KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

COLLEGE OF SCIENCE

DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS

MATH 161

INTRODUCTORY TO PURE
MATHEMATICS I
 Contents

1 INDICES 1
1.1 Rules of Indices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

2 LOGARITHMS 5
2.1 Rules of Logarithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.1.1 Proofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.1.2 Worked Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.1.3 Exercise 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.1.4 Exercise 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.1.5 Exercise 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

3 SURDS 15
3.1 Properties of Surds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.2 Worked Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.2.1 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.2.2 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.3 Square Roots of Surds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.3.1 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

4 POLYNOMIAL AND RATIONAL FUNCTIONS 21

4.0.2 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.1 The Remainder Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.1.1 Factor Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.2 Partial Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

5 THE BINOMIAL THEOREM 33

5.1 Pascal Triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

6 SERIES AND SEQUENCE 38

6.1 Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
6.1.1 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
6.2 Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
6.2.1 Finite And Infinite Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
6.2.2 Arithmetic Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
6.2.3 Arithmetic Mean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
6.2.4 The Sum, Sn of An Arithmetic Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
6.2.5 Geometric Sequence (GP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
6.2.6 Geometric Means . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

i
 6.2.7 Sum to N Terms of a Geometric Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

7 TRIGONOMETRY 53
7.1 Trigonometry Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
7.1.1 Radians And Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
7.1.2 Common Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
7.1.3 Expressing All Other Angles In The Acute Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
7.1.4 Trig. Ratios of 30◦ , 45◦ , 60◦ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
7.1.5 Some Trig. Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
7.1.6 Difference of Two Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
7.1.7 Multiple Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
7.1.8 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
7.1.9 Tangents of Compound Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
7.1.10 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
7.1.11 Half Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
7.1.12 Factor Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
7.1.13 Parametric Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

8 LIMITS 66
8.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
8.2 Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
8.2.1 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
8.2.2 Worked Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
8.3 Another Type of Limit Evaluations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
8.4 L’Hopital’s Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
8.4.1 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

9 DIFFERENTIATION 82
9.1 Standard Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
9.1.1 The Power Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
9.2 The Product Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
9.3 Quotient Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
9.4 Higher-Order Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
9.5 Implicit Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
9.6 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
9.7 Derivative Of Exponential Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
9.8 Inverse Trigonometry Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
9.8.1 Trial Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
9.9 The Chain Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
9.9.1 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
9.10 Parametric Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

10 MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION 123

10.0.1 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

ii
 CHAPTER 1
INDICES

Given an = a × ×a × · · · × a (n factors), n is called the index and a is called the base.

Example:

34 = 3 × 3 × 3 × 3
where 4 is the index and 3 is the base and 34 is read as “3 to the power 4”.
NB: index (singular) and indices (plural)

1.1 RULES OF INDICES

1. When numbers with the same base are multiplied, indices are added.

ax × ay = ax+y
E.g : 24 × 23 = 24+3 = 27

2. When numbers with the same base are divided, indices are subtracted.
ax
= ax−y
ay
36
E.g : 2
= 36−2 = 34
3

3. When a number in index form is raised to another power, the indices are multiplied.

(ax )y = axy
E.g : (24 )3 = 24.3 = 212 = 4096

4. When a number is raised to a zero index, the value is one.

a0 = 1 (zero index)
E.g : x0 = 1; 50 = 1

5. When a number is raised to a negative index, it can be converted to a number with positive

1
 index by inversion.
1
a−x = (negative index)
a
1 1
E.g : 3−7 = ; x−2 =
37 x2

6. When a number is raised to a fractional index, it is a root.

x √
x
ay = y a (fractional indices)
1 √ 1 √
E.g : x m = m x; x 3 = 3 x
1 √ 3 √
x 2 = x; x 5 = ( 5 x)3
1 √x
2x = 2

1.2 Exercise
 2  3 3  23 
8x3 3 2x 2 4x2
 
2 x
(a) (i) = = = 4
27y6 33 y6 3y2 9y
 4 3/2  2 3
81 3/2
 
3 3 729
(ii) = 4
= 2
=
256 4 4 4096
 −1/2  1/2  2 1/2
25 49 7 7
(iii) = = 2
=
49 25 5 5

(b) (i)

125 −1/3 1000 1/3

   
−1/3
(0.125) = =
1000 125
 3 1/3
10 10
= = =2
53 5

(ii) If 35x+4 = 27x+2 , find x.

Solution

35x+4 = 27x+2
35x+4 = 33(x+2)
=⇒ 5x + 4 = 3(x + 2)
=⇒ 5x + 4 = 3x + 6
2x = 2
x=1

2
 (iii) If 33x = 81, find x.
Solution

3x = 81
=⇒ 3x = 34
x=4

 2x+3
4x−2 1
(c) (i) If 3 = , find x.
81
Solution
 2x+3
4x−2 1
3 =
81
34x−2 = 3−4(2x+3)
=⇒ 4x − 2 = −8x + 12
−4x = 14
14 7
x = − = − = −31/2
4 2
√
(ii) If 27x−2 = 64 2, find x.
Solution
√
27x−2 = 64 2
1
27x−2 = 36 .2 2
1 13
27x−2 = 26+ 2 = 2 2
13
=⇒ 7x − 2 =
2
14x − 4 = 13
14x = 17

x=
17
14
=
14
3
1
(d) Simplify the following
1
p
2
(i) 3a b 9a−3a b2
2

2 1/2 3 6

p
(ii) 2 4a a
  
(iii) x1/2 + 2 x − 2x1/2 − 1
  
(iv) a1/2 + b1/2 2a1/2 − 3b1/2
x x
(v) +
x1/2 + y1/2 x1/2 − y1/2
3
 1
(vi) If 4x+3 = , find x
16
(vii) Find x if 2x1/3 = 5
 x−1
1
(viii) Find x if = 812−x
27

4
 CHAPTER 2
LOGARITHMS

• Common logarithm (logarithm to base 10 usually written without indicating the base),
i.e. log
• Natural logarithm (logarithm to base e), i.e. loge
Definition:
The logarithm of any number to a given base is the power to which th base must be raised to
equal the given number. If c = logb a, then c is the log of a to base b.

NB: log5 25 – log 25 to base 5 and logc a – log a to base c.

Exercise
1. If x = log2 16, find x.
Solution

2x = 16
2x = 24
=⇒ x = 4

2. If 4 = logx 81, find x.

Solution

x4 = 81
x 4 = 34
=⇒ x = 3

3. If log7 x = 2, find x.
Solution

log7 x = 2
=⇒ x = 72 = 49
5
2.1 RULES OF LOGARITHMS
Since logarithms are powers, the rules that govern the manipulation of logarithms closely fol-
low the rules of powers:

1. loga xy = loga x + loga y

2. loga ( xy ) = loga x − loga y

3. loga xn = n loga x

4. loga a = 1
1
5. loga b = logb a

logc b
6. loga b = logc a

7. loga2 b2 = loga b

8. eloge a = eln a

9. If p = loga b then a p = b.

2.1.1 PROOFS
1.

loga xy = loga x + loga y

Let loga x = p and loga y = q
=⇒ x = a p and y = aq
=⇒ x.y = a p .aq = a p+q
=⇒ x.y = a p+q
loga xy = loga a p+q (Taking log to base a on both sides)
=⇒ loga xy = (p + q) loga a
= p + q (since loga a = 1)
= loga x + loga y
∴ loga xy = loga x + loga y

6
2.
 
x
loga = loga x − loga y
y
Let loga x = p and loga y = q
=⇒ a p = x and aq = y
x ap
=⇒ = = a p−q
y aq
 
x
loga = loga a p−q (Taking log to base a on both sides)
y
= (p − q) loga a
= p−q
= loga x − loga y
 
x
∴ loga = loga x − loga y
y

3.
logc b
loga b =
logc a
Let loga b = p
=⇒ b = a p
logc b = logc a p (taking logc of both sides)
logc b = p logc a
logc b
=⇒ p =
logc a
logc b
=⇒ loga b = (1)
logc a
1
Deducing that loga b =
logb a
From (1), set c = b (on the RHS)
logb b 1
=⇒ loga b = =
logb a logb a

7
 1
4. To prove that loga b = directly without any deduction,
logb a

Letloga b = p
=⇒ b = a p
logb b = logb a p
1 = p logb a
1
=⇒ p =
logb a
1
∴ loga b =
logb a

2.1.2 Worked Examples

1. Simplify the following:
(i.) 2 log 5 + 5 log 2 + 3 log 3 − 3 log 6
(ii.) log 280 + 2 log 15 − log 63

Solution
(i.)

2 log 5 + 5 log 2 + 3 log 3 − 3 log 6 = log 52 + log 25 + log 33 − log 63

= log 25 + log 32 + log 27 − log 216
 
25 × 32 × 27
= log
216
 
21600
= log
216
= log 100
= 2 log 10 = 2

(ii.)

log 280 + 2 log 15 − log 63 = log 280 + log 152 − log 63

= log 280 + log 225 − log 63
 
280 × 225
= log
63
63000
= log
63
= log 1000
= log 103
= 3 log 10 = 3

8
2.
log2 64 + log2 4 − log2 8
log2 1024

Solution

log2 64 + log2 4 − log2 8 log2 26 + log2 22 − log2 23

=
log2 1024 log2 210
6 log2 2 + 2 log2 2 − 3 log2 2
=
10 log2 2
5 log2 2
=
10 log2 2
1
=
2

3. Express the following in terms of log a, log b and log c

 2 
a b
(i.) log
c3
(ii.) log ab2 c3
 5 
a
(iii.) log 3 2
b c

Solution

(i.)

a2 b
 
log = log a2 + log b − log c3
c3
= 2 log a + log b − 3 log c

(ii.)

log ab2 c3 = log a + log b2 − log c3

= log a + 2 log b + 3 log c

(iii.)

a5
 
log 3 2 = log a5 − log b3 − log c2
b c
= 5 log a − 3 log b − 2 log c

4. Rewrite the following equations in index form, clear of logarithms

√ 1
(a) log x = log y
2
(b) logx 3 − logx y = 2
9
 (c) log 8 + log x = 2 log y

Solution

(a)
√ 1
log x = log y
2
1
log x1/2 = log y
2
1 1
log x = log y
2 2
log x = log y
=⇒ x = y

(b)

logx 3 − logx y = 2
 
3
logx =2
y
3
x2 =
y
=⇒ x2 y = 3

(c)

log 8 + log x = 2 log y

log 8 + log x = log y2
log 8x = log y2
=⇒ 8x = y2
x 1
2
=
y 8

5. If logb a + logc a = 2 logb a × logc a, prove that a2 = bc

Solution

logb a + logc a = 2 logb a × logc a

logb a + logc a
= 2 logb a (Dividing both sides by logc a)
logc a
logb a
+ 1 = logb a2
logc a

10
 logb c
But loga c = and logb b = 1
logb a
logb c
=⇒ logb a. + logb b = logb a2
logb a
logb c + logb b = logb a2
logb bc = logb a2
=⇒ bc = a2

2.1.3 Exercise 1
(i) log3 x + 3 logx 3 = 4

(ii) logx 3 + logx 27 = 2

(iii) log(x + 4) + log(x − 3) = 2 log(x − 3)

Solution

(i)

log3 x + 3 logx 3 = 4
log3 3
logx 3 =
log3 x
log 3
=⇒ log3 x + 3 3 = 4
log3 x
(log3 x)2 + 3 = 4 log3 x
=⇒ (log3 x)2 − 4 log3 x + 3 = 0
Let m = log3 x
=⇒ m2 − 4m + 3 = 0
(m − 3)(m − 1) = 0
m = 3 or m = 1
=⇒ log3 x = 3 or log3 x = 1
=⇒ x = 33 or x = 3

(ii)

logx 3 + logx 27 = 2
logx 3(27) = 2
logx 81 = 2
x2 = 81
x=9

11
 (iii)

log(x + 4) + log(x − 3) = 2 log(x − 3)

log (x + 4)(x − 3) = log (x − 3)2
(x + 4)(x − 3) = (x − 3)2
x2 + x − 12 = x2 − 6x + 9
7x = 21
x=3

2.1.4 Exercise 2
Find the value(s) of x in the following equations

(i) 27log3 x = 81

(ii) 64log4 x = 8

(iii) 125log5 x = 64

(iv) 243log3 x = 3125

Solution

(i)

27log3 x = 81
33 log3 x = 81
3
3log3 x = 34
log3 x3 = 4
x3 = 43
x=4

(ii)

64log4 x = 8
43 log4 x = 8
3
4log4 x = 8
x3 = 23
x=2

12
(iii)

125log5 x = 64
53 log5 x = 64
3
5log5 x = 43
x 3 = 43
x=4

(iv)

243log3 x = 3125
35 log3 x = 55
5
3log3 x = 55
x5 = 55
x=5

2.1.5 Exercise 3
1. Solve the following equations for x and y where possible

(i) log2 4x = y + 4; 3 log2 x = y.

2
(ii) loga (x + 3) − loga (x + 7) = loga x − loga 2
(iii) log3 y − logy 3 = 2
(iv) log2 x + log2 y = 6; log3 x − log3 y = 4
(v) log2 (log3 x) = 4

2. (i) If log3 (x − b) = 2 and log2 (x − 7) = 3, prove that x2 − 13x + 42 = 72

(ii) If 4x2 + 9y2 = 37xy, show that
 
2x + 3y
2 log = log x + log y
7

(iii) If 25a2 + 9b2 = 66ab, show that

 
5a − 3b
2 log = log a + log b
6

(iv) If x3 + y3 = 5xy(x + y), show that

 
x+y
3 log = log x + log y + log (x + y)
2

3. Show that

(a) log2 5 . log4 3 . log25 16 = log2 3

13
 1 1
(b) log2 16 − 3 log3 + log25 5 = 7
3 2
1 1
(c) log4 x = log2 x and hence solve log4 x + = log2 x.
2 2
4. Show that
 log 3 
40
(i) log = log 3
3log 4
(ii) log5 x + log2 8 = 0

5. Solve the following equations

(i) log5 x = 16 logx 5

(ii) 3 log 2 − log (x − 1) = log (x − 3)
(iii) log (2x − 1) + log (x + 2) = 2 log (x − 1)

6. Given that 3x+2 = 62x , show that x = log12 9 , /

7. (a) If log5 3 = 0.682 and log5 2 = 0.431, find the value of

     
3 4 2
log5 + 2 log5 − log5
8 5 5

(b) Given that log7 2 = x, log7 3 = y and log7 5 = z, write the following logarithm in
terms of x, y and z.
i. log7 24
ii. log7 0.14
 
1
iii. log7 1
20
√
iv. log7 180

8. (i) Given that log2 x + 2 log4 y = 4, show that xy = 16. Hence solve for x and y in the
following simultaneous equations

log10 (x + y) = 1
log2 x + 2 log4 y = 4

(ii) If 22y = 51 × 33x , prove that

4
x log = log 51
27
and hence find x.

14
 CHAPTER 3
SURDS

√ √ decimals are called surds. Examples of

Numbers whose square roots give non-terminating
surds are the irrational numbers of the form 2, 7, π, etc.

3.1 PROPERTIES OF SURDS

1. ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION
√ √ √ √
(i) x + y = x + y
√ √ √ √
(ii) x − y = x − y
√ √ √
(iii) p x + q x = (p + q) x
√ √ √
(iv) p x − q x = (p − q) x

Example:
√ √ √ √
(a) 4 5 + 3 5 = (4 + 3) 5 = 7 5
√ √ √ √
(b) 12 5 − 8 7 = (12 − 7) 7 = 4 7

NB:
√ √ √
(i) x + y 6= x + y
√ √ √
(ii) x − y 6= x − y
(iii) Surds are numbers whose values cannot be written down exactly, although it can be
found to any desired degree of accuracy.

