief History of Science

Humankind has always been inquisitive, needing to understand why things behave in a certain way, and
trying to link observation with prediction. For example, since prehistoric times we have observed the
heavens and tried to make sense of the seasonal changes in the position of the sun, moon and stars. In
about 4000 BC, the Mesopotamians tried to explain their observations by suggesting that the Earth was
at the center of the Universe, and that the other heavenly bodies moved around it. Humans have always
been interested in the nature and origins of this Universe.

Metallurgy

But they weren't only interested in astronomy. The extraction of iron, which led to the Iron Age, is a
chemical process which early metallurgists developed without understanding any of the science
involved. Nevertheless, they were still able to optimise the extraction by trial and error. Before this,
copper and tin were extracted (which led to the Bronze Age) and later, zinc. Exactly how each of these
processes was discovered is lost in the mists of time, but it is likely that they were developed using
observation and experiment in a similar way to that used by today's scientists.

Medicine

Early humankind also observed that certain plants could be used to treat sickness and disease, and
herbal medicines were developed, some of which are still used by modern pharmaceutical companies to
provide leads for new synthetic drugs.

The Greeks

The first people to try and develop the theory behind their observations were the Greeks: people such
as Pythagoras, who concentrated on a mathematical view of the world. Similarly, Aristotle and Plato
developed logical methods for examining the world around them. It was the Greeks who first suggested
that matter was made up of atoms — fundamental particles that could not be broken down further.

But it wasn't only the Greeks who moved science on. Science was also being developed in India, China,
the Middle East and South America. Despite having their own cultural view of the world, they each
independently developed materials such as gunpowder, soap and paper. However, it wasn't until the
13th century that much of this scientific work was brought together in European universities, and that it
started to look more like science as we know it today. Progress was relatively slow at first. For example,
it took until the 16th century for Copernicus to revolutionise (literally) the way that we look at the
Universe, and for Harvey to put forward his ideas on how blood circulated round the human body. This
slow progress was sometimes the result of religious dogma, but it was also a product of troubled times!

The Birth of Modern Science

It was in the 17th century that modern science was really born, and the world began to be examined
more closely, using instruments such as the telescope, microscope, clock and barometer. It was also at
this time that scientific laws started to be put forward for such phenomena as gravity and the way that
the volume, pressure and temperature of a gas are related. In the 18th century much of basic biology
and chemistry was developed as part of the Age of Enlightenment.

The 19th century saw some of the great names of science: people like the chemist John Dalton, who
developed the atomic theory of matter, Michael Faraday and James Maxwell who both put forward
theories concerning electricity and magnetism, and Charles Darwin, who proposed the (still)
controversial theory of evolution. Each of these developments forced scientists radically to re-examine
their views of the way in which the world worked.

The last century brought discoveries such as relativity and quantum mechanics, which, again, required
scientists to look at things in a completely different way. It makes you wonder what the iconoclastic
discoveries of this century will be.

The table below sets out the time-scale of some of the major events in Earth history and developments
in science and technology. It shows something of the parallel development of human communication
and of science and its technological applications, set in the context of Earth history as a whole. The years
before present (BP) shown in this table are, of course, approximate, in that they merely imply 'about
that long ago'. As far as the older times are concerned, clearly no scientist could prove that the Earth
was formed exactly 4,600,000,000 years ago, or that the first human settlements were established
12,000 years ago.

