ACKNOWLEDGEME

NT
I would like to take this opportunity to express my sincere thanks to our beloved school
Liceo di San Lorenzo and to all the administrators who were given me an opportunity to
share my knowledge and skills.

I would like to acknowledge and give thanks to our principal who made this work
possible. His guidance and advice carried me through all my journey in writing this book.
He also told me such wise things about writing and help me reach the full potential,
supporting my vision and putting up all my cover ideas.

I would also like to give thanks to my family for their continuous support and
understanding while undertaking this book.

Finally, thank God, for letting me through all the difficulties. I have felt and experienced
your guidance day by day. You are the one who let me finish this book. I will keep
trusting you.
DEDICATION

I, wholeheartedly dedicated to my family who will be my source of inspiration and

strength.

This book is dedicated to my mentor who have supported me all throughout the
process.

I also dedicate this book to my friends who shared their words, advice, knowledge,
and encouragement to finish this book.

To my students

Above all, the success of this book is dedicated to Almighty God, for the power of
mind, guidance, and protection.
PREFACE
The Earth Science textbook for Senior High School will be taken up by the
Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) students.

The Earth Science covers the essential field of study in science, including the
acquisition of knowledge through scientific investigations and fundamental
concepts on earth science. It provides meaningful and engaging experiences that
allow learners to demonstrate the basic understanding of Earth and its processes. It
presents the history of the Earth through geologic time as a continuous event. It
discusses the Earth’s structure and composition, the processes both internal and
external as well as issues, concerns, and problems pertaining to Earth’s resources.

This textbook uses modernized enrichment and challenging activities to make

learning science fun, enjoyable and fruitful. It also employs inquiry-based
approach that involves situations in which learners use inductive reasoning
processes to discover patterns, solutions, ideas, and underlying principles and
generalizations. It engages the students to explain science concepts and principles
in their own words.

The Earth Science for Senior High School is divided into three chapters. 1) The
Origin and the Structure of the Earth, 2) Earth Materials and Processes, and 3)
Natural Resources.
Table of Contents
Acknowledgement l
Dedication ll
Preface lll
Table of Contents lV

CHAPTER 1: ORIGIN & STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH 1

FORMATION OF THE UNIVERSE AND THE SOLARSYSTEM
Lesson 1 - The Big Bang Theory
Lesson 2 - The Solar Nebula Hypothesis
Lesson 3 - The Origin of the Solar System
EARTH SYSTEMS
Lesson 4 - Subsystem
(Geosphere, Hydrosphere, Atmosphere, Biosphere)
CHAPTER 2: EARTH MATERIALS AND PROCESSES
MINERALS AND ROCKS
Lesson 1 - Mineral, Mineraloids, Mineral Properties
MINERAL RESOURCES
Lesson 2 - Origin and environment of the Formation of
common minerals and rocks
ENERGY RESOURCES
Lesson 3 - Various sources of energy
WATER RESOURCES
Lesson 4 - The amount of usable water resources on Earth
CHAPTER 3: EARTH PROCESSES
EXOGENIC PROCESSES
Lesson 1 - Weathering, Erosion, Mass Wasting, Deposition
ENDOGENIC PROCESSES
Lesson 2 - Geologic Process within the Earth
DEFORMATION OF THE CRUST
Lesson 3 & 4 – Plate Tectonics
(Continental Drift and Seafloor Spreading)
Glossary of Literary Terms
References

Chapter 1
ORIGIN AND THE STRUCTURE of the
earth

Learning Objectives
In this chapter, you will understand how some theories explain the origin of the
universe, the theories of the origin of the solar system and everything else in it, including
us and the Earth consists of four subsystems across whose boundaries matter and energy
flow.

Formation of the Universe and the Solar System

Theories are what we call tried and tested hypothesis. Although, not as concrete
and standalone as laws, theories have provided the scientific world with a good start with
explaining natural phenomena, and with regard to the formation of the universe, Science
already has an existing theory for that.

Lesson 1

Big Bang Theory (The Formation of the Universe)

The prevailing cosmological model of the early development of the universe is the big
bang theory. It is the most current accepted model of the formation and origin of this
theory.

According to the big bang theory, about 13.7 billion years ago, there was a rapid
expansion which hurled all matter and created space. At the center of this event, all
matter and energy were contained in a compact point called singularity.

1927, George Lemaitre (1894-1966), a Belgian Roman

catholic priest proposed a fundamental statement of the big
bang theory. Lemaitre argued that the physical universe was
initially a single particle, the “primeval atom” as he called it
which disintegrated in an explosion, giving rise to space and
time and the expansion of the universe that continues to this
day. It was later supported by Edwin Hubble’s demonstration
of the continuously expanding universe through his brilliant
observation of the red shifts of galaxies. Ever since 1929 when he discovered that the
universe is expanding, we have known that the further away a galaxy is, the more red-
shifted its light is. This means that the further away the galaxies are, the faster they are
moving. He announced his findings same year as 1929. Lemaitre used Hubble’s
discovery as evidence for his theory.

The cosmic expansion, however, is different from a typical explosion because both matter
and space were created simultaneously. As the consequence of this event, the first
subatomic particles such as protons, neutrons and electrons were formed.

With the universe continuously expanding, it began to cool down, allowing the protons
and neutrons to fuse and form the nucleus. These debris allowed the formation of
simplest atoms Hydrogen and Helium as the first elements. At that point, photons
escaped, and light existed for the very first time.

After 300 million years, stars and galaxies began to form as hydrogen and helium
coalesce with the aid of gravity. The overall composition of the universe transitioned
from light elements to heavier elements from the supernova as the temperature cooled
down. This made solid particles, in the form of nebula, to exist. These nebulae would
later form the star systems and planets known today.

Lesson 2
Solar Nebula Hypothesis (The Birth of a Star)

The Big Bang Theory (formation of the universe) explains the origin of the first element
Hydrogen and Helium that appeared which comprises most of the matter we know today.
But as we learn from our chemistry class, we have more than a hundred elements present
which include the Hydrogen and Helium. So, where did these other elements come from?

Remember that during the Big Bang, the subatomic particles such as protons, neutrons
and electrons are still at a high energy state to slow down and form larger clusters of
atoms. It was only then when the cooling and contraction of the first formed gases like
Hydrogen and Helium allowed these atoms to be closed enough to undergo the process of
nuclear fusion. The nuclear fusion is relevant because it involves the release of
tremendous amount of energy in the form of light, heat, and cosmic rays.

And thus, the first stars are formed from the contraction of gases and the process of
nuclear fusion.
Stars, from what we’ve learned in our science class, is a luminous ball of gases that
shines by radiation derived from its internal energy sources. This is the most widely
accepted hypothesis of planetary formation. This definition still holds true based on the
solar nebula hypothesis. But more than just the glowing part, much of the nuclear fusion
occurs within a star’s interior produces heavier elements that exist in the universe. The
supernova or the death of the stars, can have so much energy to allow the production of
heavier elements in the periodic table. This hypothesis simply means that every element
that are made came from the multiple episodes of the births and deaths of the stars.

Lesson 3

The Origin of the Solar System

In the origin of the universe, there is an era referred to as stars and galaxies formation. A
galaxy is defined as a gravitationally bound system of stars, gas and dust, and matter. The
Milky Way is one of the many galaxies found in the universe.

In the same way that scientist explained the origin of the universe using theories, there
were also theories that were created to explain the origin of the Solar System. Some of
these theories worked around the mechanisms involved the formation of the universe,
while others used to aid of other celestial objects to fit an existing theory.