15
 2. MULTIPLICATION PROPERTY
√ √ √
(i) x × x = ( x)2 = x
√ √ √
(ii) x × y = xy

Example:
√ √ √ √
(a) 3 × 7 = 3 × 7 = 21
√ √ √
(b) 5 × 5 = ( 5)2 = 5

3. DIVISION PROPERTY
√ r
x x
√ =
y y
√
21 √
r
21
E.g √ = = 3
7 7

NB:

(i)
√ √
x× y = x y
√ √
E.g. 5× 3 = 5 3

(ii)
√ √
x y = xy
√ √ p √
E.g. 20 × 4 × 5 = 22 × 5 = 2 5
√ √ p √
50 × 25 × 2 = 52 × 2 = 5 2
√ √ p √
32 × 16 × 2 = 42 × 2 = 4 2

16
3.2 WORKED EXAMPLES
Simplify the following surds
√ √ √
(i) 28 + 63 − 112
√ √ √ √
(ii) 3 507 + 7 147 − 2 27 − 6 192

Solution

(i)
√ √ √ √ √ √
28 + 63 − 112 = 4 × 7 + 7 × 9 − 7 × 16
p √ p
= 22 × 7 + 72 − 7 × 42
√ √ √
= 2 7+3 7−4 7
√
= 7

(ii)
√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
3 507 + 7 147 − 2 27 − 6 192 = 3 3 × 169 + 7 3 × 49 − 2 3 × 9 − 6 3 × 64
p p p p
= 3 3 × 132 + 7 3 × 72 − 2 3 × 32 − 6 3 × 82
√ √ √ √
= 3(13) 3 + 7(7) 3 − 2(3) 3 − 6(8) 3
√ √ √ √
= 39 3 + 49 3 − 6 3 − 48 3
√
= 34 3

3.2.1 Exercise
1. Simplify the following surds
√  √ √ √
1 √ (iii) 9 54 − 7 24 + 216
(i) 4 18 − 3 2
6√ √ √ √ √ √
(ii) 5 60 − 2 375 + 3 135 (iv) 3 125 − 5 20 + 3 80

2. Rationalize the following

√ √
7−3 3 12
(i) √ √ (iv) √ √
2 7+ 3 24 − 6
√ √
4− x 5−2
(ii) √ (v) √
1+2 x 5
√
4 x−9 4
(iii) √ (vi) √ √
2 x−3 18 + 2

17
3.2.2 Exercise
Rationalize the following:
√ √ √
7−3 3 5−2
(i) √ √ (iv) √
2 7+ 3 5
√
4− x 12
(ii) √ (v) √ √
1+2 x 24 − 6
√
4 x−9 4
(iii) √ (vi) √ √
2 x−3 18 + 2

3.3 SQUARE ROOTS OF SURDS

1 √
(a) Find the square root of 7 − 5 2
2

Solution

√
r
1 √ √

Let 7 −5 2 = ± x− y ; x > y > 0
2
15 √ √ √
2
− 50 = x− y
2
15 √ √
=⇒ − 50 = x + y − 2 xy
2 p
= x + y − 4xy
Comparing terms;
15
x+y = (1)
2
4xy = 50 (2)
50 25
=⇒ y = = (making y the subject from (2))
4x 2x
Substituting (2) into (1) :
25 15
x+ =
x 2
2
=⇒ 2x − 15x + 25 = 0
=⇒ (2x − 5)(x − 5) = 0
5
=⇒ x = or x = 5
2

18
 5
When x = , y = 5 and
2
5
When x = 5, y = (Note x > y)
2 r !
√ √
r
1 5
∴ 7 −5 2 = ± 5−
2 2

√
(b) Find the square root of 14 + 6 5
√ √
q
√

Let 14 + 6 5 = ± x + y ; x > y > 0
√ √ √
2
14 + 6 5 = x+ y (squaring both sides)
√ √
=⇒ 14 + 6 5 = x + y + 2 xy
p
= x + y + 4xy
Comparing terms;
x + y = 14 (1)
p √
4xy = 6 5
4xy = 36(5) (2)
45
=⇒ y = (making y the subject from (2))
x
Substituting (2) into (1) :
45
x+ = 14
x
=⇒ x2 − 14x + 45 = 0
=⇒ (x − 9)(x − 5) = 0
=⇒ x = 9 or x = 5
When x = 9 y = 5
When x = 5, y = 9
Since x > y =⇒ x = 9 and y = 5
√ √ √
q
∴ 14 + 6 5 = 9 + 5
√
= 3+ 5

3.3.1 Exercise
1. Find the square roots of the following:
√
(a) 17 − 4 15
√
(b) 28 − 10 3
√
(c) 7 + 4 3

19
 √
q
2. Find 33 + 20 2
√
q
3. Find 5 + 2 3

20
 CHAPTER 4
POLYNOMIAL AND RATIONAL FUNCTIONS

A polynomial in x is an expression involving powers of x, normally arranged in descending (or

sometimes in ascending) powers. The degree of the polynomial is given by the highest power
of x occurring in the expression.
E.g:

4x6 + 5x5 + 3x4 + 2x3 + x2 + 5 − is a polynomial of the 6th degree

5x4 + 7x3 + 3x + 5 − is a polynomial of degree 4
3x3 + 2x2 + x + 1 − is a polynomial of the 3rd degree

• A polynomial of the 1st degree is often referred to as a Linear expression.

E.g. 3x + 5, 2x − 8.

• A polynomial of the 2nd degree is often referred to as a Quadratic expression.

• A polynomial of the 3rd degree is often referred to as a Cubic expression.

• A polynomial of the 4th degree is often referred to as a Quartic expression.

4.0.2 Exercise
1. Define the degrees of the following polynomials:

(i) f (x) = 5x3 + 2x2 + x + 8

(ii) f (x) = −2x4 + 3x + 2

(iii) f (x) = x4 − 3x3 + 2x − 3

21
4.1 THE REMAINDER THEOREM
The remainder theorem states that if a polynomial f (x) is divided by (x − a), then the quotient
will be a polynomial g(x) of one degree less than the degree of f (x), together with a remainder
R still to be divided by (x − a). Thus

f (x) R
= g(x) +
x−a x−a
f (x) = (x − a)g(x) + R
when x = a
f (a) = 0.g(x) + R
=⇒ f (a) = R

Thus, if f (x) were to be divided by (x − a), then the remainder would be f (a).

Example
1. Find the remainder when f (x) = x3 + 3x2 − 13x − 10 is divided by x − 3.

Solution

If f (x) is divisible by x − 3, then x − 3 = 0 =⇒ x = 3

=⇒ f (3) = (3)3 + 3(3)2 − 13(3) − 10 = 5

Alternatively, we could perform the long division:

x3 + 3x2 − 13x − 10 5
=⇒ = x2 + 6x + 5 + = (x − 3)(x2 + 6x + 5) + 5
x−3 x−3

22
2. Find the remainder when f (x) = 5x3 − 4x2 − 3x + 6 is divided by x − 2.

Solution

5x3 − 4x2 − 3x + 6 24
=⇒ = 5x2 + 6x + 9 + = (x − 2)(5x2 + 6x + 9) + 24
x−2 x−2
Therefore, the remainder is 24.
Alternatively, if f (x) is divisible by x − 2, then x − 2 = 0 =⇒ x = 2:

f (x) = 5x3 − 4x2 − 3x + 6

f (2) = 5(2)3 − 4(2)2 − 3(2) + 6
= 40 − 16 − 6 + 6 = 24

3. Find the remainder when f (x) = 4x3 − 3x2 + 5x − 3 is divided by x − 4.

Solution

4x3 − 3x2 + 5x − 3 225

=⇒ = 4x2 + 13x + 57 + = (x − 4)(4x2 + 13x + 57) + 225
x−4 x−4
Therefore, the remainder is 225.
Alternatively, if f (x) is divisible by x − 4, then x − 4 = 0 =⇒ x = 4:

f (x) = 4x3 − 3x2 + 5x − 3

f (4) = 4(4)3 − 3(4)2 + 5(4) − 3
= 256 − 48 + 20 − 3 = 225

23
4.1.1 FACTOR THEOREM
• If f (x) is a polynomial and substituting x = a gives a remainder of 0, i.e. f (a) = 0, then
(x − a) is a factor of f (x).

• For example, if f (x) = x3 + 2x2 − 14x + 12 is divisible by x − 2, leaving a remainder of

0, then (x − 2) is a factor of f (x).

• The remainder factor can be found by long division of f (x) by (x − 2).

=⇒ f (x) = (x − 2)(x2 + 4x − 6)

E.g. 1 Find the remainder when f (x) = 3x3 − 11x2 + 10x − 12 is divided by x − 3.

Solution

This follows that, when f (x) is divided by x − 3, the remainder is zero.

Alternatively, if f (x) is divisible by x − 3, then x − 3 = 0 =⇒ x = 3:

=⇒ f (3) = 3(3)3 − 11(3)2 + 10(3) − 12

= 81 − 99 + 30 − 12 = 0

24
E.g. 2 If (x − 3) is a factor of f (x) = x3 − 5x2 − 2x + 24, determine the remaining factors.

Solution

If x − 3 is a factor of f (x), then x − 3 = 0 =⇒ x = 3 =⇒ f (3) = 0.

Using the long division, we have

f (x) = x3 − 5x2 − 2x + 24 = (x − 3)(x2 − 2x − 8)

= (x − 3)(x + 2)(x − 4)

E.g. 3 Factorize completely if f (x) = 2x4 − x3 − 8x2 + x + 6 is divisible by x − 1.

Solution

=⇒ f (x) = (x − 1)(2x3 + x2 − 7x − 6)
Also, let us set f (x) = 2x3 + x2 − 7x − 6
Now, the possible factors of f (x) are ± (1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12)
For f (1) = 2(1)3 + (1)2 − 7(1) − 6
= 2 + 1 − 7 − 6 6= 0
but for f (−1) = 2(−1)3 + (−1)2 − 7(−1) − 6
= −2 + 1 + 7 − 6 = 0

Using the long division, we have

25
 =⇒ 2x3 + x2 − 7x − 6 = (x + 1)(2x2 − x − 6)
= (x + 1)(x − 2)(2x + 3)
∴ f (x) = 2x4 − x3 − 8x2 + x + 6
= (x − 1)(2x3 + x2 − 7x − 6)
= (x − 1)(x + 1)(2x2 − x − 6)
= (x − 1)(x + 1)(x − 2)(2x + 3)

Trial Exercise

1. Find the values of a and b if 2x2 − 5x + 2 is a factor of 8x4 − 14x3 + ax2 − 19x + b.

2. When ax2 − 8x + 7 is divided by x − 1, the remainder is the same when x2 + ax − 16 is

divided by x − 3. Find the value of a.

3. Determine the remainder if x4 − 2x3 + 3x2 − 4 is divisible by x − 2.

4. If f (x) = 6x4 + x3 − 25x2 − 4x + 4 is divisible by x2 − 4, find the complete factors of f (x).

5. Factorize the following polynomials:

(i) 2x3 − 3x2 − 3x + 2

(ii) 2x3 − 3x2 − 39x + 20
(iii) x4 + 2x3 − 7x2 − 8x + 12
(iv) x3 − 2x2 − 5x + 6

6. Find the quotient and the remainder if f (x) is divided by x − c

(i) f (x) = x3 + 3x2 − x − 2; x−2

(ii) f (x) = −2x4 + 3x2 + 7x − 26; x+3
(iii) f (x) = 4x3 − 2x2 − 5x + 1; x − 2/3
26
4.2 PARTIAL FRACTIONS
A. D ENOMINATOR W ITH O NLY L INEAR FACTORS

x+4 A B C
= + +
(x + 1)(x − 1)(2x − 3) x + 1 x − 1 2x − 3
2x2 + 5x − 6 A B C
= + +
(x − 3)(x + 5)(2x − 1) x − 3 x + 5 2x − 1

E.g.1

6 A B
= +
(x + 3)(x − 3) x + 3 x − 3
multiplying through by (x+3)(x-3)
To get B, we make A = 0, by putting x = 3
=⇒ 6B = B
=⇒ B = 1
To get A, we make B = 0, by putting x = 3
=⇒ −6A = A
=⇒ A = −1
6 −1 1 1 1
∴ = + = −
(x + 3)(x − 3) x + 3 x − 3 x − 3 x + 3

E.g.2

11x + 12 A B C
= + +
(x + 2)(x − 3)(2x + 3) x + 2 x − 3 2x + 3
multiplying through by (x+2)(x-3)(2x+3)
11x + 12 = A(x − 3)(2x + 3) + B(x + 2)(2x + 3) +C(x + 2)(x − 3)
when x = 3, 45B = 45 =⇒ B = 1
when x = −2, 5A = −10 =⇒ A = −2
3 9 9
when x = , − C = − =⇒ C = 2
2 4 2
11x + 12 −2 1 2
∴ = + +
(x + 2)(x − 3)(2x + 3) x + 2 x − 3 2x + 3
1 2 2
= − +
x − 3 x + 2 2x + 3

27
B. D ENOMINATOR W ITH L INEAR FACTORS R EPEATED
E.g.1

4 A B C
2
= + 2
+
(x − 1) (x − 3) x − 1 (x − 1) x−3
=⇒ 4 = A(x − 1)(x − 3) + B(x − 3) +C(x − 1)2
when x = 1, −2B = 4 =⇒ B = −2
when x = 3, 4C = 4 =⇒ C = 1

Comparing coefficient of x2 ;
=⇒ (A +C) = 0
A+1 = 0
A = −1
4 −1 −2 1
∴ 2
= + 2
+
(x − 1) (x − 3) x − 1 (x − 1) x−3
1 1 2
= − −
x − 3 x − 1 (x − 1)2

E.g.2

1 A B C
2
= + 2
+
(x − 1) (x + 2) x − 1 (x − 1) x+2
=⇒ 1 = A(x − 1)(x + 2) + B(x + 2) +C(x − 1)2
1
when x = 1, 3B = 1 =⇒ B =
3
1
when x = −2, 9C = 1 =⇒ C =
9

Comparing coefficient of x2 ;
=⇒ (A +C) = 0
1
A+ =0
9
1
A=−
9
1 − 91 1
3
1
9
∴ = + +
(x − 1)2 (x + 2) x − 1 (x − 1)2 x + 2
1 1 1
= + 2
−
9(x + 2) 3(x − 1) 9(x − 1)
28
C. D ENOMINATOR W ITH Q UADRATIC FACTORS
16x2 16x2 A B Cx + D
(i) = = + +
(x2 − 4)(x2 + 4) (x + 4)(x − 4)(x2 + 4) x + 4 x − 4 x2 + 4
2x2 + 3x Ax + B Cx + D
(ii) 2 2
= 2 + 2
(x + 4) x + 4 (x + 4)2
3x + 1 A Bx +C
(iii) 2
= + 2
(x − 1)(x + 1) x − 1 x + 1
4 A Bx +C
(iv) 2
= + 2
(x + 1)(2x + x + 3) x + 1 2x + x + 3
E.g.1

5x2 − 6x + 10 A Bx +C
2
= + 2
(x + 2)(x − 3x + 4) x + 2 x − 3x + 4
=⇒ 5x2 − 6x + 10 = A(x2 − 3x + 4) + (Bx +C)(x + 2)
= A(x2 − 3x + 4) + Bx2 + 2Bx +Cx + 2C (1)
when x = −2, 20 + 12 + 10 = A(4 + 6 + 4)
=⇒ 42 = 14A
=⇒ A = 3

Comparing coefficient of x2 and x from (1)

x2 : 5 = A + B
=⇒ 5 = 3 + B
=⇒ B = 2
x : −6 = −3A + 2B +C
−6 = −9 + 4 +C
=⇒ C = −6 + 9 − 4 = −1
5x2 − 6x + 10 3 2x − 1
∴ 2
= + 2
(x + 2)(x − 3x + 4) x + 2 x − 3x + 4

29
 E.g.2

4 A Bx +C
2
= + 2
(x + 1)(2x + x + 3) x + 1 2x + x + 3
=⇒ 4 = A(2x2 + x + 3) + (Bx +C)(x + 1)
= A(2x2 + x + 3) + Bx2 + Bx +Cx +C
= (2A + B)x2 + (A + B +C)x + 3A +C (1)
when x = −1, 4A = 1
Comparing coefficient:
x2 : 2A + B = 0
=⇒ 2 + B = 0
=⇒ B = −2

x : A + B +C = 0
1 − 2 +C = 0
=⇒ C = 1
4 1 −2x + 1
∴ 2
= + 2
(x + 1)(2x + x + 3) x + 1 2x + x + 3
1 1 − 2x
= + 2
x + 1 2x + x + 3

D. N UMERATOR ’ S D EGREE ≥ D ENOMINATOR ’ S D EGREE

2x4 + 3x3 − 5x2 − 34x − 18 6x2 − 28x − 18

Example: = 2x + 1 +
x3 + x2 − 6x x3 + x2 − 6x
NB:

• To effect a partial fraction breakdown of a rational algebraic expression, it is neces-

sary for the degree of the numerator to be less than the degree of the denominator.

• Thus if, in the original algebraic rational expression, the degree of the numerator is
not less than the degree of the denominator, then first divide out by long division.
This gives a polynomial with a rational remainder where the remainder has a degree
of the numerator being less than the degree of the denominator. The remainder can
be broken down into its partial fractions.