Years BP Events in Earth

History
4 600 000 000 Earth and planets in the
solar system formed
3 800 000 000 first evidence of life
440 000 000 evolution of first land
plants
400 000 000 evolution of first land
animals
3 000 000 evolution of first
hominids (human-like
creatures)
Developments in Developments in
science and communication
technology
35 000 fluent human speech
12 000 first human settlements
9 000 use of stone tools
6 000 first primitive writing
based on pictures (Egypt
and Mesopotamia)
5 800 first use of bronze (alloy
of tin and copper)
3 700 first alphabet developed
(Palestine)
3 500 first use of iron
2 600 era of Greek science,
based on philosophy
(Aristotle, Pythagoras)
1 000 Chinese invented printing
700 experimental science of
William of Occam
500 Earth orbits the Sun first printing press
(Copernicus) (Caxton)
400 circulation of blood
(Harvey)
300 theory of gravity
(Newton); invention of
telescope
200 Industrial Revolution (in
Britain)
150 Theory of evolution by photography invented
natural selection
(Darwin); early railways
100 first powered flight; wireless telegraphy
theory of special invented
relativity (Einstein)
50-60 first fully-electronic
computer
40-50 structure of DNA
(Watson and Crick); first
human in Earth orbit
(Gagarin)
30-40 first human on the moon computers with silicon
(Armstrong) chips
0-20 Human Genome lap-top computers;
Mapping Project; communications
multiple organ networking; the Internet;
transplants artificial intelligence

PHYSICS TIMELINE

Event Time Period

Babylonians collected information of planets and stars 2000 BC to 1600 BC

Ancient Indians explained the evolution of universe and also 1500 BC to 1000 BC
explained about sun, moon, earth, and other planets

Greek philosopher Anaxagoras explained the physical During 5th Century BC

universe

Two Greek philosophers namely Leucippus and Democritus During 5th Century BC
established the school of Atomism

Aristotle, the Greek philosopher, described a geocentric During 4th Century BC

universe

The Greek philosopher Heraclides explained the motions of During 4th Century BC
planets and stars

Eratosthenes, the Greek mathematical geographer proposed During 3rd Century BC

the round shape of the Earth

Hipparchus was the first who measured the precession of the During 2nd Century BC
equinoxes
Based on Aristotelian ideas, the Roman-Egyptian During 2nd Century AD
mathematician and astronomer Ptolemy described a
geocentric model

The Indian astronomer and mathematician Aryabhata During 5th Century AD

described the earth’s elliptical orbit around the sun and its
axis (heliocentric view)

Brahmagupta, the Indian mathematician and astronomer During 7th Century AD

noticed the gravity of earth

Abu al-Rayhan al-Biruni, the Persian astronomer described During 11th Century AD
the Earth's gravitation.

Nicolaus Copernicus, the Polish astronomer and polymath During 16th Century Ad
explained the heliocentric principal scientifically

Johannes Kepler, the German mathematician and astronomer During 17th Century AD
propounded Laws of Planetary Motion

Galileo Galilei, the Italian mathematician and physicist During 17th Century AD
invented an astronomical telescope

Sir Isaac Newton, the English mathematician, astronomer, During 17th Century AD
and physicist propounded Laws of Motions and Universal Law
of Gravitation

Emanuel Swedenborg first suggested parts of the nebular 1734 AD

hypothesis

Immanuel Kant publishing “Universal Natural History and 1755 AD

Theory of the Heavens,” and explained nebular hypothesis
Max Planck, the German physicist described the law of black During 20th Century AD
body radiation and led the foundation of quantum physics

Albert Einstein, the German physicist propounded the theory During the 20th Century AD
relativity

Max Planck introduced formula for Black Body radiation 1900 AD

Kamerlingh Onnes experimented and noticed 1911 AD

superconductivity

Wolfgang Pauli, the Austrian theoretical physicist proposed an 1925 AD

important quantum mechanical principle namely the ‘Pauli
exclusion principle’

Georges Lemaître proposed Big Bang theory 1927 AD

Edwin Hubble explained the expanding nature of universe 1929 AD

(known as Hubble’s Law)

Otto Hahn discovered nuclear fission discovered 1938 AD

Black Hole Entropy 1972 AD

Richard Feynman proposes quantum computing 1980 AD

Theory of cosmic inflation 1981 AD

Top quark discovered 1995 AD

Gravitational waves detected 2015 AD

Major Discoveries in Biology