The Modern Nebular Theory

Observations of very young stars indicate that they are surrounded by dense dusty disks.
While there are still difficulties in explaining some of the problem areas outlined above,
in particular ways to slow down the rotation of the Sun, it is believed that the planets
originated in a dense disk which formed from material in the gas and dust cloud which
collapsed to give the Sun. The density of the disk must be sufficient to allow the
formation of the planets and yet be thin enough for the residual matter to be blown away
by the Sun as its energy output increased.

This theory supported the evidence about the origin of the solar system that formed about
4.5 billion years ago from a dense cloud of interstellar gas and dust. The age of the Solar
System and the planet Earth is approximately 4.54 billion years old. This is based on the
age of meteorites which are believed to have been formed the same time as the rest of the
Solar System.

ACTIVITY 1

“The Universe is Expanding”

Objective:

Create a model of the expansion of the universe.

Materials:
Balloon

Clothespin

Ruler

String

Permanent marker

Procedures:

1. Inflate your balloon until it is about 4 inches (10 cm) in diameter, but do not tie the
end.
2. Using the permanent marker, make six dots on the balloon in widely scattered
locations. Label one dot “home” and the others A-E. The home dot represents the
Milky Way galaxy, and the others represent galaxies formed in early universe.
3. Without letting air out of the balloon, use the string and ruler to measure the
distance from home to each dot. Record the distances in the worksheet table under
the heading “Time 1”.
4. Inflate the balloon so that its diameter is about 2 inches (5cm) bigger. Again,
measure the distances to each of the dots, and record the distances under “Time 2”
on the worksheet.
5. Inflate the balloon 2-inch (5 cm) increments three more times. After each inflation,
measure and record the distances on the worksheet.
6. Answer the follow-up questions on the worksheet.

Record your measurement below.

Distance Time 1 Time 2 Time 3 Time 4 Time 5

from home
 Dot A

Dot B

Dot C

Dot D

Dot E

Guide Question

How did the distance from the home dot to each of the other galaxies change each time
you inflated the balloon?

Earth System

Lesson 4
Subsystems
In your study of Earth, you found out that our planet is dynamic, and each part such as
land, water, air, and life are interconnected and continuously interact with one another. It
focuses on the changes within and among the parts mentioned. The interacting parts in
the Earth’s system are called subsystems. Each subsystem can be studied separately, but
ultimately, they are dependent on and connected with the other subsystems. There are
four subsystems that make up the Earth’s system: geosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere,
and biosphere.

Geosphere

The geosphere refers to the solid Earth. It is the largest of the four spheres, the geosphere
comprises of solid portion of the earth. More than its surface manifestations of mountains
and landmasses, the geosphere extends 6,400 kilometers from the surface down to the
core. We already know that the geosphere is further divided into different layers due to
differentiation.
 1. Crust

The Earth’s thin and rocky outer skin. It is

generally divided into two types based on
composition and physical properties (Oceanic
crust and the Continental crust).

2. Mantle
The mantle is mostly solid bulk of
Earth's interior. It lies between
Earth's dense, super-heated core
and its thin outer layer, the crust.
3. Inner Core and the outer core
The core is the innermost geologic
part of the Earth. The inner core is
the geologic layer of the Earth
primarily a hot, dense solid ball of
mostly Iron. This outer part of the
core has liquid properties while the
outer core is the only liquid layer of the earth composed of Iron and Nickel.

Hydrosphere

The hydrosphere is the totality of the Earth’s water. The hydrosphere includes water that
is on the surface of the planet, underground,
and in the air.

Earth is the only planet in the Solar System

that has water in all its three phases. A
planet's hydrosphere can be liquid, vapor, or ice. In Earth, liquid water exists on the
surface in the form of oceans, lakes, and rivers.

Atmosphere

The atmosphere is the layer of gaseous

envelope that surrounds the planet on the
surface and extends thinly unto space.

It is a mixture of gases which composed of

nitrogen, oxygen, argon, carbon dioxide, and
water vapor. Aside from the presence of
important gases in the atmosphere, its relative
abundance is also crucial.

The air in the atmosphere is generally composed of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and the
remaining 1% is made up of different trace gases.

Biosphere

The biosphere includes all forms of life on

Earth including the ones found in the
deepest parts of the oceans and highest
parts of the atmosphere.

We are all part of the interaction between

the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and
geosphere. Without biosphere, the rest of the other systems would not look like the way
they are now.
Living organisms’ breath (interaction with atmosphere), take in water (interaction to
hydrosphere), and are agents of sedimentation (interaction with geosphere). Our life
processes drive us to be in constant need of interaction with the planet we live in.

ACTIVITY 2

“Concept Map”

1. The class will be divided into four groups.

2. The group is only given 15 minutes to do the task.

3. The group must create or make a concept map.

4. Each member will explain how the geosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere

and biosphere are interconnected.

5. The group will share and explain their concept map in class.

Chapter 2
EARTH MATERIALS AND PROCESSES
Learning Objectives
In this chapter, we will have a deeper understanding of the materials and processes that
occur within the Earth (how they are transformed and converted from one form to
another). We will have a closer look on the different geologic phenomena that reflects
how the earth is constantly changing itself and why it happens.

MINERALS AND ROCKS

Have you seen rocks close enough to ever wonder what they are made of? Believe it or
not, the rocks that you see are made of crystalline materials we call minerals. But what
are minerals? Are they the same as the minerals we get from food for us to grow and
perform bodily functions? Or in any cases, is mineral water different?

Lesson 1

Mineral, Mineraloids, Mineral Properties

Minerals

A mineral is naturally occurring

A mineral is a naturally occurring, inorganic, homogenous solid with definite chemical

composition and ordered internal/ crystalline structure.

The key to understanding minerals is the fact that they are not made by artificial means.

A mineral is homogenous solid

We should be able to see something that is uniform in appearance and is in the solid state
of matter.

This property of minerals is very essential especially when dealing with materials in other
states of matter such as liquid and gases.

A mineral is inorganic

The process to produce a mineral by natural means is extended further by making sure
that no organic material to what once part of an organism was be considered a mineral.

A mineral has an ordered internal/crystalline structure

A crystalline material is something that has its elemental components arranged in an

ordered fashion. This means that the material repeats this order in a three-dimensional
framework that can extend virtually into infinity.

Mineraloids
A mineraloid is a naturally occurring mineral-like substance that does not demonstrate
crystallinity. Most of the time, mineraloids are inorganic, homogenous solids with
definite chemical compositions but with no ordered internal structure.

Examples of mineraloids would be volcanic glass and opal.

Obsidian is a mineraloid. It is a volcanic glass that cools so rapidly that atoms do not
have time to arrange themselves into a crystalline solid. It is a mineraloid from the rapid
cooling of lava or magma.

Opal is
a
mineraloid from the precipitation of silica-rich solutions. It displays a play of color called
“iridescence” from the splitting of light similar to what prism does.

Mineral Properties

Imagine you have a material that passes all the criteria we discussed earlier. This
material that you have now is considered a mineral. Your mineral now possesses
properties that are more or less unique from any other mineral, identification now is
easier.

1. Color

Color is the perceived wavelength of light that bounced off from the material and is
detected by our eyes.

Most of the time, composition dictates what color/hue the mineral will take. But for
some, the crystalline structure will also play a role.