30
 x2 + 3x − 10
E.g.1 Express in partial fraction
x2 − 2x − 3
Solution

x2 + 3x − 10 5x − 7
=⇒ 2
= 1+ 2
x − 2x − 3 x − 2x − 3
5x − 7 5x − 7 A B
=⇒ 2 = = +
x − 2x − 3 (x + 1)(x − 3) x + 1 x − 3
=⇒ 5x − 7 = A(x − 3) + B(x + 1)
When x = 3; 4B = 8 =⇒ B = 2
When x = −1; −4A = −12 =⇒ A = 3
5x − 7 3 2
=⇒ = +
x2 − 2x − 3 x + 1 x − 3
2
x + 3x − 10 3 2
∴ = 1 + +
x2 − 2x − 3 x+1 x−3

3x3 − x2 − 13x − 13
E.g.2 Express in partial fraction
x2 − x − 6
Solution

3x3 − x2 − 13x − 13 7x − 1
=⇒ 2
= 3x + 2 + 2
x −x−6 x −x−6
7x − 1
= 3x + 2 +
(x + 2)(x − 3)
7x − 1 A B
=⇒ = +
(x + 2)(x − 3) x + 2 x − 3
3 4
= +
x+2 x−3
3 2
3x − x − 13x − 13 3 4
∴ 2
= 3x + 2 + +
x −x−6 x+2 x−3
31
Exercise

Express the following in partial fractions:

2x3 + 3x2 − 54x + 50 10x2 + 7x − 42

(a) (d)
x2 + 2x − 24 (x − 2)(x + 4)(x − 1)
2x2 + 6x − 35 12x2 + 36x + 6
(b) (e)
x2 − x − 12 x3 + 6x2 + 3x − 10
15x2 − x + 2 35x + 17
(c) (f)
(x − 5)(3x2 + 4x − 2) (5x + 2)2

Try

Express the following in partial fractions

1 x4
1. 2 9.
x −9 x3 − 2x2 − 7x − 4
x 1
2. 10.
(x + 2)(x + 3) x(x2 + 9)
x4 − 4x2 + x + 1 1
3. 11.
x2 − 4 (x2 + 1)(x2 + 4)
2x2 + 1 1 − 9x2
4. 12.
(x − 1)(x − 2)(x − 3) x(x2 + 9)
x2 − 4 1
5. 3 13.
x − 3x2 − x + 3 x(x2 + 1)2
x3 + 1 x2
6. 14.
x(x + 3)(x + 2)(x − 1) (x − 1)(x2 + 4)2
2x 2x + 1
7. 15.
(x − 2)2 (x + 2) (2x + 3)2
x+4 8x + 1
8. 16.
x3 + 6x2 + 9x 2x2 − 9x − 35

32
 CHAPTER 5
THE BINOMIAL THEOREM

The factorial operation is the exclamation sign, !, and it is placed after an integer variable or
number to indicate factorial function, which is defined as:
n! = n(n − 1)(n − 2)(n − 3)...2 × 1

From this definition, it follows that

n! = n[(n − 1)!] = n(n − 1)(n − 2)! etc.

Examples
4! = 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 24
3! = 3 × 2 × 1 = 6
2! = 2 × 1 = 2
1! = 1

And by definition 0! = 1. The binomial theorem or the binomial formula is a formula to

expand a power of the binomial expression a + b, that is, it is a formula that enables us to
expand (a + b)n . Descriptions of the binomial theorem frequently use a shorthand notation for
the coefficients of each term consisting of numbers over each other enclosed in parenthesis e.g.
 
n n!
=
k (n − k)!k!
 
n
The notation is often called the binomial coefficient “n choose k”.
k

33
 In general, the binomial theorem is as follows:
  n
n
n
(a + b) = ∑ an−r br =
r r=0
           
n n 0 n n−1 1 n n−2 2 n n−r r n 1 n−1 n 0 n
a b + a b + a b +···+ a b +···+ a b + a b
0 1 2 r n−1 n

Applying the binomial theorem to (a + b)3 , we obtain

       
3 3 3 0 3 2 1 3 1 2 3 0 3
(a + b) = a b + a b + a b + a b
0 1 2 3
= a3 + 3a2 b + 3ab2 + b3

E.g. 1 Expand (x + 2y)5

Solution

(x + 2y)5 =
           
5 5 0 5 4 1 5 3 2 5 2 3 5 1 4 5 0
x (2y) + x (2y) + x (2y) + x (2y) + x (2y) + x (2y)5
0 1 2 3 4 5
5! 5 5! 4 5! 3 2 5! 2 3 5! 5!
= x + x (2y) + x (4y ) + x (8y ) + x(16y4 ) + (32y5 )
5!0! 4!1! 3!2! 2!3! 1!4! 0!5!
= x5 + 10x4 y + 40x3 y2 + 80x2 y3 + 80xy4 + 32y5

E.g. 2 Find the fifth term of (a + 2x3 )17

Solution
 
3 17 17 13 3 4
The fifth term of (a + 2x ) = a (2x )
4
= 38080a13 x12

E.g. 3 Find the term involving y5 in the expansion of (2x2 + y)10

Solution
 
10
Thus, the sixth term = (2x2 )5 y5
5
= 8064x10 y5

34
 1
E.g. 4 Find the constant term in the expansion of (2x2 + )9 .
x
Solution
   6
th 9 2 3 1
Thus, 7 term of this expansion = (2x )
6 x
 
1
= 84(2)3 x6 6
x
= 672

NB:
n(n − 1)x2 n(n − 1)(n − 2)x3
(1 + x)n = 1 + nx + + + · · · + xn
2! 3!
E.g. 1 Expand (1 + x)4 .

Solution

4(3) 2 4(3)(2) 3
(1 + x)4 = 1 + 4x + x + x + x4
2! 3!
= 1 + 4x + 6x2 + 4x3 + x4

E.g. 2 Expand (1 + 2x)3 in ascending power of x.

Solution

3 3(2)(2x)2
(1 + 2x) = 1 + 3(2x) + + (2x)3
2!
= 1 + 6x + 12x2 + 8x3

E.g. 3 Expand (1 − 2x)5 in ascending power of x.

Solution

5(4)(−2x)2 5(4)(3)(−2x)3 5(4)(3)(2)(−2x)4

(1 − 2x)5 = 1 + 5(−2x) + + + + (−2x)5
2! 3! 4!
= 1 − 10x + 40x2 − 80x3 + 80x4 − 32x5

 x 4
E.g. 4 Expand 1 + in ascending powers of x.
2
Solution

35
  x 4  x  4(3) x
2 4(3)(2) x
3  x 4
2 2
1+ = 1+4 + + +
2 2 2! 3! 2
4(3) 2 4(3)(2) 3 1 4
= 1 + 2x + x + x + x
4(2)(1) 8(3)(2)(1) 16
3 1 1
= 1 + 2x + x2 + x3 + x4
2 2 16

E.g. 5 Expand (2 + x)4 in ascending powers of x.

Solution

4

4 x 4
(2 + x) = 2 1 +
2
 x  4(3) x
2 4(3)(2) x
3  x 4
" #
 x 4
24 1 + = 24 1 + 4 + 2
+ 2
+
2 4 2! 3! 2
4(3)x2 4(3)(2)x3 x4
 
= 24 1 + 2x + + +
4(2)(1) 8(3)(2)(1) 16
= 16 + 32x + 24x2 + 8x3 + x4

E.g. 6 The first three terms of the binomial expansion (1 + px)n are 1, −10x and 40x2 respec-
tively. Find the values of p and n.

Solution

n(n − 1)(px)2
(1 + px)n = 1 + npx+
2!
Comparing coefficients
np = −10 (1)
n(n − 1) 2
=⇒ p = 40
2!
n2 p2 − np2 = 80 (2)
−10
From (1) n =
p

36
 Substituting the value of n in (2), we have
10 2 2
   
10
− p − − p2 = 80
p p
100 + 10p = 80
10p = 80 − 100
10p = −20
p = −2
Substituting the value of p = −2 in (1)
=⇒ −2n = −10
−10
n=
−2
n=5

5.1 PASCAL TRIANGLE

(a + b)0 1
(a + b)1 1 1
(a + b)2 1 2 1
(a + b)3 1 3 3 1
(a + b)4 1 4 6 4 1
(a + b)5 1 5 10 10 5

That is (a + b)5 = a5 + 5a4 b + 10a3 b2 + 10a2 b3 + 5a2 b3 + 5ab4 + b5

37
 CHAPTER 6
SERIES AND SEQUENCE

The series of
n
1+2+3+···+n = ∑r
r=1
n
=⇒ ∑ r = 1+2+3+···+n
r=1
n(n + 1)
=
2

6.1 THEOREM
Given that c is a constant and n a positive integer, then

n n
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
(a) ∑1=n (d) ∑ r2 = 6
r=1 r=1
n n  2
n(n + 1)
(b) ∑ c = nc (e) ∑ r = 3
r=1 r=1 2
n
n(n + 1)
(c) ∑r= 2
r=1

E.g. 1
The sum of the first 100 natural numbers is given by
100
100(101)
∑r= 2
= 5050
r=1

38
E.g. 2
5
Find the sum of the series ∑ r(3 + 2r)
r=1
Solution
5 5
3r + 2r2


∑ r (3 + 2r) = ∑
r=1 r=1
5 5
= ∑ 3r + ∑ 2r2
r=1
 r=1  
5(6) 5(6 × 11)
=3 +2
2 6
= 45 + 110 = 155

E.g. 3
4
Find the sum of the series ∑ (2r + r3)
r=1
Solution
4 4 4
2r + r3 = ∑ 2r + ∑ r3


∑
r=1 r=1 r=1
4(5) 2
  
4(5)
=2 +
2 2
= 20 + 100 = 120

6.1.1 Exercise
Evaluate the following
n(n + 1)
(i) The sum of the first n natural numbers is
2
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
(ii) The sum of the squares of the first n natural numbers is
6
n(n + 1) 2
 
(iii) The sum of the cubes of the first n natural numbers is
2

39
6.2 SEQUENCES
A sequence is a set of quantities u1 , u2 , u3 , ..., stated in a definite order and each term formed
according to a fixed pattern. For instance, in the sequence

1, 2, 3, 4, ..., n, ...
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
u1 , u2 , u3 , u4 , ..., un , ...

1 is mapped unto u1 , 2 is mapped onto u2 , and so on. The numbers u1 , u2 , u3 , ...un , ... are the
terms of the sequence. The number un is the nth term of the sequence.

6.2.1 Finite And Infinite Sequence

A finite sequence contains only a finite number of terms (E.g. 1, 3, 5, 7, ..., n) while an infinite
sequence is unending (E.g. 2, 6, 18, 54, ...).
NB: A series is formed by the sum of the terms of the sequence.

6.2.2 ARITHMETIC SEQUENCE

This is a sequence in which the difference between any two successive terms is some constant
d. For any arithmetic sequence

un+1 = un + d
d = un+1 − un

The first term of an arithmetic sequence is denoted by a. The general term or the nth term of
an arithmetic sequence is given by

un = a + (n − 1)d
where a = 1st term
d = common difference
n = number of terms

40
 The general arithmetic series can be written as
a + (a + d) + (a + 2d) + (a + 3d) + · · ·
where a = 1st term
d = common difference
n
Sn = [2a + (n − 1)d] (Sum of n terms)
2

E.g. 1
Find the 15th term of the sequence 2, 5, 8
Solution

a = 2, d = (5 − 2) = (8 − 5) = 3
un = a + (n − 1)d
=⇒ u15 = 2 + (15 − 1)3
= 2 + 42
= 44

E.g. 2
The 7th term of an AP is 3 and the 12th term is -3. Find

(i) the first term and the common difference

(ii) the 10th term.

(i) Solution

u7 = a + 6d = 3 (1)
u12 = a + 11d = −3 (2)
(1) − (2) : −5d = 6
6
=⇒ d = − (3)
5
Substitute (3) into (1)
 
6
=⇒ a + 6 − =3
5

41
 5a − 36 = 15
5a = 51
51
a=
5
(ii)

un = a + (n − 1)d
 
51 6
=⇒ u10 = + (10 − 1) −
5 5
51 54 3
= − =−
5 5 5

E.g. 3
Find the value of x if 2x + 1, x − 2 and 3x + 4 are consecutive terms of an AP.

Solution
Here we apply the principle that
un+1 − un = d
u2 − u1 = u3 − u2 = d
=⇒ (x − 2) − (2x + 1) = (3x + 4) − (x − 2)
x − 2 − 2x − 1 = 3x + 4 − x + 2
−x − 3 = 2x + 6
−3x = 9
∴ x = −3

E.g. 4
If the 7th term of an AP is 22 and the 12th term is 37, find the series.

Solution

a + 6d = 22 (1)
a + 11d = 37 (2)

42
 (2)-(1): 5d = 15
=⇒ d = 3
From (1) a + 6(3) = 22
=⇒ a + 18 = 22
=⇒ a = 22 − 18 = 4
∴ the series is given by 4 + 7 + 10 + 13 + 16 + · · ·

6.2.3 ARITHMETIC MEAN

x+y
The arithmetic mean of x and y is given by .
2
The arithmetic mean of two numbers is simply their average.

E.g.1 Insert five numbers between 5 and 17:

Solution

This means that we need to find 7 terms with u1 = 5 and u7 = 17

u1 = a = 5 (1)
u7 = 5 + 6d = 17 (2)
From (2) : 6d = 12
=⇒ d = 2
∴ the numbers are 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17

E.g.2 Insert 3 arithmetic means between 8 and 18.

Solution

Let the means be x, y and z

=⇒ 8 + x + y + z + 18 form an AP

43
 a=8 1st term
a + 4d = 18 5th term
5
From the 5th term d =
2
5 21
=⇒ x = 8 + =
2 2
21 5 26
y= + = = 13
2 2 2
26 5 31
z= + =
2 2 2
21 31
∴ 8, , 13, , 18 form an AP
2 2

Exercise

1. Find 5 arithmetic means between 12 and 21.6.

2. Insert 5 arithmetic means between 3 and 15.

6.2.4 THE SUM, Sn OF AN ARITHMETIC SEQUENCE

Sn = a + (a + d) + · · · + a + (n − 2)d + a + (n − 1)d (1)

Reversing :
Sn = a + (n − 1)d + [a + (n − 2)d] + · · · + (a + d) + a (2)
Adding (1) and (2) :
2Sn = n[2a + (n − 1)d]
n
Sn = [2a + (n − 1)d]
2

E.g.1
Find the sum of the first twenty terms of an AP 1, 4, 7, 10, · · ·

Solution

a = 1, d = 3 n = 20

44
 n
=⇒ Sn = [2a + (n − 1)d]
2
20
= [2(1) + (20 − 1)3]
2
= 10[2 + 19(3)]
= 10(2 + 57) = 590

E.g.2
If the 7th term of an AP is 22 and the 12th term is 37, find the sum of the first 10 terms

Solution

7th term : a + 6d = 22 (1)

12th term : a + 11d = 37 (2)
(2) – (1) : 5d = 15
=⇒ d = 3
=⇒ from (1) : a + 6(3) = 22
=⇒ a + 18 = 22
=⇒ a = 22 − 18 = 4
The sum of n terms is given by
n
Sn = [2a + (n − 1)d]
2
10
=⇒ S10 = [2(4) + (10 − 1)3]
2
= 5[8 + 27]
= 175

E.g.3
The 6th term of an AP is –5 and the 10th term is –21. Find the sum of the first 30 terms.

Solution

6th term : a + 5d = −5 (1)

10th term : a + 9d = −21 (2)
(2) – (1) : 4d = −16
=⇒ d = −4

45
 =⇒ from (1) : a + 5(−4) = −5
=⇒ a − 20 = −5
=⇒ a = 20 − 5 = 15
The sum of n terms is given by
n
Sn = [2a + (n − 1)d]
2
30
=⇒ S30 = [2(15) + (30 − 1)(−4)]
2
= 15[30 − 116]
= −1290

Exercise

1. The 7th term of an AP is 3 and the 12th term is –3. Find the first term and the common
difference and the sum to 45 terms.

2. The 9th term of an AP is –21 and the 15th term is –45. Find the sum to 26 terms.

6.2.5 GEOMETRIC SEQUENCE (GP)

This is a sequence in which the ratio, r of any two successive terms is a constant. For any GP

un+1
r=
un
=⇒ un+1 = r un

A GP has the form a + ar + ar2 + ar3 + · · · , where a = first term and r = common ratio.
The nth term or the general term of a GP is given by

un = arn−1

where a = first term and r = common ratio.

E.g.1
Find the common ratio of the sequence 5 − 10 + 20 − 40 + · · ·

46
 Solution
10 20 40
r=− = − = − = −2
5 10 20
E.g.2
The 5th term of a GP is 162 and the 8th term is 4374, find the common ratio and the first term.

Solution

5th term : ar4 = 162 (1)

12th term : ar7 = 4374 (2)
(2) ar7 4373
: =
(1) ar4 162
=⇒ r3 = 27
=⇒ r = 3
From (1) : a(3)4 = 162
162
=⇒ a = =2
81
∴ first term = 2 and common ratio = 3

6.2.6 GEOMETRIC MEANS

If x, y and z form a geometric sequence, then

y z
= where x, y, z 6= 0
x y
=⇒ y2 = xz
√
=⇒ y = ± xz where x, z > 0

Thus, the geometric mean, y of two positive numbers x and z is given by

√
y = xz

. E.g.1 Insert 4 geometric means between 5 and 1215.

47
 Solution

Let the means be A, B, C and D

=⇒ 5, A, B, C, D, 1215 form a GP
1st term : a = 5 (1)
6th term : ar5 = 1215 (2)
1215 1215
From (2) : r5 = =
a 5
=⇒ r5 = 243
=⇒ r = 3
=⇒ A = 5(3) = 15
B = 5(3)2 = 45
C = 5(3)3 = 135
D = 5(3)4 = 405
∴ the required geometric means are 15, 45, 135, 405

E.g.2 Insert two geometric means between 5 and 8.64.

Solution

Let the means be A and B

=⇒ 5, A, B, 8.64 form a GP
1st term : a = 5 (1)
4th term : ar3 = 8.64 (2)
8.64 8.64
From (2) : r3 = =
a 5
=⇒ r3 = 1.728
=⇒ r = 1.2
=⇒ A = 5(1.2) = 6.0
B = 5(1.2)2 = 7.2
∴ the required geometric means are 6.0 and 7.2

Exercise
3 9 243
1. The geometric sequence 1, , , · · · has a term equal to . Find the number of terms.
2 4 32

48
 Solution

3 243
a = 1, r = , un =
2 32
n−1 243
=⇒ un = ar =
32
 n−1
3 243
1 =
2 32
 n−1  5
3 3
=
2 2
=⇒ n − 1 = 5
n=6

2. For which values of k are 2k, 5k + 2 and 20k − 4 consecutive terms of a geometric se-
quence?

Solution
un+1
Here, we apply the principle r =
un

u2 u3
=⇒ r = =
u1 u2
=⇒ r = u22 = u1 × u3
(5k + 2)2 = 2k(20k − 4)
25K 2 + 20k + 4 = 40k2 − 8k
15k2 − 28k − 4 = 0
(15k + 2)(k − 2) = 0
15k + 2 = 0 or k − 2 = 0
2
=⇒ k = − or k = 2
15
2
When k = − , we have
15
4
2k = −
15
4
5k + 2 =
3
20
20k − 4 = −
3

49
 When k = 2, we have
2k = 4
5k + 2 = 12
20k − 4 = 36
 
2
∴ the values of k = k : k = − , 2
15

6.2.7 SUM TO N TERMS OF A GEOMETRIC SEQUENCE

Given a, ar2 , ar3 , · · ·

Sn = a + ar + ar2 + · · · + arn−1 (1)
rSn = ar + ar2 + ar3 + · · · + arn−1 + arn (2)
(1) – (2) : Sn − rSn = a − arn
=⇒ Sn (1 − r) = a(1 − rn )
a(1 − rn )
=⇒ Sn =
1−r

NB: The formula for Sn is useful when r is a fraction between +1 and –1 but for values of r
outside this range, the alternative form

a(rn − 1)
Sn =
r−1

could be used.
E.g.1 Find the sum of the first 8 terms of the series 8 + 4 + 2 + 1 + 12 .

Solution

4 2 1
a = 8; r = = = ; n=8
8 4 2
a(1 − rn )
=⇒ Sn =
h1 − r
i
8
8 1 − 12
=⇒ S8 =
1 − 12
1


8 1 − 256 255
= 1
=
2
16

50
 1 1
E.g.2 Find the sum of the first 6 terms of the GP 4, 2, 1, ...

Solution

1 1 1/2
a= ; r= = = 2; n = 6
4 1/2 1/4
a(rn − 1)
=⇒ Sn = (r > 1)
r−1
1 6


4 2 −1
=⇒ S6 =
2−1
1 3
= (63) = 15
4 4

E.g.3 Find the sum of the first 10 terms of the series 12, −9, 6 43 , ...

Solution

3
a = 12; r = − ; n = 10
4
a(1 − rn )
=⇒ Sn =
1h− r

i
3 10
12 1 − − 4
=⇒ S10 =
1 − − 34

12(0.9436)
= = 6.47
1.75

E.g.4 Find the sum of the series 2 + 4 + 8 + 16 + · · · to 6 terms

Solution

a = 2; r = 2; n = 6
a(rn − 1)
=⇒ Sn = (r > 1)
r−1

2 26 − 1
=⇒ S6 =
2−1
2(32 − 1)
= = 62
1

51
E.g.5 Find the sum to 7 terms of the series 3 − 6 + 12 − 24 + · · ·

Solution

−6 12 −24
a = 3; r = = = = −2; n = 7
3 −6 12
a(rn − 1)
=⇒ Sn = (r < −1)
r − 1 7 
3 (−2) − 1
=⇒ S7 =
−2 − 1
3(−129)
= = 129
−3

Exercise

1. The 5th, 9th and 16th terms of a linear sequence are consecutive terms of an exponential
sequence, GP. Find the common difference in terms of the first term.

1 1
2. The 3rd and 6th terms of an exponential sequence are 4 and 32 respectively. Find the
sum of the first 10 terms.

52
 CHAPTER 7
TRIGONOMETRY

Trigonometry means ''measurement of triangles''. A positive angle measures a rotation in an

anticlockwise direction.

◦
2nd Quadrant 90 1st Quadrant

180◦ 0◦ , 360◦

3rd Quadrant 4th Quadrant

270◦

H
0

θ
A

53
7.1 TRIGONOMETRY FUNCTIONS
0 0 sin θ
• sin θ = • tan θ = =
H A cos θ
A
• cos θ =
H • cos2 θ + cos2 θ = 1

7.1.1 RADIANS AND ANGLES

π radian = 180◦
180◦ π
1 radian = and 1◦ = radian
π 180◦

180 π
To change from radian to degrees, multiply by π and from degrees to radian multiply by 180 .

7.1.2 COMMON ANGLES

π π π π 3π
Angle in radians: 0 6 4 3 2 π 2 2π
Angle in degrees: 0 30◦ 45◦ 60◦ 90◦ 180◦ 270◦ 360◦

7.1.3 EXPRESSING ALL OTHER ANGLES IN THE ACUTE ANGLE

◦
2nd Quadrant 90 1st Quadrant

S A
180◦ − θ θ
180◦ 0◦
θ − 180◦ 360◦ − θ
T C

3rd Quadrant 4th Quadrant

270◦

• 1st Quadrant: + sin θ + cos θ + tan θ

• 2nd Quadrant:
sin θ = sin (180◦ − θ )
cos θ = − cos (180◦ − θ )
tan θ = − tan (180◦ − θ )

54
 • 3rd Quadrant:
sin θ = − sin (θ − 180◦ )
cos θ = − cos (θ − 180◦ )
tan θ = + tan (θ − 180◦ )

• 4th Quadrant:
sin θ = − sin (360◦ − θ )
cos θ = + cos (360◦ − θ )
tan θ = − tan (360◦ − θ )

E.g. 1
sin 150◦ = sin (180◦ − 150◦ ) = sin 30◦
cos 150◦ = − cos (180◦ − 150◦ ) = − cos 30◦
sin 240◦ = − sin (240◦ − 180◦ ) = − sin 60◦
tan 300◦ = − tan (360◦ − 300◦ ) = − tan 60◦

7.1.4 TRIG RATIOS OF 30◦ , 45◦ , 60◦

30◦ 30◦

√
2 3 2

60◦ 60◦
1 1
√
3 1
◦
• sin 60 = • sin 30◦ =
2 2
√
1 ◦ 3
• sin 60◦ = • cos 30 =
2 2
√ 1
• tan 60◦ = 3 • tan 30◦ = √
3

55
 45◦

√
2
1

45◦
1

sin 45◦ = √1
2
cos 45◦ = √1
2
tan 45◦ = 1

7.1.5 SOME TRIG. IDENTITIES

1 1 1
NB : = csc θ = sec θ = cot θ
sin θ cos θ tan θ

sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1 (1)

 2
sin θ cos2 θ

2 1
Dividing through (1) by sin θ + = 2
sin2 θ sin2 θ sin θ
1 + cot2 θ = csc2 θ (2)
 2
sin θ cos2 θ

2 1
Dividing through (1) by cos θ + =
cos2 θ cos2 θ cos2 θ
tan2 θ + 1 = sec2 θ (3)

7.1.6 DIFFERENCE OF TWO ANGLES

sin (A ± B) = sin A cos B ± cos A sin B

cos (A + B) = cos A cos B − sin A sin B
cos (A − B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B

56
7.1.7 MULTIPLE ANGLES

sin 2A = sin (A + A) = sin A cos A + cos A sin A

2 sin A cos A
cos 2A = cos (A + A) = cos A cos A − sin A sin A
= cos2 A − sin2 A (using sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1)
= cos2 A − (1 − cos2 A)
= 2 cos2 A − 1
2 cos2 A = cos 2A + 1
1
=⇒ cos2 A = [1 + cos 2A]
2

Also cos 2A = cos2 A − sin2 A

= 1 − sin2 A − sin2 A
= 1 − 2 sin2 A
1
=⇒ sin2 A = [1 − cos 2A]
2

4 12
E.g. 1 If cos α = 5 and cos β = 13 , find the value of sin (α − β )

5 13
x x

α β
4 12

x 2 + 42 = 52 x2 + 122 = 132
x2 = 25 − 26 x2 = 169 − 144
x2 = 9 x2 = 25
x =3 x=5

57
 3 5
sin α = ; sin β =
5 13
=⇒ sin (α − β ) = sin α cos β − cos α sin β
   
3 12 4 5
= × − ×
5 13 5 13
16
=
65

7.1.8 Exercise
1. Prove that
sin θ 1 − cos θ
(i) =
1 + cos θ sin θ
1
(ii) (1 − sin x)(1 + sin x) =
1 + tan2 x

Solution
(i)

sin θ sin θ 1 − cos θ

= ×
1 + cos θ 1 + cos θ 1 − cos θ
sin θ (1 − cos θ )
=
1 − cos2 θ
sin θ (1 − cos θ )
=
sin2 θ
1 − cos θ
=
sin θ
(ii)

LHS : (1 − sin x)(1 + sin x) = 1 − sin2 x

1 1
RHS : 2
= 2
= cos2 x
1 + tan x sec x

2. Find the value of sin 15◦ , leaving answer in surd form.

Solution

58
 sin 15◦ = sin (45◦ − 30◦ ) = sin 45◦ cos 30◦ − cos 45◦ sin 30◦
" √ # " √ #
1 3 1 1
= √ × − √ ×
2 2 2 2
√ √ √
3−1 3−1 2
sin 15◦ = sin (45◦ − 30◦ ) = √ = √ × √
2 2 2 2 2
√ √
6− 2
=
4

7.1.9 TANGENTS OF COMPOUND ANGLES

1.

sin (A + B) sin (A − B)
tan (A + B) = tan (A − B) =
cos (A + B) cos (A − B)

sin A cos A + cos A sin B sin A cos A − cos A sin B

= =
cos A cos B − sin A sin B cos A cos B + sin A sin B
sin A cos B cos A sin B sin A cos B cos A sin B
cos A cos B + cos A cos B cos A cos B − cos A cos B
= cos A cos B sin A sin B
= cos A cos B sin A sin B
cos A cos B − cos A cos B cos A cos B + cos A cos B

tan A + tan B tan A − tan B

= =
1 − tan A tan B 1 + tan A tan B

2.

sin 3A = sin (2A + A)

= sin 2A cos A + cos 2A sin A
= (2 sin A cos A) cos A + (cos2 A − sin2 A) sin A
= 2 sin A cos2 A + sin A cos2 A − sin3 A
= 3 sin A cos2 A − sin3 A

59
 3.

cos 3A = cos (2A + A)

= cos 2A cos A − sin 2A sin A
= (cos2 A − sin2 A) cos A − (2 sin A cos A) sin A
= cos3 A − sin2 A cos A − 2 sin2 A cos A
= cos3 A − 3 sin2 A cos A

4.

tan 3A = tan (2A + A)

tan 2A + tan A
=
1 − tan 2A tan A
h i
2 tan A
+ tan A
1−tan2 A
= h i
2 tan A
1 − 1−tan2 A tan A

2 tan A + tan A(1 − tan2 A)

=
1 − tan2 A − 2 tan A tan A
2 tan A + tan A − tan3 A
=
1 − tan2 A − 2 tan2 A
3 tan A − tan3 A
=
1 − 3 tan2 A

7.1.10 Exercise
1. If t = tan θ , simplify the following
p t (iii) t(1 + t 2 )
(i) 1 + t2 (ii) √
1 + t2

60
 Solution

(i) (ii)

p p t tan θ tan θ
1 + t2 = 1 + tan2 θ √ =√ =√
1+t 2 2
1 + tan θ sec2 θ
√
= sec2 θ tan θ sin θ 1
= = .
sec θ cos θ sec θ
= sec θ sin θ
= . cos θ
cos θ
= sin θ

2. If x = a sin θ and y = b sec θ , simplify

1
p
(i) √ y2 − b2
(ii)
a2 − x 2 y

Solution

(i)

1 1 1
√ =p =q
a2 − x2 a2 − a2 sin2 θ a2 (1 − sin2 θ )
1
=
a cos θ

(ii)
p √ p
y2 − b2 b2 sec2 θ − b2 b2 (sec2 θ − 1)
= =
y b sec θ b sec θ
√
sec2 θ − 1
= (1)
sec θ
1
but sec2 θ = 1 + tan2 θ and = cos θ
sec θ
sec2 θ − 1 = tan2 θ
√
b sec2 θ − 1
=⇒ = b tan θ . cos θ
sec θ
sin θ
=b . cos θ
cos θ
= b sin θ

3. If x = sin θ , y = cos θ and z = tan θ , find:

61
 1 1 1
(i) √ (ii) − p (iii)
1 − x2 1 − y2 1 + z2

Solution

1 1 1 1
(i) √ =p =√ = = sec θ
1 − x2 1 − sin2 θ cos2 θ cos θ
1 1 1 1
(ii) − p = −√ = −p =− = − csc θ
1 − y2 1 − cos2 θ sin2 θ sin θ
1 1 1
(iii) 2
= 2
= = cos2 θ
1+z 1 + tan θ sec2 θ

4. Solve the equation below

2 sin θ − 3 cos θ = 0 0◦ < θ < 360◦

Solution

2 sin θ − 3 cos θ = 0
sin θ cos θ 0
2 −3 =
cos θ cos θ cos θ
2 tan θ − 3 = 0
3
=⇒ tan θ =
2
∴ θ = 56.3◦ , 236.3◦

1
5. If tan (A − B) = 5 and tan A = 2, find the value of tan B.

Solution

tan A − tan B
tan(A − B) =
1 + tan A tan B
2 − tan B 1
= =
1 + 2 tan B 5
=⇒ 5(2 − tan B) = 1 + 2 tan B
10 − 5 tan B = 1 + 2 tan B
7 tan B = 9
9
tan B =
7
62
7.1.11 HALF ANGLES

sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A

A A
=⇒ sin A = 2 sin cos
2 2
cos 2A = cos2 A − sin2 A
A A
=⇒ cos A = cos2 − sin2
2 2
2A A
= 1 − 2 sin = 2 cos2 − 1
2 2
2 tan A
tan 2A =
1 − tan2 A

Expressing Half-Angles In Terms of Tangent

A A A A
sin A = 2 sin cos cos A = cos2 − sin2
2 2 2 2

2 sin ( A2 ) cos ( A2 ) cos2 ( A2 ) − sin2 ( A2 )

= =
sin2 ( A2 ) + cos2 ( A2 ) sin2 ( A2 ) + cos2 ( A2 )

2 sin( A2 ) cos( A2 ) cos2 ( A2 ) sin2 ( A2 )

cos2 ( A2 ) cos2 ( A2 )
− cos2 ( A2 )
= =
sin2 ( A2 ) cos2 ( A2 ) sin2 ( A2 ) cos2 ( A2 )
cos2 ( A2 )
+ cos2 ( A2 ) cos2 ( A2 )
+ cos2 ( A2 )

sin( A )
2 cos( 2A ) 1 − t2
2t =
= 2
= 1 + t2
tan2 ( A2 ) + 1 1 + t2

2 tan( A2 ) 2t
tan A =
=
1 − tan2 A
2
1 − t2

63
7.1.12 FACTOR FORMULA

   
A+B A−B
sin A + sin B = 2 sin cos
2 2
   
A+B A−B
sin A − sin B = 2 cos sin
2 2
   
A+B A−B
cos A + cos B = 2 cos cos
2 2
   
A+B A−B
cos A − cos B = −2 sin sin
2 2

E.g. Express sin 4θ + sin θ as a factor.