There are instances where color becomes a diagnostic property of a mineral. Diagnostic
means that the mineral will only exhibit a single color regardless of where it came from.
2. Streak

Streak is the color of a mineral in powdered form Minerals show color differently when
ground into fine powder. This is because the presence of smooth surfaces of compact
crystals sometimes reflects light differently compared to a powdered mass.

An example of it would be the mineral pyrite or also known as Fool’s Gold. In hand
specimen, the pyrites exhibits brassy yellow color closely resembling the mineral, Gold.
But upon getting the streak, pyrite will show greenish black color while gold will remain
yellow in color.

3. Luster

Luster is the behavior of light as it reflected by the surface of a mineral.

In the description of luster, minerals are characterized as being Metallic or Non-Metallic.

The minerals having metallic luster reflects light similar to a polish metal. This does not
necessarily mean that a mineral has metallic elements in its composition.

Non-metallic minerals are characterized by luster that is different from the metallic ones.

Non-metallic luster is the type of luster for minerals that do not look metallic.

4. Hardness

Hardness is the resistance of a mineral to scratching. In determining hardness, the

mineral is tested by scratching the surface with the measurable amount of force.

Note : Scratching is different from breaking.

In order to simplify things, we used a standard scale (Moh’s Scale of Hardness) in

relating the hardness of a mineral with a set of minerals with known hardness.

Using different minerals with set hardness 1- 10; 10 being the hardest, the unknown
mineral should be scratch by a harder mineral.
MINERAL RESOURCES
Lesson 2

Origin and Environment of the

Formation of Common Minerals and Rocks

We have discussed earlier what minerals are and the properties used to identify them. At
the same time, we defined rocks as the aggregates of one or more minerals.

For a student of earth sciences, the first question that may come into your mind would
most likely revolve around, why study rocks?

Studying rocks would be an essential part of understanding one of the earth’s system, the
geosphere. These rocks are the components that revolve around the system,
understanding the processes that transform them from one type to another will help us
understand more about the planet as a whole.

What is the origin and environment of formation of common minerals and

rocks?

Igneous rocks and minerals solidify from molten rock, called magma below the Earth's
crust and lava when flowing above ground. These rocks and their mineral components,
presented below, are the result of processes that formed Earth and other rocky planets.
Rocks undergo processes that transform them from one type to another. The processes
that these rocks undergo would dictate the type they will transform to and is a factor of
the environment where the rocks are located.

Rocks

A rock is a naturally occurring aggregate of minerals and/ or other rock fragments. It is a

solid mass of geological materials. Geological materials include individual mineral
crystals, inorganic non-mineral solids like glass, pieces broken from other rocks, and
even fossils.

Classification of Rocks

Igneous Rocks

Igneous Rocks form when hot, molten rock crystallizes and solidifies. “igneous” is a
word used for rocks that have formed by the cooling and hardening of molten lava or
magma, the atoms and molecules of melted minerals are what make up magma.

Igneous rocks are divided into two groups, intrusive or extrusive, depending upon where
the molten rock solidifies.
 Intrusive Igneous Rock forms when
magma remains inside the Earth’s crust
where it cools and solidifies in
chambers with pre-existing rocks.
Extrusive Igneous Rock produced
when magma exits and cools as lava
near the Earth’s surface.

Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary Rocks are formed from pre-existing rocks or pieces of once-living

organisms. They form from deposits that accumulate on the Earth's surface.

Common sedimentary rocks include sandstone, limestone, and shale.

Sandstone Limestone Shale

Metamorphic Rock

Metamorphic Rock started out as some other types of rocks, but have been substantially
changed from their original igneous, sedimentary, or earlier metamorphic form.
Metamorphic rocks form when rocks are subjected to high pressure and high heat.
Metamorphic rocks arise from the transformation of existing rock to new types of rock in
a process called metamorphism.
ENERGY RESOURCES
Lesson 3

Various sources of energy

Energy is the driving force that is able to run and foster the development of civilizations.
Energy is important for our daily activities. Without energy, we won’t be able to do tasks
efficiently. More than just for our personal use, energy is what allows us to refine,
process and manufacture resources to provide the world with a continuous supply of
materials we need, services, and utilities to consume.

What is Energy Resource/s?

An energy resource is something that can produce heat, move objects, power life, or
produce electricity.

Energy Resources are natural resources that can be converted by humans into other
forms of energy in order to do useful work.

Natural Resources are materials from the Earth that are used to support life and meet
people's needs.

Any natural substance that humans use can be considered a natural resource.

Categories of Energy Resources

 Renewable
 Non-Renewable Resources

Renewable Resources
Renewable Resources is a natural resource that can be used and replaced over a
relatively short period of time.

1. Biomass

Biomass is an organic matter that

contains stored energy or energy
produced by heat within the Earth’s
crust. It feed stocks
include dedicated energy crops,
agricultural crop residues, forestry
residues, algae, wood processing
residues, municipal waste, and wet
waste.

2. Geothermal Energy

Geothermal Energy is heat within the

earth. Geothermal energy is a clean,
renewable resource that can be
harnessed for use as heat and
electricity.

3. Hydroelectric Energy

Hydroelectric Energy is a form

of renewable energy that uses
the power of moving water to
generate electricity.
Hydroelectric power generates power by using a dam or diversion structure to alter the
natural flow of a river or other body of water.

4. Solar Energy

Solar Energy is a power or heat that

comes from the sun that is converted
into thermal or electrical
energy. Solar energy is the cleanest
and most abundant renewable energy.

5. Wind Energy

Wind energy is the process by which

the wind is used to generate
mechanical power or electricity.

The wind turbines convert the kinetic

energy in the wind into mechanical
power.

Non-Renewable Resources

Non-Renewable Resources are energy resources that cannot be replaced or can

only be replaced over thousands and millions of years.

1. Coal

Coal is a sedimentary rock made

from the compaction of organic
material that has not decayed
completely. Just like petroleum, coal is also considered as a fossil fuel. Coal is
obtained either by mining deep beneath the Earth’s surface or by strip mining.

2. Petroleum

Petroleum usually synonymous with energy from hydrocarbons, includes oil and natural
gas.

Petroleum formation takes a considerable amount of geologic time but not too long
enough that the collecting oil or gas starts to degrade or disseminate from the reservoir.

Petroleum is easy to refine from impurities because of its lightweight and volatile
character.

3. Crude Oil

Crude oil is a raw natural resource that is

extracted from the earth and refined into
products such as gasoline, jet fuel, and
other petroleum products.

Crude oil is a global commodity that

trades in markets around the world, both as
spot oil and via derivatives contracts.

4. Nuclear

Nuclear reactions like fission, fusion and

decay release tremendous amounts of
heat useful for the transformation of
water to steam which will run turbines.
Nuclear energy is a non-renewable energy source that comes from the nucleus of atoms.

Nuclear fusion is when the nuclei of atoms are combined or fused together. Nuclear
fission is when the nuclei of atoms are split apart.

ACTIVITY 3

Make a comic strip related to the categories of Energy Resources

namely, Renewable and Non-renewable.

Steps in making a comic strip:

1. Think and write your own ideas for your comic. A comic strip is almost similar in
writing a short story.

2. Draw the three frames.

3. Use shapes to draw based on your own decision.

4. Add the speech and lettering.

5. Add details to your comic strip or cartoon.

6. Go over your comic in pen.

7. Materials needed are oslo paper, coloring materials, pen, pencil or marker.

8. Make sure that it is neat, creative and presentable.

SAMPLE COMIC STRIP

WATER RESOURCES
Lesson 4

The amount of usable water

resources on Earth

The human body is made up of approximately 70 % water. In the same way 70 % of the
earth is covered by water. Without water, the earth would be very similar to the lifeless
planets we know today. We have learned that water drives most chemical reactions vital
to life. More than the use for bodily functions, water has been very essential resource that
allowed civilizations to develop and grow to present day.
Water Resources

Water Resources are natural resources of water that are potentially useful as a source of
water supply.
Distribution of Water on Earth

Most of the water present on Earth is found in our oceans (97 %) Hence, we know
that saltwater has limited use compared to fresh water.