Solution

1 1
sin A + sin B = 2 sin (A + B) cos (A − B)
2 2
1 1
=⇒ sin 4θ + sin θ = 2 sin (5θ ) cos (3θ )
2 2
5θ 3θ
= 2 sin cos
2 2

7.1.13 PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS

E.g. Eliminate θ from the following equations:

(a) x = 3 cos (θ ) − 5 and y = 3 + 2 sin θ

(b) x = a tan θ and y = b cos θ

Solution

(a)

x+5 y−3
cos θ = and sin θ =
3 2
 2  2
x+5 y−3
=⇒ cos2 θ + sin2 θ = + =1
3 2

64
(b)

x y
= tan θ and = cos θ
a b
1 b
=⇒ = sec θ =
cos θ y
But tan2 θ + 1 = sec2 θ
 x 2  2
b
+1 =
a y
x 2 b 2
=⇒ 2 + 1 = 2
a y

65
 CHAPTER 8
LIMITS

8.1 DEFINITION
The limit of a function f (x) as x tends to a is L. This means that, as x gets closer and closer to
a, f (x) gets closer and closer to L. Thus

lim f (x) = L
x→a

If a real-valued function of a real variable is defined by a formula, and if no domain is stated

explicitly, then it is to be understood that the domain consists of all real numbers for which the
formula yields a real value called the natural domain of the function.

E.g.1: f (x) = x3
The function f has real values for all real x, so its natural domain is the interval (−∞, +∞).

1
E.g.2: f (x) =
(x − 1)(x − 3)
The function f has real values for all real x, except x = 1 and x = 3 where divisions by zero
occur. Therefore the natural domain = {x : x 6= 1 and x 6= 3}.

x2 − 4
E.g.3: f (x) =
x−2
The function f consists of all real x, except x = 2. However, if we factorize the numerator and
then cancel the common factor in the numerator and denominator, we obtain

(x − 2)(x + 2)
f (x) = = x+2
x−2

which is defined at x = 2 since f (2) = 4 for the altered function f .

NB: The algebraic simplification of a given function (if possible) may alter the domain of the

66
function.

8.2 CONTINUITY
If f (x) is continuous at a point x = a, then

(i) lim f (x) exists and

x→a

(ii) lim f (x) = f (a)

x→a

E.g. Check the following points of discontinuities:

x2 − 4
(a) f (x) = (x 6= −2)
x+2
x2 − 1
(b) f (x) = ( f (x) is not defined at x = 1)
x−1
3x + 3 3x + 3
(c) f (x) = = ( f (x) is discontinuous at x = 4 and x = −1)
x2 − 3x − 4 (x − 4)(x + 1)
Z 5
1
(d) =?
1 x−2
x2 − 16
(e) f (x) = =?
x−4
√ √
7x + 2 − 6x + 4
(f) f (x) = =?
x−2
3
(g) f (x) = =?
x−4
x2 − b2
(h) f (x) = =?
x−b

8.2.1 Exercise
Find the domain of the following functions:

1 x+1
(i) f (x) = (v) f (x) =
x−3 x−1
x2 − 1 (vi) f (x) = 3x2 − 2
(ii) f (x) =
x+1
3
1 (vii) f (x) =
(iii) g(x) = x
1 − sin x
√
3 x2 − 4
(iv) f (x) = (viii) f (x) =
2 − cos x x−2
67
8.2.2 Worked Examples
x2 − 4
1. Find lim
x→2 x − 2

Solution
Since both the numerator and the denominator approaches 0, we have

x2 − 4 (x − 2)(x + 2)
lim = lim
x→2 x − 2 x→2 x−2
= lim (x + 2) = 4
x→2

2x2 + 5x − 12
2. Find lim
x→3/2 2x − 3

Solution
Since both the numerator and the denominator approaches 0, we have

2x2 + 5x − 12 (2x − 3)(x + 4)

lim = lim
x→3/2 2x − 3 x→3/2 2x − 3
= lim (x + 4)
x→3/2
11 1
= =5
2 2

x2 − x − 12
3. Find lim
x→4 x−4

Solution
Since both the numerator and the denominator approaches 0, we have

x2 − x − 12 (x + 3)(x − 4)
lim = lim
x→4 x−4 x→4 x−4
= lim (x + 3)
x→4

=7

x3 − 5x2 + 2x − 4
4. Find lim
x→2 x2 − 3x + 3

Solution

68
 Since neither the numerator nor the denominator approaches 0, we have

lim x3 − 5x2 + 2x − 4
x3 − 5x2 + 2x − 4 x→2
lim =
x→2 x2 − 3x + 3 lim x2 − 3x + 3
x→2

= −12

5x2 − 4x
5. Find lim
x→0 x

Solution
Since neither the numerator nor the denominator approaches 0, we have

5x2 − 4x x(5x − 4)
lim = lim
x→0 x x→0 x
= lim (5x − 4) = −4
x→0

6x2 − 5
6. Find lim
x→0 x + 2

Solution
As x approaches 0, we have

6x2 − 5 5 1
lim = − = −2
x→0 x + 2 2 2

 
1 4
7. Find lim − 2
x→0 x−2 x −4

Solution
As x approaches 0, we have
 
1 4 1 4
lim − 2 = −
x→0 x−2 x −4 −2 −4
1 1
= − +1 =
2 2
 
1 4
8. Find lim − 2
x→2 x−2 x −4

69
 Solution
1 4
As x approaches 2, both and 2 become infinitely large in magnitude and
x−2 x −4
therefore we try to simplify the given function as follows:
1 4 x+2−4 x−2 1
− 2 = = =
x − 2 x − 4 (x + 2)(x − 2) (x + 2)(x − 2) x + 2
 
1 4 1
=⇒ lim − 2 = lim
x→2 x − 2 x −4 x→2 x + 2
1
=
4
 
1 8
9. Find lim − 2
x→4 x − 4 x − 16

Solution
As x approaches 4, we have
   
1 8 x+4−8
lim − 2 = lim
x→4 x − 4 x − 16 x→4 (x + 4)(x − 4)
 
x−4 1
= lim =
x→4 (x + 4)(x − 4) 8

x+2
10. Find lim
x→−3 x − 3

Solution
As x approaches 4, we have
x + 2 −3 + 2 1
lim = =
x→−3 x − 3 −3 − 3 6

Now, let us consider situations in which we may have to factorize out the highest power of the
given variable:

1. Evaluate lim (2x11 − 5x6 + 3x2 + 1)

x→+∞

70
 Solution
 
11 6 2 511 3 1
2x − 5x + 3x + 1 = x 2 − 5 + 9 + 11
x x x
5 3 1
But 5 , 9 , and 11 all approach 0 as x+ → ∞
x x x
5 3 1
Thus as x → +∞, 2 − 5 + 9 + 11 approach 2
x x x
At the same time x approaches +∞. Hence the limit is +∞

∴ lim (2x11 − 5x6 + 3x2 + 1) = +∞

x→+∞

2. Find lim (2x3 − 12x2 + x − 7)

x→+∞
Solution
 
3 2 12 1 73
2x − 12x + x − 7 = x 2 − + 2 − 3 (1)
x x x
12 1 7
As x → +∞, 2 , and 3 all approach 0
x x x
 
12 1 7
Hence 2 − + 2 − 3 approaches 2
x x x

But from (1) x3 approaches +∞

=⇒ lim (2x3 − 12x2 + x − 7) = +∞

x→+∞

3. Evaluate lim (2x3 − 12x2 + x − 7)

x→−∞
Solution
 
3 2 12 1 73
2x − 12x + x − 7 = x 2 − + 2 − 3 (1)
x x x
12 1 7
As x → −∞, 2 , and 3 all approach 0
x x x
 
12 1 7
Hence 2 − + 2 − 3 approaches 2
x x x

But from (1) x3 approaches −∞

=⇒ lim (2x3 − 12x2 + x − 7) = −∞

x→−∞

4. Find lim (3x4 − x2 + x − 7)

x→−∞
Solution
71
  
4 2 1 4 1 7
3x − x + x − 7 = x 3 − 2 + 3 − 4
x x x
12 1 7
As x → −∞, 2 , and 3 all approach 0
x x x
 
1 1 7
Hence 3 − 2 + 3 − 4 approaches 3
x x x

But x4 approaches ∞

=⇒ lim (3x4 − x2 + x − 7) = ∞
x→−∞

8.3 Another Type of Limit Evaluations

2x + 5
1. Evaluate lim
x→∞ x2 − 7x + 3
Solution

Both the numerator and the denominator approach +∞. Hence, we divide the numerator
and the denominator by the highest power of x in the denominator. In this case the highest
power of x in the denominator is x2 .
" #
2x
2x + 5 x2
+ x52
lim = lim
x→+∞ x2 − 7x + 3 x2
x→+∞
x2
− 7x
x2
+ x32
" #
2 5
x + x2
= lim
x→+∞ 1 − 7 + 3
x x2
 
0+0
= lim =0
x→+∞ 1−0+0

3x3 − 4x + 2
2. Find lim
x→+∞ 7x3 + 5
Solution

As x → ∞, both the numerator and the denominator approach +∞. So we divide both the

72
 numerator and denominator by the highest power of x in the denominator (i.e. x3 ).

3x3
" #
3x3 − 4x + 2 x3
− 4x
x3
+ x23
lim = lim
7x3 + 5 7x3
x→∞ x→+∞
x3
+ x53
" #
3 − x42 + x23
= lim
x→+∞ 7 + x53
 
3−0+0 3
= lim =
x→+∞ 7+0 7

4x3 − 1
3. Find lim
x→+∞ 3x3 + 7
Solution

As x → +∞, both the numerator and the denominator approach +∞. So we divide both
the numerator and denominator by the highest power of x in the denominator (i.e. x3 ).

4x3
" #
4x3 − 1 x3
− x13
lim = lim
x→+∞ 3x3 + 7 3x3
x→+∞
x3
+ x73
" #
4 − x13
= lim
x→+∞ 3 + x73
 
4−0
= lim
x→+∞ 3+0
4
=
3

Now, let us consider cases in which the function contains a square root sign either in the
denominator (Type A) or the numerator (Type B).

Type A: (When the square root is in the denominator)

4x − 1
1. Find lim √
x→∞ x2 + 2

Solution

73
 As x → +∞, both the numerator and the denominator approach +∞. So we divide both
√
the given expression by the highest power of x (i.e. x2 ).
" √ #
4x − 1 (4x − 1)/ x2
lim √ = lim √ √
x→∞ x2 + 2 x→+∞
( x2 + 2)/ x2
 
4x 1
 x2 − x2 
√ √
= lim  q 
x→+∞ 2 x +2
x2
 
1
4− x
= lim  q 
x→+∞ 2
1 + x2

4−0
=√ =4
1+0

7x − 4
2. Find lim √
x→∞ x3 + 5

Solution

As x → +∞, both the numerator and the denominator approach +∞. So we divide both
√
the given expression by the highest power of x (i.e. x3 ).
" √ #
7x − 4 (7x − 4)/ x3
lim √ = lim √ √
x→∞ x3 + 5 x→+∞
( x3 + 5)/ x3
 
7 4
 x − x3 
√ √
= lim  q 
x→+∞ 3 x +5
x3
 
√7 − √4 3
= lim  x q x 
x→+∞
1 + x53

0−0
=√ =0
1+0

3x3 + 2
3. Find lim √
x→−∞ x4 − 2

Solution

74
 As x → +∞, both the numerator and the denominator approach +∞. So we divide both
√
the given expression by the highest power of x (i.e. x4 = x2 ).

3x3
" #
3x3 + 2 x2
+ x22
lim √ = lim √ √
x→−∞ x4 − 2 x→−∞ ( x4 − 2)/ x4
 
2
 3x + 2 
= lim  q x 
x→−∞ 4 x −2
x4
 
2
 3x + x2 
= lim  q 
x→−∞ 2
1 − x4
 
3x + 0
= lim √
x→−∞ 1−0

= lim 3x = −∞
x→−∞

Type B: (When the square root is in the numerator)

√
x2 + 5
1. Evaluate lim 2 .
x→∞ 3x − 2
Solution

As x → +∞, both the numerator and the denominator approach +∞. So we divide both
√
the given expression by the highest power of x (i.e. x4 = x2 ).
√ " √ √ #
2
x +5 ( x + 5)/ x4
2
lim = lim
x→∞ 3x2 − 2 x→+∞ 3x2
− x22
x2
q 
x2 +5
x4 
= lim  2

x→+∞ 3x − 2

x2 x2

75
 q 
√ 1 5
x2 + 5  x2 + x4 
lim 2 = lim  2
x→∞ 3x − 2 3x 2

x→+∞
2 − 2 x x
q 
1
+ x54 
x2
= lim 

3 − x22

x→+∞

√
0+0 0
= lim = =0
x→+∞ 3 − 0 3

√
x2 + 5
2. Evaluate lim 2 .
x→∞ 3x − 2
Solution
As x → +∞, both the numerator and the denominator approach +∞. So we divide both
√
the given expression by the highest power of x (i.e. x4 = x2 ).
√ " √ √ #
2
x +5 ( x + 5)/ x4
2
lim 2 = lim
3x2
x→∞ 3x − 2 x→+∞ − x22
x2
q 
x2 +5
x4 
= lim  2

x→+∞ 3x − 2

x 2 x 2

q 
1
x2
+ x54 
= lim 

3x2 2

x→+∞ −
x2 x2
q 
1
+ x54 
x2
= lim 

3 − x22

x→+∞

√
0+0 0
= lim = =0
x→+∞ 3 − 0 3

√
x2 − 8
3. Evaluate lim 2 .
x→∞ 5x + 4
Solution

76
 As x → +∞, both the numerator and the denominator approach +∞. So we divide both
√
the given expression by the highest power of x (i.e. x4 = x2 ).
√ " √ √ #
x2 − 8 ( x2 − 8)/ x4
lim = lim
x→∞ 5x2 + 4 x→+∞ 5x2
− x42
x2
q 
x2 −8
x4 
= lim 

5 − x42

x→+∞

q 
1
x2
+ x84 
= lim 

5 − x42

x→+∞

√
0−0 0
= lim = =0
x→+∞ 5 − 0 5

Exercise

Evaluate the following

3x − 4 4x3 + 6
(i) lim 2 (v) lim √
x→−∞ x − 100x x→−∞ x4 − 9
6x + 2
(ii) lim √
x→−∞ x2 − 3
x3 − 1
(vi) lim
2x + 5 x→1 x − 1
(iii) lim √
3
x→∞ x3 − 2
√
8x − 5 7x + 6
(iv) lim √ (vii) lim 4
x→∞ x3 + 4 x→∞ x − 5

8.4 L’HOPITALS RULE

0 ∞
L’Hopitals’ rule holds for type and type . Thus if f (x) and g(x) both tend to ∞ or as x tends
0 ∞
f 0 (x)
to a, then the ratio 0 approaches a limit or tends to infinity. Thus
g (x)

f (x) f 0 (x)
lim = lim 0
x→a g(x) x→a g (x)

77
where f (a) and g(a) are both zero and f 0 (x) and g0 (x) approach a limit or tends to infinity.

Generally,
f (x) f 0 (x) f 00 (x) f n (x)
lim = lim 0 = lim 00 · · · lim n
x→a g(x) x→a g (x) x→a g (x) x→a g (x)

Example:

x2 + 5x − 2
1. Evaluate lim .
x→1 x2 + 1
Solution

Using L’Hopitals’ rule, we have

x2 + 5x − 2 2x + 5 2
lim = lim = lim =1
x→1 x2 + 1 x→1 2x x→1 2

x3 + x2 − x − 1
 
2. Find lim .
x→1 x2 + 2x − 3
Solution

We note that if we substitute x = 1, we get the indeterminate form 00 . Therefore, we apply

the L’Hopiital’s rule.

x3 + x2 − x − 1 3x2 + 2x − 1
   
lim = lim
x→1 x2 + 2x − 3 x→1 2x + 2
2
3(1) + 2(1) − 1
=
2(1) + 2
3+2−1 4
= = =1
2+2 4

x2 − sin 3x
 
3. Determine lim .
x→0 x2 + 4x
Solution

78
 Since direct substitution gives 00 , so we apply the L’Hopital’s rule.

x2 − sin 3x
   
2x − 3 cos 3x
=⇒ lim = lim
x→0 x2 + 4x x→0 2x + 4
0−3
=
0+4
3
=−
4
 
x − sin x
4. Determine lim .
x→0 x2
Solution

Since direct substitution gives 00 , so we apply the L’Hopital’s rule.

   
x − sin x 1 − cos x
=⇒ lim = lim
x→0 x2 x→0 2x

Substituting x = 0 in the derivatives produces another indeterminate form 00 , so we apply

the L’Hopital’s rule a second time.
   
x − sin x 1 − cos x
=⇒ lim = lim
x→0 x2 x→0 2x
 
sin x
= lim =0
x→0 2

NB:
0
• For limiting values, when the indeterminate form 0 exists, apply the L’Hopitals rule and
continue to apply the rule until a stage is reached where the limits of the numerator and
the denominator are not simultaneously zero.

• Thus, we need to apply L’Hopital’s rule again and again until we reach a stage where the
limits of the numerator and the denominator are not simultaneously zero to arrive at the
definite limiting value of the function.

79
8.4.1 Exercise
 
x cos x − sin x
1. Evaluate lim .
x→0 x3
Solution

Since direct substitution gives 00 , we apply the L’Hopital’s rule.

   
x cos x − sin x −x sin x + cos x − cos x
=⇒ lim = lim
x→0 x3 x→0 3x2
 
−x sin x
= lim
x→0 3x2
 
− sin x
= lim
x→0 3x
 
− cos x 1
= lim =−
x→0 3 3
 
tan x − x
2. Evaluate lim .
x→0 sin x − x
Solution

Since direct substitution gives 00 , we apply the L’Hopital’s rule.

   2 
tan x − x sec x − 1
=⇒ lim = lim
x→0 sin x − x x→0 cos x − 1
2 sec2 x tan2 x
 
= lim
x→0 − sin x
2 sec2 x sec2 x + 4 sec2 x tan2 x
 
= lim
x→0 − cos x
2+0
= = −2
−1

3. Use L’Hopital rule if possible:

x3 − 2x2 + 4x − 3
 
4x
 
(a) lim (c) lim
x→0 4x2 − 5x + 1 x→∞ 3x2 − 4
" 2#
ex
(b) lim
 
x→0 x2 2x cos x
(d) lim
x→0 x+1
80
 2x3 + 3x2 − 2x − 3
 
1 6
 
(e) lim − 2 (p) lim
x→3 x − 3 x −9 x→0 x2 − 1
 
2 8
 
x−9
(f) lim − 2 (q) lim √
x→2 x − 2 x −4 x→3 x−3
"√ # " #
4
2x − 1 2
1−
(g) lim (r) lim 2 x
x→∞ x3 + 2 x→2 x − 4
 
x−3
 
lim √ x+5
(h) (s) lim √
x→3 x2 − 9 x→∞ 7x2 − 4
"
x 3
# √
1−e

x+1
(i) lim (t) lim
x→0 x3 x→1 2x + 7
 

sin x + x
 x − sin x
(j) lim (u) lim
x→0 x + x2 x→0 x − tan x
 
3x + 7
 
tan x − x (v) lim √
(k) lim x→∞ 3 x3 − 5
x→0 x − sin x
 
3x + 2
 
tan x − sin x
(l) lim (w) lim √
x→0 x3 x→−∞ x2 − 5
 3
4x + 20x2

1 − 2 sin2 x − cos3 x
 
(m) lim (x) lim
x→0 5x2 x→∞ x4 + 8
 3
7x + 2x2
  
sin x − cos x
(n) lim (y) lim
x→0 x3 x→∞ 4x3 − x
   
sin x − x 3x − 4
(o) lim (z) lim √
x→0 x3 x→∞ 3 x2 + 20

81
 CHAPTER 9
DIFFERENTIATION

9.1 Standard Derivatives

dy
1. y = xn ; = nxn−1
dx
dy
2. y = ex ; = ex
dx
dy
3. y = ekx ; = kekx
dx
dy 1
4. y = ln x; =
dx x
dy
5. y = sin x; = cos x
dx
dy
6. y = cos x; = sin x
dx
dy
7. y = tan x; = sec2 x
dx
dy
8. y = sec x; = sec x tan x
dx
dy
9. y = cot x; = − csc2 x
dx
dy
10. y = csc x; = − csc x cot x
dx

82
9.1.1 THE POWER RULE
If n is a positive integer, then
d n
(x ) = nxn−1
dx
E.g. 1
d 5
1. (x ) = 5x4
dx
d 12
2. (x ) = 12x11
dx
d
3. (x) = 1.x0 = 1
dx
d d
4. (4x8 ) = 4 (x8 ) = 4(8x7 ) = 32x7
dx dx
d 4 d d
5. (x + 6x11 ) = (x4 ) − (6x11 ) = 4x3 + 6(11)x10 = 4x3 + 66x10
dx dx dx
d d
6. (c) = 0; (12) = 0
dx dx

Using the power rule to find derivatives of functions

d n d
(x ) = nxn−1 , where x is a fraction
dx dx
n
Given f (u) = u
d n d du
then (u ) = (un )
dx du dx
du
= nun−1
dx
d 2
E.g. 1 Find (x − 1)50
dx
Solution

d 2 d
(x − 1)50 = 50(x2 − 1)49 (x2 − 1)
dx dx
= 50(x2 − 1)(2x)

= 100x(x2 − 1)

83
 d 2
E.g. 2 Find (x − 1)4
dx
Solution

d 2 d
(x − 1)4 = 4(x2 − 1)3 (x2 − 1)
dx dx
= 4(x2 − 1)(2x)

= 8x(x2 − 1)

1
E.g. 3 Find th derivative of y =
(4x2 − 3)5
Solution

1
y= 2 5
= (4x2 − 3)−5
(4x − 3)
dy d
= −5(4x2 − 3)−6 (4x2 − 3)
dx dx
= −5(4x2 − 3)−6 (8x)

= −40x(4x2 − 3)−6
40x
=−
(4x2 − 3)6

√
3
E.g. 4 Find the derivative of y = 3x − 2

Solution
√ 1
y = 3 3x − 2 = (3x − 2) 3
dy 1 d
= (3x − 2)−2/3 (3x − 2)
dx 3 dx
1
= (3x − 2)−2/3 (3)
3
= (3x − 2)−2/3
1
=p
3
(3x − 2)2

84
 3 √
E.g. 5 Find the derivative of y = √ − 2 x
x
Solution

3 √
y = √ − 2 x = 3x−1/2 − 2x1/2
x
   
dy 1 −3/2 1 −1/2
=3 − x −2 x
dx 2 2
3
= − x−3/2 − x−1/2
2
−3 1
= −
2x3/2 x1/2
−3 1
= √ −√
2 x3 x

E.g. 6 Find the derivative of y = (2x5 − 4x3 − x)3

Solution

y = (2x5 − 4x3 − x)3

dy  2 d  
5 3 5 3
= 3 2x − 4x − x 2x − 4x − x
dx dx
 2  
5 3 4 2
= 3 2x − 4x − x 10x − 12x − 1
  2
4 2 5 3
= 3 10x − 12x − 1 2x − 4x − x

E.g. 7 Find the derivative of y = (6x5 − 4x3 − 5)7

Solution

y = (6x5 − 4x3 − 5)7

dy  6 d  
5 3 5 3
= 7 6x − 4x − 5 6x − 4x − 5
dx dx
 6  
5 3 4 2
= 7 6x − 4x − 5 30x − 12x
  6
4 2 5 3
= 7 30x − 12x 6x − 4x − 5
  6   6
2 2 5 3 2 2 5 3
= 7(6x ) 5x − 2 6x − 4x − 5 = 42x 5x − 2 6x − 4x − 5
85
 2
E.g. 8 Find the derivative of y = √
4
x3 − x2 − x
Solution

2  −1/4
3 2
√
y= 4 = 2 x −x −x
x3 − x2 − x
  −5/4 d 
dy 1 
=2 − x3 − x2 − x x3 − x2 − x
dx 4 dx
1 3 −5/4  
2 2
=− x −x −x 3x − 2x − 1
2
(3x2 − 2x − 1)
=−
2(x3 − x2 − x) 45
1 + 2x − 3x2
= √ 5
4 3 2
2 x −x −x

1 −3
 
d
E.g. 9 Find the derivative of x+
dx x
Solution

1 −3 1 −4 d
     
d 1
x+ = −3 x + x+
dx x x dx x
1 −4
   
1
= −3 x + 1− 2
x x

9.2 THE PRODUCT RULE

If u and v are differentiable functions of x, then

d dv du
(uv) = u + v
dx dx dx
This follows that if we are asked to differentiate the product of a function:

(i) We may have to keep the first function constant and differentiate the second function.

(ii) And also keep the second function constant and differentiate the first function

86
NB: If u, v and w are differentiable functions of x, then

d dw dv du
(uvw) = uv + uw + vw
dx dx dx dx
Proof:

d d dw dv
(uvw) = [(uv)w] = uv + w (uv)
dx dx dx dx
 
dw dv du
= uv +w u +v
dx dx dx
dw dv du
= uv + uw + vw
dx dx dx

WORKED EXAMPLES

1. Differentiate y = (x2 + 1)(x4 − 2x)

Solution

y = (x2 + 1)(x4 − 2x)

dy d d
= (x2 + 1) (x4 − 2x) + (x4 − 2x) (x2 + 1)
dx dx dx
= (x2 + 1)(4x3 − 2) + (x4 − 2x)(2x)

= 4x5 − 2x2 + 4x3 − 2 + 2x5 − 2

= 6x5 + 4x3 − 6x2 − 2

1 −3
 
d
2. Differentiate x+
dx x
Solution

1 −3 1 −4 d
     
d 1
x+ = −3 x + x+
dx x x dx x
 −4  
1 1
= −3 x + 1− 2
x x

87
 dy
3. Find if y = x5 (3x3 − 2x + 1)3
dx
Solution

y = x5 (3x3 − 2x + 1)3
dy dy d
= x5 (3x3 − 2x + 1)3 + (3x3 − 2x + 1)3 (x5 )
dx dx dx
d
= x5 (3)(3x3 − 2x + 1)2 (3x3 − 2x + 1) + (3x3 − 2x + 1)3 (5x4 )
dx
= 3x5 (3x3 − 2x + 1)2 (9x2 − 2) + 5x4 (3x3 − 2x + 1)3
h i
4 3 2 2 3
= x (3x − 2x + 1) 3x(9x − 2) + 5(3x − 2x + 1)

= x4 (3x3 − 2x + 1)2 (27x3 − 6x + 15x3 − 10x + 5)

= x4 (3x3 − 2x + 1)2 (42x3 − 16x + 5)

dy
4. Find if y = (2x4 − 1)4 (x8 − 3x2 )7
dx
Solution

y = (2x4 − 1)4 (x8 − 3x2 )7

dy d d
= (2x4 − 1)4 (x8 − 3x2 )7 + (x8 − 3x2 )7 (2x4 − 1)4
dx dx dx
d
= (2x4 − 1)4 (7)(x8 − 3x2 )6 (x8 − 3x2 ) + (x8 − 3x2 )7 (4)(2x4 − 1)3
dx
d
(2x4 − 1)
dx
= 7(2x4 − 1)4 (x8 − 3x2 )6 (8x7 − 6x) + 4(2x4 − 1)3 (x8 − 3x2 )7 (8x3 )
h i
4 3 8 2 64 7 3 8 2
= (2x − 1) (x − 3x ) 7(2x − 1)(8x − 6x) + 32x (x − 3x )

= (2x4 − 1)3 (x8 − 3x2 )6 (112x11 − 84x5 − 56x7 + 42x + 32x11 − 96x5 )

= (2x4 − 1)3 (x8 − 3x2 )6 (144x11 − 56x7 − 180x5 + 42x)

88
 dy
= (2x4 − 1)3 (x8 − 3x2 )6 x(144x10 − 56x6 − 180x4 + 4)
dx
= x(2x4 − 1)3 (x8 − 3x2 )6 (144x10 − 56x6 − 180x4 + 42)

dy 3 5
p
5. Find if y = (2x − 1) x2 − 1
dx
Solution

p
3 5
y = (2x − 1) x2 − 1
dy d 1 1 1 d
= (2x3 − 1)5 (x − 1) 2 + (x − 1) 2 + (x − 1) 2 (2x3 − 1)5
dx dx dx
1 1 d 1 d
= (2x3 − 1)5 (x − 1)− 2 (x − 1) + (x − 1) 2 (5)(2x3 − 1)4 (2x3 − 1)
2 dx dx
1 1 1
= (2x3 − 1)5 (x − 1)− 2 (1) + (x − 1) 2 (5)(2x3 − 1)4 (6x2 )
2
1 1 1
= (2x3 − 1)5 (x − 1)− 2 + (x − 1) 2 (2x3 − 1)4 (30x2 )
2
1 3 5
2 (2x − 1) 1
= 1 + 30x2 (x − 1) 2 (2x3 − 1)4
(x − 1) 2
(2x3 − 1)5 √
= √ + 30x2 (2x3 − 1)4 x − 1
2 x−1

dy
6. Find if y = x2 (2x − 1)(6x + 5)
dx
Solution

y = x2 (2x − 1)(6x + 5)
dy d d d
= x2 (2x − 1) (6x + 5) + x2 (6x + 5) (2x − 1) + (2x − 1)(6x + 5) (x2 )
dx dx dx dx
= x2 (2x − 1)(6) + x2 (6x + 5)(2) + (2x − 1)(6x + 5)(2x)

= 6x2 (2x − 1) + 2x2 (6x + 5) + (2x − 1)(12x2 + 10x)

89
 dy
= 12x3 − 6x2 + 12x3 + 10x2 + 24x3 + 20x2 − 12x2 − 10x
dx
= 48x3 + 12x2 − 10x

dy
7. Given that y = (3x − 1)2 (2x2 − 3)(x3 + 4)5 , find
dx

Solution

y = (3x − 1)2 (2x2 − 3)(x3 + 4)5

dy d d
= (3x − 1)2 (2x2 − 3) (x3 + 4)5 + (3x − 1)2 (x3 + 4)5 (2x2 − 3)+
dx dx dx
d
(2x2 − 3)(x3 + 4)5 (3x − 1)2
dx
d
= (3x − 1)2 (2x2 − 3)5(x3 + 4)4 (x3 + 4) + (3x − 1)2 (x3 + 4)5 (4x)+
dx
d
(2x2 − 3)(x3 + 4)5 2(3x − 1) (3x − 1)
dx
= (3x − 1)2 (2x2 − 3)5(x3 + 4)4 (3x2 ) + 4x(3x − 1)2 (x3 + 4)5 +

2(2x2 − 3)(x3 + 4)5 (3x − 1)(3)

= 15x2 (3x − 1)2 (2x2 − 3)(x3 + 4)4 + 4x(3x − 1)2 (x3 + 4)5 +

6(3x − 1)(2x2 − 3)(x3 + 4)5

h
= (3x − 1)(x + 4) 15x2 (3x − 1)(2x2 − 3) + 4x(3x − 1)(x3 + 4)+
3 4

i
2 3
6(2x − 3)(x + 4)

8. Calculate y0 when y = (4x2 − x)3 (x3 − 2x2 )4 (x − 1)6

Solution

90
 y = (4x2 − x)3 (x3 − 2x2 )4 (x − 1)6
dy d d
= (4x2 − x)3 (x3 − 2x2 )4 (x − 1)6 + (4x2 − x)3 (x − 1)6 (x3 − 2x2 )4 +
dx dx dx
d
(x3 − 2x2 )4 (x − 1)6 (4x2 − x)3
dx
d
= (4x2 − x)3 (x3 − 2x2 )4 (6)(x − 1)5 (x − 1) + (4x2 − x)3 (x − 1)6 (4)(x3 − 2x2 )3
dx
d 3 d
(x − 2x2 ) + (x3 − 2x2 )4 (x − 1)6 (3)(4x2 − x)2 (4x2 − x)
dx dx
= (4x2 − x)3 (x3 − 2x2 )4 (6)(x − 1)5 (1) + (4x2 − x)3 (x − 1)6 (4)(x3 − 2x2 )3

(3x2 − 4x) + (x3 − 2x2 )4 (x − 1)6 (3)(4x2 − x)2 (8x − 1)

= 6(4x2 − x)3 (x3 − 2x2 )4 (x − 1)5 + 4(4x2 − x)3 (x − 1)6 (x3 − 2x2 )3 (3x2 − 4x)+

3(x3 − 2x2 )4 (x − 1)6 (4x2 − x)2 (8x − 1)

h
= (4x − x) (x − 1) (x − 2x ) 6(4x2 − x)(x3 − 2x2 ) + 4(4x2 − x)(x − 1)
2 2 5 3 2 3

i
2 3 2
(3x − 4x) + 3(x − 2x )(x − 1)(8x − 1)

dy
9. Find if y = (8x3 − x2 )5 (7x2 − 3x)2 (x5 − 2)10
dx
Solution

y = (8x3 − x2 )5 (7x2 − 3x)2 (x5 − 2)10

dy d d
= (8x3 − x2 )5 (7x2 − 3x)2 (x5 − 2)10 + (8x3 − x2 )5 (x5 − 2)10 (7x2 − 3x)2 +
dx dx dx
d
(7x2 − 3x)2 (x5 − 2)10 (8x3 − x2 )5
dx
d
= (8x3 − x2 )5 (7x2 − 3x)2 (10)(x5 − 2)9 (x5 − 2)+
dx
d
(8x3 − x2 )5 (x5 − 2)10 (2)(7x2 − 3x) (7x2 − 3x)+
dx
d
(7x2 − 3x)2 (x5 − 2)10 (5)(8x3 − x2 )4 (8x3 − x2 )
dx