Around two percent (2 %) of the earth’s water is trapped as ice in glacier, and polar
caps.
Less than one percent (1%) is distributed in rivers, lakes, soil, atmosphere, and
underground.
Of all water present on earth, we’re only using less than a percent.

The easily accessible ones are in the fresh water lakes, rivers and in our wells.

The 97 % of saltwater is divided in oceans such as Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Arctic
Ocean, Indian Ocean, Southern/ Atlantic Ocean.

Uses of Water Resources

 Agricultural Water
 Industrial Water
 Domestic Water
 Recreational Water
 Environmental Water
1. Agricultural Water

Agricultural Water is used to grow fresh produce and sustain livestock.

The use of agricultural water makes it possible to grow fruits and vegetables and raise
livestock, which is a main part of our diet.

2. Industrial Water

Industrial Water is used for processing, diluting,

fabricating, cooling, washing, or transporting a
product.

Water is also used by smelting facilities,

petroleum refineries, and industries producing
chemical products, food, and paper products.

3. Domestic Water

Domestic Water is used for indoor and outdoor

household purposes.

All the things you do at home such as drinking,

bathing, washing clothes and dishes, preparing
food, brushing your teeth, watering the garden,
and even washing the dog is part of the domestic
uses of water.

4. Recreational Water

Recreational Water is used in activities take

place in or on the water.

The example of recreational activities are swimming, boating, fishing, and surfing.
5. Environmental Water

Environmental water is used to target specific

outcomes for plants or animals by providing the
right amount of water at the right time for them
to feed, breed and grow.

It is a critical tool to support the health of rivers

and wetlands and in doing so support to the
communities that depend on them.

ACTIVITY 4

“Slogan Making”

The human body is made up of approximately 70 % water. In the same

way 70 % of the earth is covered by water. In relation to water
resources, create a slogan about the importance of water and on how we
can save it.

Things you need to remember:

1. Slogan must be original and not previously published or copied from the internet.

2. It must either in English or Filipino.

3. Slogan must be relevant to the theme.

4. Materials needed are oslo paper, marker, pen and coloring materials for the design.

SAMPLE SLOGAN

Chapter 3
EARTH PROCESSES
Learning Objectives
This chapter will explore the different processes occurring inside and on the surface of
the earth. This lesson will focus on other exogenic processes, endogenic processes,
deformation of the crust, continental drift theory and seafloor spreading that is
responsible for phenomena we experience on the surface.

Our planet is a dynamic one. It has been active since it formed together with the solar
system. Geologic process continuously shaped its surface which has been operating in the
earliest stage of the evolution of the planet. The depths of our earth unlock bigger
mysteries on how the planet shifts and moves underneath.

The Earth’s magnetic field is powered by the suspected movement of iron in the core.
Plate moves because of the convection in the mantle. Mountains are born and created
from the uplift of rocks. Rivers cut floodplains and ocean basins become the end point of
sediments. With all these numerous processes happening all at the same time, we can say
that the earth is indeed evolving overtime.

EXOGENIC PROCESSES

Exogenic processes include geological phenomena and processes that originate

externally to the surface of the Earth. They are related to the atmosphere, hydrosphere
and biosphere.
The term is normally used in contrast to the endogenetic processes, whose origin is
within the Earth.

Lesson 1
Weathering, Erosion, Mass Wasting, Deposition

Weathering, mass wasting, erosion, and deposition are the main exogenic processes.

WEATHERING
Weathering describes the breaking down or dissolving of rocks and minerals on the
surface of the Earth. Weathering causes the disintegration of rock near the surface of the
earth.
There are three (3) types of weathering

 Physical Weathering
 Chemical Weathering
 Biological Weathering

1. Physical Weathering

Physical weathering is the process that breaks rocks apart without changing their
chemical composition. It is sometimes called mechanical weathering.

Physical weathering, also known as mechanical weathering, is a result of changing the

temperature of water, ice, salt, plants, and even animals.

Physical weathering does not change the chemical composition of the rock, it just cracks
and crumbles it into smaller pieces.
TYPES OF PHYSICAL WEATHERING

Weathering from Water

Water can weather rocks in a different concept of ways. Moving water can lift and carry
rocks from the bottom of a streams or river. When the rocks return to the ground under
water, they can hit other rocks and break apart. Water can also weather a rock by
affecting the material around it. For example, clay that surrounds a rock can absorb
water, swell and then push against the rock, causing it to break. Saltwater can cause
another kind of weathering after it evaporates. When saltwater seeps into rock’s pores
and then evaporates, crystals are left behind.
The crystals grow and put pressure on the rock, which eventually causes it to break apart.
Saltwater weathering is common along coastlines.

Weathering from Ice

When water sinks into cracks in a rock and the temperature decreases or drops low
enough, the water freezes and turn into ice. The ice expands and forms wedges in the
rock that can split the rock into smaller fragments. Ice wedging usually occurs after water
repeatedly freezes and melts inside small rock crevices over time. You can see the result
of this type of weathering on street sidewalks in the winter. Ice wedges often cause
potholes in roads and streets. Ice forms in the cracks of streets, expands and pushes on the
surrounding rock or pavement, widening the cracks until they split and break apart.

Weathering from Plants

Plants can possibly cause physical weathering as their roots grow and become bigger.
Seeds of plants or trees can grow inside rock cracks where soil has collected. The roots
then put pressure on the cracks, making them wider and bigger, and eventually splitting
the rock. Even small plants can cause this kind of weathering over time.

Weathering from Animals

Animals that burrow underground, such as moles, gophers or even ants, can also cause
physical weathering by loosening and breaking apart rocks. Dens and tunnels are signs of
this type of weathering. Other animals dig and trample rock on the Earth's surface,
causing rock to slowly crumble apart. This process exposes new parts of the rock to the
elements, making them susceptible to other types of weathering, such as chemical
weathering.

Factors That Can Cause Physical/Mechanical Weathering

Weathering is natural process that causes the breakdown of rocks into either smaller rock
particles or new minerals. Weathering is the first step of the erosion process, which
breaks down the three major rock types found near Earth’s surface: the sedimentary,
igneous and the metamorphic. One type of erosion is physical weathering, also known as
mechanical weathering, whereby rock is broken down by physical forces.
There are several forces.

Exfoliation or Unloading
As upper rock portions erode, underlying rocks begin to expand and becomes bigger.
When a mass of rock is exposed by weathering and removal of the overlying rock, there
is a decrease in the confining pressure on the rock, and the rock expands. This unloading
promotes cracking of the rock, known as exfoliation.

Thermal Expansion
Repeated heating and cooling of some rock types can cause rocks to stress and break,
resulting in weathering and erosion. High temperatures cause rocks to expand, then as
temperatures cool the rocks contract. This continual expansion and contraction weaken
the rock, eventually causing the rock to have a fracture.

Organic Activity
Growth of plant roots and burrowing animals are types of organic activity that can
contribute to mechanical weathering, as they cause rock material to break down and
disintegrate.