91
 dy
= (8x3 − x2 )5 (7x2 − 3x)2 (10)(x5 − 2)9 (5x4 )+
dx
(8x3 − x2 )5 (x5 − 2)10 (2)(7x2 − 3x)(14x − 3)+

(7x2 − 3x)2 (x5 − 2)10 (5)(8x3 − x2 )4 (24x2 − 2x)

= 50x4 (8x3 − x2 )5 (7x2 − 3x)2 (x5 − 2)9 +

2(8x3 − x2 )5 (x5 − 2)10 (7x2 − 3x)(14x − 3)+

5(7x2 − 3x)2 (x5 − 2)10 (8x3 − x2 )4 (24x2 − 2x)

h
2 3 2 4 5 9
= (7x − 3x)(8x − x ) (x − 2) 50x4 (8x3 − x2 )(7x2 − 3x) +
i
3 2 5 2 5 2
2(8x − x )(x − 2)(14x − 3) + 5(7x − 3x)(x − 2)(24x − 2x)
h
= (7x − 3x)(8x − x ) (x − 2) (400x7 − 50x6 )(7x2 − 3x) +
2 3 2 4 5 9

i
5 3 2 5 2 2
(2x − 4)(8x − x )(14x − 3) + (5x − 10)(7x − 3x)(24x − 2x)

10. Find y0 when y = (2x5 − 3x3 )4 (5x − 4x2 )3 (x6 − 6x2 )7

Solution

y = (2x5 − 3x3 )4 (5x − 4x2 )3 (x6 − 6x2 )7

dy d
= (2x5 − 3x3 )4 (5x − 4x2 )3 (x6 − 6x2 )7 +
dx dx
d
(2x5 − 3x3 )4 (x6 − 6x2 )7 (5x − 4x2 )3 +
dx
d
(5x − 4x2 )3 (x6 − 6x2 )7 (2x5 − 3x3 )4
dx

92
 dy
= 7(2x5 − 3x3 )4 (5x − 4x2 )3 (x6 − 6x2 )6 (6x5 − 12x)+
dx
3(2x5 − 3x3 )4 (x6 − 6x2 )7 (5x − 4x2 )2 (5 − 8x)+

4(5x − 4x2 )3 (x6 − 6x2 )7 (2x5 − 3x3 )3 (10x4 − 9x2 )

= 7(2x5 − 3x3 )4 (5x − 4x2 )3 (x6 − 6x2 )6 (6x5 − 12x)+

3(2x5 − 3x3 )4 (x6 − 6x2 )7 (5x − 4x2 )2 (5 − 8x)+

4(5x − 4x2 )3 (x6 − 6x2 )7 (2x5 − 3x3 )3 (10x4 − 9x2 )

= 7(6x5 − 12x)(2x5 − 3x3 )4 (5x − 4x2 )3 (x6 − 6x2 )6 +

3(5 − 8x)(2x5 − 3x3 )4 (5x − 4x2 )2 (x6 − 6x2 )7 +

4(10x4 − 9x2 )(2x5 − 3x3 )3 (5x − 4x2 )3 (x6 − 6x2 )7

h
= (2x − 3x ) (5x − 4x ) (x − 6x ) 7(6x5 − 12x)(2x5 − 3x3 )(5x − 4x2 )+
5 3 3 2 2 6 2 6

i
5 3 6 2 4 2 2 6 2
3(5 − 8x)(2x − 3x )(x − 6x ) + 4(10x − 9x )(5x − 4x )(x − 6x )

9.3 QUOTIENT RULE

u
If u and v are differentiable functions of x and y = , where v 6= 0, then
v

dy 0
v du dv
dx − u dx
=y =
dx v2
Worked Examples

x+1
1. Differentiate y = with respect to x.
x−1
Solution

x+1
y=
x−1
93
 d d
dy (x − 1) dx (x + 1) − (x + 1) dx (x − 1)
=
dx (x − 1)2
(x − 1)(1) − (x + 1)(1)
=
(x − 1)2
(x − 1) − (x + 1)
=
(x − 1)2
x−1−x−1
=
(x − 1)2
−2
=
(x − 1)2

dy x3
2. Find if y = 2
dx x +1

Solution

x3
y= 2
x +1
d 3 d 2
dy (x2 + 1) dx (x ) − x3 dx (x + 1)
=
dx (x2 + 1)2
(x2 + 1)(3x2 ) − x3 (2x)
=
(x2 + 1)2
3x4 + 3x2 − 2x4
=
(x2 + 1)2
x4 + 3x2
=
(x2 + 1)2
x2 (x2 + 3)
=
(x2 + 1)2

0 2x5 − x3
3. Calculate y when y = 4
3x − 2x

Solution

94
 2x5 − x3
y= 4
3x − 2x
d d
dy (3x4 − 2x) dx (2x5 − x3 ) − (2x5 − x3 ) dx (3x4 − 2x)
=
dx (3x4 − 2x)2
(3x4 − 2x)(10x4 − 3x2 ) − (2x5 − x3 )(12x3 − 2)
=
(3x4 − 2x)2
30x8 − 9x6 − 20x5 + 6x3 − 24x3 + 4x5 + 12x6 − 2x3
=
(3x4 − 2x)2
6x8 + 3x6 − 16x5 + 4x3
=
(3x4 − 2x)2
x3 (6x5 + 3x3 − 16x2 + 4)
=
(3x4 − 2x)2

dy (3x2 − x)4
4. Find if y = 3
dx (x − 2x4 )3

Solution

(3x2 − x)4
y= 3
(x − 2x4 )3
d d 3
dy (x3 − 2x4 )3 dx (3x2 − x)4 − (3x2 − x)4 dx (x − 2x4 )3
= 2
dx ((x3 − 2x4 )3 )
d d 3
(x3 − 2x4 )3 (4)(3x2 − x)3 dx (3x2 − x) − (3x2 − x)4 (3)(x3 − 2x4 )2 dx (x − 2x4 )
=
(x3 − 2x4 )6
4(x3 − 2x4 )3 (3x2 − x)3 (6x − 1) − 3(3x2 − x)4 (x3 − 2x4 )2 (3x2 − 8x3 )
=
(x3 − 2x4 )6
(x3 − 2x4 )2 (3x2 − x)3 4(x3 − 2x4 )(6x − 1) − 3(3x2 − x)(3x2 − 8x3 )
 
=
(x3 − 2x4 )6
(3x2 − x)3 24x4 − 48x5 − 4x3 + 8x4 − 27x4 + 9x3 + 72x5 − 24x4
 
=
(x3 − 2x4 )4
(3x2 − x)3 24x5 − 19x4 + 5x3
 
=
(x3 − 2x4 )4

95
  7
dy 2x − 3
5. Calculate if y =
dx 5x2 + 1

Solution

2x − 3 7
 
y=
5x2 + 1
2x − 3 6 d 2x − 3
   
=7
5x2 + 1 dx 5x2 + 1
6 " 2 d d 2 + 1)
#
− − −

dy 2x − 3 (5x + 1) dx (2x 3) (2x 3) dx (5x
=7
dx 5x2 + 1 (5x2 + 1)2

2x − 3 6 (5x2 + 1)(2) − (2x − 3)(10x)

   
=7
5x2 + 1 (5x2 + 1)2
2x − 3 6 10x2 + 2 − 20x2 + 30x
   
=7
5x2 + 1 (5x2 + 1)2
2x − 3 6 2 + 30x − 10x2
   
=7
5x2 + 1 (5x2 + 1)2
7(2x − 3)6 (2 + 30x − 10x2 )
=
(5x2 + 1)6 (5x2 + 1)2
14(1 + 15x − 5x2 )(2x − 3)6
=
(5x2 + 1)8

 3 
dy x −1
6. Calculate √
dx 5 4x2 + 3

Solution

 √ 5 d 3 d 1
dy x3 − 1 4x2 + 3 dx (x − 1) − (x3 − 1) dx (4x2 + 3) 5

√ = √
dx 5 4x2 + 3 5
( 4x2 + 3)2
√ 4
4x2 + 3(3x2 ) − (x3 − 1) 15 (4x2 + 3)− 5 dx
d
5
(4x2 + 3)
= p5
(4x2 + 3)2
√ 4
3x2 4x2 + 3 − 15 (x3 − 1)(4x2 + 3)− 5 (8x)
5

= p5
(4x2 + 3)2

96
 √
5
dy x3 − 1 3x2 4x2 + 3 8x(x3 − 1)
 
1 1
√ = p − . p . 4
dx 5 4x2 + 3 5
(4x2 + 3)2 5 5
(4x2 + 3)2 (4x2 + 3) 5
3x2 8x(x3 − 1) 1 1
=p − . p . p
5
(4x2 + 3) 5 5
(4x2 + 3)2 5 (4x2 + 3)4
3x2 8x(x3 − 1)
=p − p
5
(4x2 + 3) 5 5 (4x2 + 3)6

√
0 x−1
7. Find y when
x3

Solution
√
x−1
y=
x3
d 1 d 3 1
dy x3 dx (x − 1) 2 − (x − 1) 2 dx (x )
=
dx (x3 )2
1 1
x3 12 (x − 1)− 2 dx
d
(x − 1) − (x − 1) 2 (3x2 )
=
x6
1 1
x3 12 (x − 1)− 2 (1) − (x − 1) 2 (3x2 )
=
x6
1 3
x (x − 1)− 21 (1) − (x − 1) 21 (3x2 )
= 2
x6
− 12 1
1
" #
1 3
2(x − 1) 2
2 x (x − 1) − 3x2 (x − 1) 2
= 1
2(x − 1) 2 x6
x3 − 6x2 (x − 1) x3 − 6x3 + 6x2
= 1 = √
2x6 (x − 1) 2 2x6 x − 1
6x2 − 5x3 x2 (6 − 5x)
= √ = √
2x6 x − 1 2x6 x − 1
6 − 5x
= √
2x4 x − 1

97
 1
NB: Because y = n
can be expressed as y = x−n , all problems where quotient rule is applicable
x
can be converted to products so that you apply product rule. Here, it is a matter of choice or
preference.

Worked Examples:

1. Differentiate

(a) (x2 − 2)(x + 3)−2 as a product

x2 − 2
(b) as a quotient
(x + 3)2

Solution
(a)

Let y = (x2 − 2)(x + 3)−2

dy d d
= (x2 − 2) (x + 3)−2 + (x + 3)−2 (x2 − 2) [Product rule]
dx dx dx
d
= (x2 − 2)(−2)(x + 3)−3 (x + 3) + (x + 3)−2 (2x)
dx
2
−2(x − 2) (2x)
= 3
(1) +
(x + 3) (x + 3)2
−2x2 + 4 2x
= +
(x + 3)3 (x + 3)2
−2x2 + 4 + 2x(x + 3)
=
(x + 3)3
−2x2 + 4 + 2x2 + 6x
=
(x + 3)3
4 + 6x 2(2 + 3x)
= 3
=
(x + 3) (x + 3)3

98
 Solution
(b)

x2 − 2
Let y =
(x + 3)2
d 2 d
dy (x + 3)2 dx (x − 2) − (x2 − 2) dx (x + 3)2
=
dx [(x + 3)2 ]2
d
(x + 3)2 (2x) − (x2 − 2)(2)(x + 3) dx (x + 3)
=
(x + 3)4
2x(x + 3)2 − 2(x2 − 2)(x + 3)(1)
=
(x + 3)4
(x + 3) 2x(x + 3) − 2(x2 − 2)
 
=
(x + 3)4
2x2 + 6x − 2x2 + 4
=
(x + 3)3
6x + 4 2(2 + 3x)
= =
(x + 3)3 (x + 3)3
dy
NB: On comparing dx for (i) and (ii), you will notice that the final results are the
same. Hence,
x2 − 2
y= = (x2 − 2)(x + 3)−2
(x + 3)2

2. Differentiate

(a) (x − 1)3 (x3 − 1)−1 as a product

(x − 1)3
(b) as a quotient
(x3 − 1)

Solution

(a)

y = (x − 1)3 (x3 − 1)−1

dy d d
= (x − 1)3 (x3 − 1)−1 + (x3 − 1)−1 (x − 1)3
dx dx dx
d d
= (x − 1)3 (−1)(x3 − 1)−2 (x3 − 1) + (x3 − 1)−1 (3)(x − 1)2 (x − 1)
dx dx
99
 dy
= −(x − 1)3 (x3 − 1)−2 (3x2 ) + 3(x3 − 1)−1 (x − 1)2 (1)
dx
−3x2 (x − 1)3 3(x − 1)2
= + 3
(x3 − 1)2 (x − 1)
−3x2 (x − 1)3 + 3(x − 1)2 (x3 − 1)
=
(x3 − 1)2
(x − 1)2 −3x2 (x − 1) + 3(x3 − 1)
 
=
(x3 − 1)2
(x − 1)2 (−3x3 + 3x2 + 3x3 − 3)
=
(x3 − 1)2
(x − 1)2 (3x2 − 3)
=
(x3 − 1)2
3(x − 1)2 (x2 − 1) 3(x + 1)(x − 1)3
= =
(x3 − 1)2 (x3 − 1)2

Solution

(b)

(x − 1)3
y=
x3 − 1
d d 3
dy (x3 − 1) dx (x − 1)3 − (x − 1)3 dx (x − 1)
=
dx (x3 − 1)2
d
(x3 − 1)(3)(x − 1)2 dx (x − 1) − (x − 1)3 (3x2 )
=
(x3 − 1)2
3(x3 − 1)(x − 1)2 (1) − 3x2 (x − 1)3
=
(x3 − 1)2
3(x − 1)2 (x3 − 1) − x2 (x − 1)
 
=
(x3 − 1)2

100
 dy 3(x − 1)2 (x3 − 1 − x3 + x2 )
=
dx (x3 − 1)2
3(x − 1)2 (x2 − 1)
=
(x3 − 1)2
3(x − 1)2 (x − 1)(x + 1)
=
(x3 − 1)2
3(x − 1)3 (x + 1)
=
(x3 − 1)2

3. Differentiate

(a) (x2 − 1)3 x−4 as a product

(x2 − 1)3
(b) as a quotient
x4
Solution
(a)

y = (x2 − 1)3 x−4

dy d d
= (x2 − 1)3 (x−4 ) + x−4 (x2 − 1)3
dx dx dx
d 2
= (x2 − 1)3 (−4)x−5 + x−4 (3)(x2 − 1)2 (x − 1)
dx
−4(x2 − 1)3
= 5
+ 3x−4 (x2 − 1)2 (2x)
x
−4(x2 − 1)3 6x(x2 − 1)2
= +
x5 x4
−4(x2 − 1)3 + 6x2 (x2 − 1)2
=
x6
(x2 − 1)2 −4(x2 − 1) + 6x2
 
=
x5
(x2 − 1)2 (−4x2 + 4 + 6x2 )
=
x5
(x2 − 1)2 (2x2 + 4) 2(x2 + 2)(x2 − 1)2
= =
x5 x5
101
 Solution
(b)

(x2 − 1)3
y=
x4
d 2 d 4
dy x4 dx (x − 1)3 − (x2 − 1)3 dx (x )
=
dx (x4 )2
d 2
x4 (3)(x2 − 1)2 dx (x − 1) − (x2 − 1)3 (4x3 )
=
x8
3x4 (x2 − 1)2 (2x) − 4x3 (x2 − 1)3
=
x8
6x5 (x2 − 1)2 − 4x3 (x2 − 1)3
=
x8
2x3 (x2 − 1)2 3x2 − 2(x2 − 1)
 
=
x8
2(x2 − 1)2 (3x2 − 2x2 + 2)
=
x5
2(x2 − 1)2 (x2 + 2)
=
x5

9.4 HIGHER-ORDER DERIVATIVES

A given function f (x) can be differentiated twice, thrice etc. If the given function f (x) is
differentiated twice, we get its second derivative. It is denoted by f 00 (x) or

d2y
 
d dy
2
=
dx dx dx

When f (x) is differentiated thrice, we get its third derivative. It is denoted by f 000 (x) or

d3y d2y
    
d d d dy
3
= =
dx dx dx2 dx dx dx

Worked Examples
1 d2y
1. Given the function y = x2 − x − , find .
5x6 dx2

102
 Solution

1 1 −6
y = x2 − x − = x 2
− x − x
5x6 5
dy 1
= 2x − 1 − (−6)x−7
dx 5
6
= 2x − 1 + x−7
5
d 2 y d dy
   
d 6 −7
but = = 2x − 1 + x
dx2 dx dx dx 5
d 2y 6
=⇒ 2
= 2 + (−7)x−8
dx 5
42 −8 42
= 2− x = 2− 8
5 5x