Frost Wedging
Much like frost wedging, frost action weathering is the repeated cycle of ice formation
and ice melt within the porous areas of rocks. It is a mechanical weathering process that
causes disintegration of rocks. The amount of rock breakdown depends on the frequency
of the freezing and thawing, and duration and intensity of the cycles. Frost action
weathering happens through this process because, as the spaces within the rock grow
because of the expansion of the frozen water, a wedging occurs between the parts of the
rock, causing them to split and break down into more pieces.

Crystal Growth
Water seeping through rocks is responsible for two types of physical/ mechanical
weathering: frost wedging and crystal growth. Depending on the ion content of the water
and the mineral structure of the rock, water seeping through pores and fractures may
precipitate the growth of crystals. The growth of these crystals can exert pressure on the
surrounding rocks, causing them to weaken and fracture.

How Does Weathering Happen?

Weathering happens through processes or sources in the environment, including events
like wind and objects like the roots of plants. Weathering is either physical in which
rocks are broken down through an external force, or chemical which means rocks are
broken down through a chemical reaction and change.

Freeze-Thaw Weathering
Another common type of mechanical weathering is freeze-thaw weathering, which
happens when weather fluctuates above and below 0 degrees Celsius (32 degrees
Fahrenheit). Water flows into the cracks in rocks, but when it freezes, the water
crystallizes into a hexagonal form, which takes more space than liquid water.
During the day, the ice will thaw and refreeze again when the temperature drops. This
process widens the cracks in rocks and eventually breaks them apart.

2. Chemical Weathering
Chemical weathering refers to the process by which rocks break down through chemical
reactions, this weathering happens on a molecular level. This type of weathering causes
rocks to decompose and occurs most often in warm and humid climates. All rainfall
contains carbonic acid, which chemically reacts with the calcium carbonate in rocks like
chalk and limestone through a process called carbonation. The rock becomes soluble in
water, so the rock gradually dissolves as rain falls on it. Rocks that contain iron minerals
oxidize, or rust, which chemically changes the structure of the rock and causes it to break
apart.

Types of Chemical Weathering

Carbonation
Carbonation is a type of chemical weathering. Carbonation is the mixing of water with
carbon dioxide to create carbonic acid. This type of weathering is important in the
formation of caves. Dissolved carbon dioxide in rainwater or in moist air forms carbonic
acid, and this acid reacts with minerals in rocks.

Oxidation
Oxidation is also known as rusting. It is the process whereby the rock minerals lose one
or more ions or atoms in the presence of oxygen. When minerals in the rock oxidize, they
become less resistant to weathering.

Hydration
Hydration is a type of chemical weathering where water reacts chemically with the rock,
modifying its chemical structure. Hydration reactions involve water being added to the
chemical structure of a mineral.

Hydrolysis
Water can add to a material to make a new material, or it can dissolve a material to
change it. In hydrolysis, the acid in the water works to dissolve minerals within specific
rocks.
Example of hydrolysis, is the action include turning feldspar into clay and making
sodium minerals into saltwater solutions.

Biological Weathering
Biological weathering combines both physical and chemical weathering and is caused by
the plants or animals. As the roots of the plants grow deeper to find sources of water, they
push through cracks in rocks, applying the amount of force to push them apart. As the
roots grow, the cracks become larger and bigger and eventually, break the rocks into
smaller pieces. When the plants die, they produce acid as they decompose, causing a
chemical reaction in the rock that further dissolves parts of rocks. Essentially plants can
make their own soil in this way, allowing the crumbling crack to be more hospitable to
the next seed that lodges there. Animals, including humans, can also cause biological
weathering through frequent movement over a rock. This friction wears away bits of
surface material.

MASS WASTING/ MOVEMENT

Mass wasting or mass movements transfer the mass of rock debris down the slope under
the direct influence of gravity. Mass movements are very active over weathered slopes
rather than over un-weathered slopes.
Mass-wasting is an important part of the erosional process, as it transfers material from
higher elevations down to lower elevations where transporting agents like streams and
glaciers can then pick up the material and move it to even lower elevations.

Mass-wasting processes occurs continuously on all slopes. Some mass-wasting processes

act very slowly, others occur very suddenly, often with disastrous results. Any
perceptible down slope movement of rock or regolith is often referred to in general terms
as a landslide. However, as we will see, landslides can be classified in a much more
detailed way that reflects the mechanisms responsible for the movement and the velocity
at which the movement occurs.
As human populations expand and occupy more and more of the land surface, mass-
wasting processes become more likely to affect humans.

Mass wasting is the movement of rock and soil down slope under the influence of
gravity. Rock falls, slumps, and debris flows are all examples of mass wasting. Often
lubricated by rainfall or agitated by seismic activity, these events may occur very rapidly
and move as a flow.

Types of Mass Wasting based on movements

Rockfalls
Rockfalls are mass wasting movements involving the direct downward pull of gravity in
the absence of a surface. This type of mass wasting movement is also considered a rapid
one.
Rockslides
Rockslides usually follow a zone of weakness, such as a bedding plane or foliation plane.
Separation of the rock is more likely along these planes because of their reduced shear
strength. Water also tends to be channeled along these planes, which increases slippage.
Collisions down the slope generally break the rock mass into rubble that eventually
comes to rest. If steep slopes are involved, a fast ‐moving rock avalanche may result. The
rockslide or rock avalanche loses energy and speed as it moves across more level terrain.
Mudflows
Mudflows are similar to rock slides/debris slides with a surface for materials to move
down the slopes with. The diagnostic character of a mudflow is the presence of excessive
water which changes the usual solid downslope behavior of materials to a more fluid-like
one.
A mudflow is a liquid mass of soil, rock debris, and water that moves quickly down a
well‐defined channel. Generally viscous and muddy colored, it can be powerful enough
to move large automobiles and buildings. Mudflows occur most often in mountainous
semiarid environments with sparse vegetation and are triggered by heavy rainfall that
saturates the loose soil and sediment. They are also the natural result of volcanic ash
build‐ups on flanks of volcanoes and of forest fires that have exposed the soil to rapid
erosion. A mudflow originating on a volcanic slope is called a lahar.
Creep
Creep is a slow mass wasting, that takes months or years to have significant and
observable change in the landscape. Velocities are typically less than a centimeter per
year. Freezing and thawing contribute to soil creep by progressively moving soil particles
down the hill. Creep is manifested at the surface by such things as tilted utility poles that
become more out of alignment every year. Vegetation helps reduce the rate of soil creep.
Slumps
Slumps is almost the same as the rock slides and mudflows in terms of surface of contact.
However, for slumps, the movement is not totally purely translational but with a
rotational factor.

EROSION
Erosion is the geological process in which earthen materials are worn away and
transported by natural forces such as wind or water.

A similar process, weathering, breaks down or dissolves rock, but does not involve
movement. Erosion is the opposite of deposition, the geological process in
which earthen materials are deposited, or built up, on a landform. Most erosion is
performed by liquid water, wind, or ice (usually in the form of a glacier). If
the wind is dusty, or water or glacial ice is muddy, erosion is taking place. The brown
color indicates that bits of rock and soil are suspended in the fluid (air or water) and
being transported from one place to another.

Physical Erosion
Physical Erosion describes the process of rocks changing their physical properties
without changing their basic chemical composition.

Physical erosion often causes rocks to get smaller or

smoother. Rocks eroded through physical erosion often form clastic sediments.

Clastic sediments are composed of fragments of older rocks that have been transported fr

om their place of origin.

Plant growth can also contribute to physical erosion in a process called bioerosion. Plants
break up earthen materials as they take root, and can create cracks
and crevices in rocks they encounter.
Ice and liquid water can also contribute to physical erosion as their movement
forces rocks to crash together or crack apart. Some rocks shatter and crumble, while
others are worn away. River rocks are often much smoother than rocks found elsewhere,
for instance, because they have been eroded by constant contact with other river rocks.

Liquid water is the major agent of erosion on Earth. Rain, rivers, floods, lakes, and the
ocean carry away bits of soil and sand and slowly wash away the sediment.

Rainfall produces four types of soil erosion, namely, splash erosion, sheet erosion, rill
erosion, and gully erosion.

Splash Erosion
Splash erosion describes the impact of a falling raindrop, which can scatter
tiny soil particles as far as 6 meters (2 feet).

Sheet Erosion
Sheet erosion describes erosion caused by runoff. It occurs as a shallow sheet of water
flowing over the ground surface, resulting in the elimination of a uniform layer of soil
from the soil surface.

Rill Erosion
Rill erosion describes erosion that takes place as runoff develops
into discrete streams (rills).

Gully Erosion
Gully erosion is the stage in which soil particles are transported through large channels.
Gullies carry water for brief periods of time during rainfall or snowmelt but appear as
small valleys or crevasses during dry seasons.

In addition, Valley erosion is the process in which rushing streams and rivers wear away
their banks, creating larger and larger valleys.

The ocean is a huge force of erosion. Coastal erosion is the wearing a way
of rocks, earth, or sand on the beach that can change the shape of entire coastlines.
During the process of coastal erosion, waves pound rocks into pebbles and pebbles
into sand. Waves and currents sometimes transport sand away from beaches, moving
the coastline farther inland. Coastal erosion can have a huge impact on human settlement
as well as coastal ecosystems.

Wind is also a powerful agent of erosion. Aeolian (wind-driven) processes constantly

transport the dust, sand, and ash moving from one place to another. Wind can sometimes
blow sand into towering dunes. In dry areas, windblown sand can blast against
a rock with tremendous force, slowly wearing away the soft rock.
It polishes rocks and cliffs until they are smooth and giving the stone a so-called “desert
varnish.” Wind can also erode material until little remains at all. Ventifacts are rocks that
have been sculpted by wind erosion. The enormous chalk formations in the
White Desert of Egypt are ventifacts carved by thousands of years of wind roaring
through the flat landscape. Some of the most destructive examples of wind erosion are
the dust storms that characterized the “Dust Bowl” of the 1930s in North America. Made
brittle by years of drought and agricultural mismanagement, millions of tons of
valuable topsoil were eroded away by strong winds in what came to be known as “black
blizzards.” These dust storms devastated local economies, forcing thousands of people
who depended on agriculture for their livelihoods to migrate.
Ice, usually in the form of glaciers can erode to the earth and create dramatic landforms.
In frigid areas and on some mountain tops, glaciers move slowly downhill and across the
land. As they move, they transport everything in their path, from tiny grains of sand to
huge boulders. Rocks carried by glaciers scrape against the ground below, eroding both
the ground and the rocks. In this way, glaciers grind up rocks and scrape away the soil.
Moving glaciers gouge out basins and form steep-sided
mountain valleys. Eroded sediment called moraine is often visible on and around glaciers.
Several times in Earth’s history, vast glaciers covered parts of the Northern Hemisphere.
These glacial periods are known as ice ages. Ice Age glaciers carved much of the modern
northern North American and European landscape.

DEPOSITION
Deposition is the geological process in which sediments, soil and rocks are added to a
landform or landmass.
Deposition is the laying down of sediment carried by wind, flowing water, the sea or ice.
Sediment can be transported as pebbles, sand and mud, or as salts dissolved in water.
Salts may later be deposited by organic activity or by evaporation.

Wind
The term ‘saltation’ describes the process in which sand grains are picked up and
transported by the wind. Sand grains bounce along the ground in the wind and when the
wind stops or slows down, the sand is deposited and may build sand dunes.
Water
Flowing water picks up and moves particles of soil and rock. When the water slows
down, for instance by reaching flatter land, it begins to drop the particles it is holding. It
drops the largest particles first and next is the smaller ones as it slows down even further.

Alluvial fans are features typically created when sediment carried by a mountain stream
that is deposited due to a rapid change in slope from a high to a low gradient. When the
slope angle is high, the stream flows with a high velocity and is able to transport larger
pieces of sediment such as pebbles and sand. When the slope angle is lower the stream
loses the energy it needs to carry these larger pieces of sediment and they are deposited.
The deposited materials eventually spread out, creating an alluvial fan.

Wat
e r
may
also
carry
dissolved material mostly ions that have minerals. These ions may be deposited en route
to the sea or may reach the ocean and contribute to its saltiness.

Sea
In coastal environments, sediments are deposited along or near a coastline by low-energy
waves that can no longer support or supply their sediment load. Material carried by the
sea is washed up by the water and starts to build up along the coastline, creating beaches
and other coastal features such as spits and shoals. Beaches change and move by the
combined action of tides, waves and currents and can lose or gain sand from season to
season. Sometimes the sand disappears completely, leaving behind heavier cobbles.
Ice
Glaciers are not static objects, they move very slowly, flowing under their own weight
and they grow and shrink depending on the climatic conditions. As they move, they carve
the landscape below them, picking up sediments and rocks of all sizes. In fact, glaciers
can carry the largest of sediments boulders which can sometimes reach enormous sizes
for very long distances. When the glaciers melt and retreat, they leave them behind as
what are known as glacial erratic boulders, made of rock that has no relation with the
local geology where they have come to rest.

The typical deposit of a glacier is known as till, which is a mixture of all the debris that
the glacier was carrying at that moment, such as clay, sand, pebbles and boulders. The
typical glacial sedimentary features known as moraines are composed of tills.

ACTIVITY 5
“Concept Map”

1. The class will be divided into five groups.

2. The group is only given 20 minutes to do the task.

3. The group must create or make a concept map related to exogenic

processes.

4. Each member will explain how the following processes are interconnected
to each other.

5. The group will share and explain their concept map in class.

ENDOGENIC PROCESSES

Lesson 2

Geologic Process within the Earth

Endogenic are processes that is formed or occurring beneath the surface of the Earth.
The movement that Earth goes through is caused by the interior of the Earth.

There are many endogenic processes. But we will just focus on the three main
endogenous processes, and these are folding, faulting and volcanism.
They take place mainly along the plate boundaries. These are the zones on the edges of
plates. When this process occurs, it makes way for the different landforms on Earth to be
created.

Why do endogenous processes happen?

The endogenous processes are caused by forces from within or in the interior of the
Earth. The driving force is the thermal energy of the mantle and the crust.

What causes endogenous or endogenic forces?

Endogenous or endogenic forces is the horizontal and vertical movements caused by
the forces coming from the origin of the earth. The origin of endogenous/ endogenic
force is caused by the contraction and expansion of rocks due to variation in thermal
conditions and temperature inside the earth.
FOLDING

Folds or folding are evidences of the deformation in rocks. Under the compressive
stresses, the rocks themselves are made to shorten along the axis of stress.

Orogeny, or the process of mountain building is usually associated with compressive

stresses. Rocks undergo such process that will most likely exhibit folding.

Folding is the pressure of converging plates causing the crust to fold and buckle,
resulting in the creation of mountains and hills.

Fold or folding can also be defined as a bend in rock that is a response to compressional
force. It can be likened to the waves in the ocean. Earth has a crest or uphold and a trough
or down fold. Folds are most visible in rocks that contained layering.

Three (3) types of Folding

The common types of folding are the anticline, syncline and monocline.
 Anticline is a convex up fold in rock that resembles an “arch like".

 Syncline is a type of fold where the rock layers are warped downward. It is a fold
with young layers of rock closer to the center of the structure.

M
o
nocline is the simplest type of fold which involves a slight bend in otherwise
parallel layers of rock. This type of fold has a step like pattern.
More complex fold types can develop in situations where lateral pressures become
greater. Greater pressure results in anticline and synclines that are inclined and
asymmetrical.

FAULTING
Faults are brittle deformation features in rocks that prove evidence of movement. Joints,
on the other hand, are fractures in rocks with no observable movement.

Faults form in rocks when the stresses overcome the internal strength of the rock
resulting in a fracture.

There are several kinds of faults, which are named according with the type of stress that
acts on the rock and by the nature of the movement of the rock blocks or either side of the
fault plane.
Type of Faults

1. Normal fault is the most common type of fault. It

occurs and formed when rock above an inclined fracture
planes moves downward, sliding along on the other side
of the fracture. Normal faults are often found along
divergent plate boundaries, such as under the ocean
where new crust is forming.
2. Reverse fault is the block above the fault that moves upward relative to the block
below the fault. Reverse fault develops when compression forces exist. Compression
causes one block pushed up and over the other block.

3. Strike-slip fault are vertical fractures where the blocks have mostly moved
horizontally. If the block opposite an observer looking across the fault moves to the right,
the slip style is termed right lateral; if the block moves to the left, the motion is termed
left lateral.
A transform fault is a special kind of strike-slip fault that cuts through the lithosphere and
accommodates motion between two large crustal plates.

4. Oblique-slip fault happens when many faults are mixed in slip type.
Oblique-slip fault suggest both normal faulting and strike-slip faulting.
It is also caused by a combination of shearing and tension of
compressional forces.
Generally, two walls are distinguished, the footwall and hanging wall.

The hanging wall moves horizontally, vertically, or in both directions relative to

the footwall. We identify the hanging and foot walls relative to the fault plane. The
hanging wall is above the fault plane while the foot wall is below. The steep face of an
exposed block is called the fault scarp.

Folding and faulting are the reasons behind major landform features.
VOLCANISM

Volcanism are evidences of the internal heat that the earth is capable of releasing unto the
surface. Volcanism is an activity of the explosion or expulsion of a lava and other related
materials.
Volcanism is an endogenic process due to the energy being released by the materials that
derived from the internal heat of a planet.
Volcanism is the eruption of molten rock from inside the Earth to the surface. Volcanism
occurs because of Earth’s internal heat, and is associated with tectonic processes and a
part of the rock cycle. Volcanic eruptions occur when molten lava reaches the surface of
the Earth.
How is magma formed?
Magma is primarily a very hot liquid, which is called a 'melt. ' It is formed from the
melting of rocks in the earth's lithosphere, which is the outermost shell of the earth made
of the earth's crust and upper part of the mantle, and the asthenosphere, which is the layer
below the lithosphere.

DEFORMATION OF THE CRUST

Lesson 3 & 4

Plate Tectonics: Continental Drift and Seafloor Spreading

The crust deforms as a result of the stress generated from the endogenic process deep
within the earth. This was already been observed by a scientist named Alfred Wegener in
1912 when he wrote in his book, “The Origin of Continents and Oceans” that the
continents were actually connected to each other. It is supported by different evidences,
later on, the Continental Drift Theory of Alfred Wegener expanded into what we know as
Plate Tectonics.

The continental drift theory supports the idea of continents being together because of the
following:

 what appears to be jigsaw puzzle fit of certain land masses,

 terrestrial fossils scattered on the different areas of the globe,
 same rocks and structure found in the continents separated by the oceans, and
 evidence from the ancient climate.

1. Jigsaw Puzzle Fit

Have you seen a map of the world showing the distribution of the continents?
If you notice, South America and Africa looks like a bigger piece of land if not separated
by the Atlantic Ocean.
The same analogy goes with the other continents and neighboring land masses. This idea
is one of the pieces of evidence shown of the continental drift theory.

2. Terrestrial fossils
Fossils are the preserved remains of the organisms. The terrestrial plants and animals that
once roamed the planet will leave remains not very far from where they live.
The discovery of the fossils of plants and animals scattered in South America and Africa
that strengthen the credibility of the idea that some of the continents were once joined
together.

3. Rock and Structure

The coastline of the continents appears to fit together, several mountain belts that run
across the land masses of the Brazil and Africa, British Isles and Scandinavia, and
Appalachians seem to fit together. Alfred Wegener found evidence of the age of such
rocks to be close to each other.

4. Ancient Climate
Ancient glacier deposits and covered the southern coastlines of these continents. When
stitched together, it forms a large ice sheet covering the whole of Antarctica with some
portions of the continents. It is difficult to imagine that ice is covering these continents as
of the present given their latitudinal locations. Therefore, it must be that the continents
were once near the polar regions and drifted away.
CONTINENTAL DRIFT

Continental drift describes one of the earliest ways that geologists thought continents
moved over time. Today, the theory of continental drift has been replaced by the science
of plate tectonics.

This map displays an early "supercontinent," Gondwana, which eventually moved to

form the continents we know today. Fossils of similar organisms across widely disparate
continents encouraged the revolutionary theory of continental drift.
The theory of continental drift is most associated with the scientist Alfred Wegener. In
the early 20th century, Wegener published a paper explaining his theory that
the continental landmasses were “drifting” across the Earth, sometimes plowing through
oceans and into each other. He called this movement continental drift, Pangaea. Wegener
was convinced that all of Earth’s continents were once part of an enormous,
single landmass called Pangaea. Wegener, trained as an astronomer,
used biology, botany, and geology describe Pangaea and continental drift.

SEAFLOOR SPREADING

Seafloor spreading is a geologic process in which the tectonic plates which is the large
slabs of Earth's lithosphere split apart from each other. Seafloor spreading and
other tectonic activity processes are the results of mantle convection.
Mantle convection is the slow, churning motion of Earth’s mantle. Convection
currents carry heat from the lower mantle and core to the lithosphere. Convection
currents also “recycle” lithospheric materials back to the mantle. Seafloor
spreading occurs at divergent plate boundaries. As tectonic plates slowly move away
from each other, heat from the mantle’s convection currents makes
the crust more plastic and less dense. The less-dense material rises, often forming a
mountain or elevated area of the seafloor. Eventually, the crust cracks. Hot magma fueled
by mantle convection bubbles up to fill these fractures and spills onto the crust. This
bubbled-up magma is cooled by frigid seawater to form igneous rock. This rock (basalt)
becomes a new part of Earth’s crust. Mid-Ocean Ridges Seafloor spreading occurs
along mid-ocean ridges large mountain ranges rising from the ocean floor. The Mid-
Atlantic Ridge, for instance, separates the North American plate from the Eurasian plate,
and the South American plate from the African plate. The East Pacific Rise is a mid-
ocean ridge that runs through the eastern Pacific Ocean and separates the Pacific plate
from the North American plate, the Cocos plate, the Nazca plate, and the Antarctic plate.
The Southeast Indian Ridge marks where the southern Indo-Australian plate forms
a divergent boundary with the Antarctic plate. Seafloor spreading is not consistent at
all mid-ocean ridges. Slowly spreading ridges are the sites of tall, narrow
underwater cliffs and mountains. Rapidly spreading ridges have a much gentler slope.
The Mid-Atlantic Ridge, for instance, is a slow spreading center. It spreads 2-5
centimeters every year and forms an ocean trench about the size of the Grand Canyon.
The East Pacific Rise, on the other hand, is a fast spreading center. It spreads about 6-16
centimeters every year. There is not an ocean trench at the East Pacific Rise, because
the seafloor spreading is too rapid for one to develop. The newest, thinnest crust on Earth
is located near the center of mid-ocean ridge, the actual site of seafloor spreading. The
age, density, and thickness of oceanic crust increases with distance from the mid-ocean
ridge.

ACTIVITY 6
“Modeling Seafloor Spreading”
Objective:
Demonstrate how the seafloor spreading add material to the ocean floor.

Materials:
Scissors
Metric Ruler
2 sheets of paper
Colored marker

Procedures:
1. Draw stripes across one sheet of paper, parallel to the short sides of the paper. The
stripes should vary in spacing and thickness.
2. Fold the paper in half lengthwise and write the word “Start” at the top of both halves of
the paper. Using the scissors carefully cut the paper in half along the fold line to form two
strips.
3. Lightly fold the second sheet of paper into eights. Then unfold it, leaving creases in the
paper. Fold this sheet in half lengthwise.
4. Starting at the fold, draw lines 5.5 cm long on the middle crease and the two creases
closest to the ends of the paper.
5. Now carefully cut along the lines you drew. Unfold the paper. There should be three
slits in the center of the paper.
6. Put the two strips of paper together so their Start labels touch one another. Insert the
Start ends of the strips up through the center slit, and then pull them toward the side slits.
7. Insert the ends of the strips into the side slits. Pull the ends of the strips, and watch
what happens at the center slits.
8. Practice pulling the strips through the slits until you can make two strips come up and
go down at the same time.
GLOSSARY OF TERMS

A
Atmosphere – the layer of gaseous envelope that surrounds the planet on the surface and
extends thinly unto space.

Agricultural Water - is used to grow fresh produce and sustain livestock.

Anticline - is a convex up fold in rock that resembles an “arch like".

B
Biosphere - includes all forms of life on Earth including the ones found in the deepest
parts of the oceans and highest parts of the atmosphere.

Biomass - is organic matter that contains stored energy or energy produced by heat
within the Earth’s crust.
Biological weathering - combines both physical and chemical weathering and is caused
by the plants or animals.

C
Coal - is a sedimentary rock made from the compaction of organic material that has not
decayed completely.
Crude oil - is a raw natural resource that is extracted from the earth and refined into
products such as gasoline, jet fuel, and other petroleum products.

Color - is the perceived wavelength of light that bounced off from the material and is
detected by our eyes.

Continental drift - describes one of the earliest ways geologists thought continents
moved over time.
Carbonation - is the mixing of water with carbon dioxide to create carbonic acid.

D
Deposition - is the geological process in which sediments, soil and rocks are added to a
landform or landmass.
Domestic Water - is used for indoor and outdoor household purposes.

E
Extrusive Igneous Rock - produced when magma exits and cools as lava near the
Earth’s surface.

Energy Resource - is a natural resource that can be converted by humans into other
forms of energy in order to do useful work.

Endogenic - are processes that is formed or occurring beneath the surface of the Earth.
Environmental water is used to target specific outcomes for plants or animals by
providing the right amount of water at the right time for them to feed, breed and grow.

Exogenic processes - include geological phenomena and processes that originate

externally to the surface of the Earth.
Erosion - is the geological process in which earthen materials are worn away and
transported by natural forces such as wind or water.

F
Folds or folding - are evidences of the deformation in rocks.
Faults - are brittle deformation features in rocks that prove evidence of movement.

G
George Lemaitre – is a Belgian Roman catholic priest proposed a fundamental statement
of the big bang theory.
Galaxy - is defined as a gravitationally bound system of stars, gas and dust, and matter.
Geosphere - refers to the solid Earth. It is the largest of the four spheres, the geosphere
comprises of solid portion of the earth.
Geothermal Energy - is heat within the earth. Geothermal energy is a clean, renewable
resource that can be harnessed for use as heat and electricity.

H
Hydroelectric Energy - is a form of renewable energy that uses the power of moving
water to generate electricity.

Hydrosphere - is the totality of the Earth’s water. The hydrosphere includes water that is
on the surface of the planet, underground, and in the air.

Hardness - is the resistance of a mineral to scratching.

Hydration - is a type of chemical weathering where water reacts chemically with the
rock, modifying its chemical structure.

I
Intrusive Igneous Rock - forms when magma remains inside the Earth’s crust where it
cools and solidifies in chambers with pre-existing rocks.
Industrial Water - is used for processing, diluting, fabricating, cooling, washing, or
transporting a product.

L
Luster - is the behavior of light as it reflected by the surface of a mineral.

M
Mineraloid - is a naturally occurring mineral-like substance that does not demonstrate
crystallinity.
Metamorphic Rock - started out as some other type of rock, but have been substantially
changed from their original igneous, sedimentary, or earlier metamorphic form.
Mass-wasting - is an important part of the erosional process, as it transfers material from
higher elevations down to lower elevations where transporting agents like streams and
glaciers can then pick up the material and move it to even lower elevations.

N
Non-metallic minerals - are characterized by luster that is different from the metallic
ones.

Natural Resource - are materials from the Earth that are used to support life and meet
people's needs.

Non Renewable Resources - is energy resources that cannot be replaced or can only be
replaced over thousands and millions of years.

Nuclear energy - is a non-renewable energy source that comes from the nucleus of
atoms.

O
Organic Activity – is the growth of plant roots and burrowing animals are types of
organic activity that can contribute to mechanical weathering, as they cause rock material
to break down and disintegrate.
Oxidation - is also known as rusting. It is the process whereby the rock minerals lose one
or more ions or atoms in the presence of oxygen.
Oblique-slip fault - happens when many faults are mixed in slip type. Oblique-slip fault
suggest both normal faulting and strike-slip faulting. It is also caused by a combination of
shearing and tension of compressional forces.

P
Petroleum - usually synonymous with energy from hydrocarbons, includes oil and
natural gas.
R

Recreational Water - is used in activities take place in or on the water.

Rockfalls - are mass wasting movements involving the direct downward pull of gravity
in the absence of a surface.
Rockslides - usually follow a zone of weakness, such as a bedding plane or foliation
plane.
Rill erosion - describes erosion that takes place as runoff develops
into discrete streams (rills).
Reverse fault - is the block above the fault that moves upward relative to the block
below the fault.

S
Slumps - is almost the same as the rock slides and mudflows in terms of surface of
contact.
Splash erosion - describes the impact of a falling raindrop, which can scatter
tiny soil particles as far as 6 meters (2 feet).
Sheet erosion - describes erosion caused by runoff. It occurs as a shallow sheet of water
flowing over the ground surface, resulting in the elimination of a uniform layer of soil
from the soil surface.
Strike-slip fault - are vertical fractures where the blocks have mostly moved
horizontally.

V
Volcanism - are evidences of the internal heat that the earth is capable of releasing unto
the surface.

W
Wind energy - is the process by which the wind is used to generate mechanical power or
electricity.
Water Resources - are natural resources of water that are potentially useful as a source
of water supply.

Weathering - describes the breaking down or dissolving of rocks and minerals on the
surface of the Earth.

REFERENCES
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https://www.google.com/search?q=deposition+exogenic+process&source