√ 2
2. Find y00 when y = 3 x − √ .
x

Solution

√ 2 1 1
y = 3 x − √ = 3x 2 − 2x− 2
x
 
dy 1 −1 1 −3
= 3. x 2 − 2 − x 2
dx 2 2
3 1 3
= x− 2 + x− 2
2
2
d y d dy
  
d 3 −1 3

but 2
= = x 2 + x− 2
dx dx dx dx 2
d 2y 3
   
1 −3 3 −5
=⇒ = − x 2 + − x 2
dx2 2 2 2
3 3 3 5
= − x− 2 − x− 2
4 2
3 3
=− −
4x3/2 2x5/2
3 3
=− √ − √
4 x3 2 x5

103
 d2y
3. If y = (3x2 − 2x)3 , find .
dx2

Solution

y = (3x2 − 2x)3
dy d
= 3(3x2 − 2x)2 (3x2 − 2x)
dx dx
= 3(3x2 − 2x)2 (6x − 2)

d 2y d
 
dy d h 2 2
i
but = = 3(3x − 2x) (6x − 2)
dx2 dx dx dx
d 2y d d
=⇒ 2
= 3(3x2 − 2x)2 (6x − 2) + 3(6x − 2) (3x2 − 2x)2
dx dx dx
d
= 3(3x2 − 2x)2 (6) + 3(6x − 2)(2)(3x2 − 2x) (3x2 − 2x)
dx
= 18(3x2 − 2x)2 + 6(6x − 2)(2)(3x2 − 2x)(6x − 2)
h i
2 2 2
= 6(3x − 2x) 3(3x − 2x) + (6x − 2)

= 6(3x2 − 2x)(9x2 − 6x + 36x2 − 24x + 4)

= 6(3x2 − 2x)(45x2 − 30x + 4)

d2y
4. Find when y = (x2 − 1)(x3 + 2).
dx2

Solution

y = (x2 − 1)(x3 + 2)
dy d d
= (x2 − 1) (x3 + 2) + (x3 + 2) (x2 − 1)
dx dx dx
dy
= = (x2 − 1)(3x2 ) + (x3 + 2)(2x)
dx
dy
= = 3x4 − 3x2 + 2x4 + 4x = 5x4 − 3x2 + 4x
dx

104
 d 2 y dy
 
dy d
But = = (5x4 − 3x2 + 4x)
dx2 dx dx dx
d 2y
= 2
= 20x4 − 6x + 4
dx

1
5. calculate y00 when y = √
3
x−1

Solution

1 1 − 31
y= √3
= 1 = (x − 1)
x − 1 (x − 1) 3
dy 1 4 d
= − (x − 1)− 3 (x − 1)
dx 3 dx
1 4 1 4
= − (x − 1)− 3 (1) = − (x − 1)− 3
3 3
d 2 y dy dy
   
d 1 − 43
But = = − (x − 1)
dx2 dx dx dx 3
d 2y
   
1 4 − 37 d
=⇒ = − − (x − 1) (x − 1)
dx2 3 3 dx
4 7
= (x − 1)− 3 (1)
9
4 4
= 7 =
p
9(x − 1) 3 9 3 (x − 1)7

9.5 IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION

This is a method for finding the derivative of a function without first solving the equation ex-
plicitly for y in terms of x.

WORKED EXAMPLES
dy
1. Find if 3x3 y2 − x2 = y
dx

105
 Solution

3x3 y2 − x2 = y
d 2 d d d
3x3 (y ) + 3y2 (x3 ) − (x2 ) = (y)
dx dx dx dx
dy dy
3x3 .2y + 3y2 .3x2 − 2x =
dx dx
dy dy
6x3 y + 9x2 y2 − 2x =
dx dx
dy dy
6x3 y − = 2x − 9x2 y2
dx dx
dy
(6x3 y − 1) = 2x − 9x2 y2
dx
dy 2x − 9x2 y2
∴ =
dx 6x3 y − 1

2. Find y0 when x3 + y2 = 5.

Solution

x 3 + y2 = 5
d 3 d d
(x ) + (y2 ) = (5)
dx dx dx
dy
3x2 + 2y = 0
dx
dy
2y = −3x2
dx
dy 3x2
∴ =−
dx 2y

dy
3. Given that x2 − 4xy + 3y2 = 7y + 5x, find
dx

106
 Solution

x2 − 4xy + 3y2 = 7y + 5x
d 2 d d d d
(x ) − 4 (xy) + 3 (y2 ) = 7 (y) + 5 (x)
dx dx dx dx dx
 
dy dy dy
2x − 4 x + y + 3(2y) = 7 + 5
dx dx dx
dy dy dy
2x − 4x − 4y + 6y = 7 + 5
dx dx dx
dx dy dy
−4x + 6y − 7 = 5 − 2x + 4y
dy dx dx
dy
(6y − 4x − 7) = 5 − 2x + 4y
dx
dy 5 − 2x + 4y
=
dx 6y − 4x − 7

dy
4. Find when y3 − x3 = 4xy
dx

Solution

y3 − x3 = 4xy
d 3 d d
(y ) − (x3 ) = 4 (xy)
dy dy dx
 
2 dy 2 dy dy
3y − 3x = 4 x + y
dx dx dx
dy dy
3y2 − 3x2 = 4x + 4y
dx dx
dy dy
3y2 − 4x = 3x2 + 4y
dx dx
dy
(3y2 − 4x) = 3x2 + 4y
dx
dy 3x2 + 4y
=
dx 3y2 − 4x

107
 d 2 y 2y3
5. If x + y = xy, show that = 3
dx2 x

Solution

x + y = xy
dy dy
1+ =x +y
dx dx
dy dy
−x = y−1
dx dx
dy
(1 − x) = y − 1
dx
Using the product rule to the above
   
d dy dy d d
(1 − x) + (1 − x) = (y − 1)
dx dx dx dx dx
d 2y dy dy
(1 − x) 2 + (−1) =
dx dx dx
d 2 y dy dy dy
(1 − x) 2 = + =2
dx dx dx dx
y x
From x + y = xy, y − 1 = and 1 − x = −
x y
y
dy y − 1 x y2
Hence, = = =− 2
dx 1 − x − xy x
  2  2
x d y y
=⇒ − 2
=2 − 2
y dx x
d 2y 2y2  y 
=⇒ =− 2 −
dx2 x x
d 2 y 2y3
∴ =
dx2 x3

108
9.6 DERIVATIVES OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

d d
1. (sin x) = cos x 4. (sec x) = sec x tan x
dx dx
d d
2. (cos x) = − sin x 5. (csc x) = − csc x cot x
dx dx
d d
3. (tan x) = sec2 x 6. (cot x) = − csc2 x
dx dx

WORKED EXAMPLES
d
1. Calculate (cos 3x)
dx

Solution

d d
(cos 3x) = − sin 3x (3x)
dx dx
= − sin 3x(3)

= −3 sin 3x

d 2
2. Find (x sin x)
dx

Solution

d 2 d d
(x sin x) = x2 (sin x) + sin x (x2 )
dx dx dx
= x2 cos x + sin x(2x)

= x2 cos x + 2x sin x

d
3. Find if y = sin3 (8x2 − 3x + 1)
dx

Solution

109
 h i3
3 2 2
y = sin (8x − 3x + 1) = sin (8x − 3x + 1)
h i2 d
2
= 3 sin (8x − 3x + 1) sin (8x2 − 3x + 1)
dx
  d
= 3 sin2 (8x2 − 3x + 1) cos (8x2 − 3x + 1) (8x2 − 3x + 1)
  dx
= 3 sin2 (8x2 − 3x + 1) cos (8x2 − 3x + 1)(16x − 3)

= 3(16x − 3) sin2 (8x2 − 3x + 1) cos (8x2 − 3x + 1)

4. Given that y = (x2 + 1) tan (2x − 3)

Solution

y = (x2 + 1) tan (2x − 3)

d d
= (x2 + 1) [tan (2x − 3)] + tan (2x − 3) (x2 + 1)
dx dx
d
= (x2 + 1) sec2 (2x − 3) (2x − 3) + tan (2x − 3)(2x)
dx
= (x2 + 1) sec2 (2x − 3)(2) + 2x tan (2x − 3)

= 2(x2 + 1) sec2 (2x − 3) + 2x tan (2x − 3)

d
5. Show that (tan x) = sec2 x
dx
Solution
 
d d sin x
(tan x) =
dx dx cos x
d d
cos x dx (sin x) − sin x dx (cos x)
=
(cos x)2
cos x(cos x) − sin x(− sin x)
=
(cos x)2
cos2 x + sin2 x
=
cos2 x
1
= 2
= sec2 x
cos x
110
 d p 5 3 
6. Calculate cos 4x
dx

Solution

d p 5 3  d  5/2
3
cos 4x = cos 4x
dx dx
5 3/2 d
3
= cos 4x (cos 4x3 )
2 dx
5 3/2
3
= cos 4x (− sin 4x3 )
2
5
q
3
= − sin 4x (cos 4x3 )3 (12x2 )
2
5 √
= − (12x2 ) sin 4x3 cos3 4x3
2
√
2 3
= −30x sin 4x cos3 4x3

7. Calculate y0 when y = tan4 (2x3 − 1)2

Solution

h i4
4 3 2 3 2
y = tan (2x − 1) = tan (2x − 1)
dy h i3 d h i
3 2 3 2
= 4 tan (2x − 1) tan (2x − 1)
dx dx
i3
2 d
h h i
3 2 2 3 3 2
= 4 tan (2x − 1) sec (2x − 1) (2x − 1)
dx
3 3 2 2 3 2 3 d h 3 i
= 4 tan (2x − 1) sec (2x − 1) (2)(2x − 1) (2x − 1)
dx
= 8(2x3 − 1) tan3 (2x3 − 1)2 sec2 (2x3 − 1)2 (6x2 )

= 48x2 (2x3 − 1) tan3 (2x3 − 1)2 sec2 (2x3 − 1)2

8. Find y0 when y = (3x5 − 1) sin 7x2

111
 Solution

y = (3x5 − 1) sin 7x2

dy d d
= (3x5 − 1) (sin 7x2 ) + sin 7x2 (3x5 − 1)
dx dx dx
d
= (3x5 − 1)(cos 7x2 ) (7x2 ) + (sin 7x2 )(15x4 )
dx
= (3x5 − 1)(cos 7x2 )(14x) + 15x4 sin 7x2

= 14x(3x5 − 1) cos 7x2 + 15x4 sin 7x2

9.7 DERIVATIVES OF EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

Given that f (x) = ex , then
d
f 0 (x) = ex (x) = ex
dx
and if y = ln x, then
dy 1 d 1
= (x) =
dx x dx x

WORKED EXAMPLES
3
1. If y = e−2x , find y0 .

Solution

3
y = e−2x
dy 3 d
= e−2x (−2x3 )
dx dx
3
= e−2x (−6x2 )
3
= −6x2 e−2x

5
2. Given that y = e3x−x , find y0 .

112
 Solution

5
y = e3x−x
dy 5 d
= e3x−x (3x − x5 )
dx dx
5
= e3x−x (3 − 5x4 )
5
= (3 − 5x4 )e3x−x

2 )8
3. Find y0 when y = e3(1−x

Solution

2 )8
y = e3(1−x
dy 3(1−x2 )8 d
h
2 8
i
=e 3(1 − x )
dx dx
2 8 d
= e3(1−x ) (3)(8)(1 − x2 )7 (1 − x2 )
dx
2 8
= e3(1−x ) .24(1 − x2 )7 (−2x)
2 8
= −48x(1 − x2 )7 e3(1−x )

4. Calculate y0 when y = ln (x2 − 1)3

Solution

y = ln (x2 − 1)3
dy 1 d 2
= 2 3
(x − 1)3
dx (x − 1) dx
1 2 2 d
= 2 3
(3)(x − 1) (x2 − 1)
(x − 1) dx
3(x2 − 1)2
= (2x)
(x2 − 1)3

113
 dy 6x(x2 − 1)2
=
dx (x2 − 1)3
6x
= 2
(x − 1)

d 
ln (2x4 − 3x2 − 1)4

5. Calculate
dx

Solution

d h 4 2 4
i 1 d
ln (2x − 3x − 1) = 4 2 4
(2x4 − 3x2 − 1)4
dx (2x − 3x − 1) dx
1 4 2 3 d
= 4 2 4
(4)(2x − 3x − 1) (2x4 − 3x2 − 1)
(2x − 3x − 1) dx
4
= (8x3 − 6x)
(2x − 3x2 − 1)
4

4(8x3 − 6x) 8x(4x2 − 3)

= 4 =
2x − 3x2 − 1 2x4 − 3x2 − 1

2
6. Find y0 when y = x5 e−4x

Solution

2
y = x5 e−4x
dy d 2 2 d
= x5 (e−4x ) + e−4x (x5 )
dx dx dx
2 d 2
= x5 e−4x (−4x2 ) + e−4x (5x4 )
dx
2 2
= x5 e−4x (−8x) + 5x4 e−4x
2 2
= −8x6 e−4x + 5x4 e−4x
2
= x4 e−4x (5 − 8x2 )

114
 d  2x
e cos 5x3

7. Calculate
dx

Solution

d h 2x i d d
e cos 5x = e2x (cos 5x3 ) + (cos 5x3 )e2x (2x)
3
dx dx dx
d d
= e2x (− sin 5x3 ) (5x3 ) + (cos 5x3 ) (e2x )
dx dx
= −e2x sin 5x3 (15x2 ) + cos 5x3 (e2x )(2)

= −15x2 e2x sin 5x3 + 2e2x cos 5x3

= e2x (2 cos 5x3 − 15x2 sin 5x3 )

9.8 INVERSE TRIGONOMETRY FUNCTIONS

dy
1. Find when y = sin−1 x
dx

Solution

y = sin−1 x

=⇒ sin y = x
dy
=⇒ (cos y) = 1
dx
dy 1
=
dx cos y
But cos2 y + sin2 y = 1

=⇒ cos2 y = 1 − sin2 y = 1 − x2
p
=⇒ cos y = 1 − x2
dy 1
Hence =√
dx 1 − x2

2. Given that y = cos−1 2x find y0

115
 Solution

y = cos−1 2x

=⇒ cos y = 2x
dy
=⇒ (− sin y) = 2
dx
dy −2
=
dx sin y
But cos2 y + sin2 y = 1

=⇒ sin2 y = 1 − cos2 y = 1 − (2x)2 = 1 − 4x2

p
=⇒ sin y = 1 − 4x2
dy −2
Hence =√
dx 1 − 4x2

 
dy −1 x
3. Calculate when y = tan find y0
dx 1−x

Solution
 
x
y = tan−1
1−x
x
=⇒ tan y =
1−x
d d
2 dy (1 − x) dx (x) − x dx (1 − x)
=⇒ (sec y) =
dx (1 − x)2
(1 − x)(1) − x(−1)
=
(1 − x)2
1−x+x 1
= =
(1 − x)2 (1 − x)2
dy 1 1
= .
dx sec2 y (1 − x)2

116
 2
x2 + (1 − x)2

2 2 x
But sec y = tan y + 1 = +1 =
1−x (1 − x)2
dy (1 − x2 ) 1 1
=⇒ = 2 . =
dx x + (1 − x2 ) (1 − x)2 x2 + (1 − x)2
1 1
= 2 2
= 2
x + 1 − 2x + x 2x − 2x + 1

NB:
d 1 d
(i) (sin−1 x) = √ (x)
dx 1 − x2 dx
d 1 d
(ii) (cos−1 x) = − √ (x)
dx 1 − x dx
2

d 1 d
(iii) (tan−1 x) = (x)
dx 1 + x2 dx
Example:
d
1. Calculate (x sin−1 x2 )
dx

Solution

d d d
(x sin−1 x2 ) = x (sin−1 x2 ) + (sin−1 x2 ) (x)
dx dx dx
1 d 2
= x. p (x ) + (sin−1 x2 )(1)
1 − (x2 )2 dx
x
=√ .(2x) + sin−1 x2
1−x 4

2x2
=√ + sin−1 x2
1−x 4

√
2. Find y0 if y = x tan−1 x

Solution

√
y = x tan−1 x
dy d √ √ d
= x (tan−1 x) + (tan−1 x) (x)
dx dx dx

117
 dy 1 d √
= x. √ 2 (x1/2 ) + (tan−1 x)(1)
dx 1 + ( x) dx
x 1 −1/2 √
= . x + tan−1 x
1+x 2
√
x1/2 −1 √ x √
= + tan x= + tan−1 x
2(1 + x) 2(1 + x)

9.8.1 Trial Exercise

A. Differentiate the following with respect to x.
(i) y = (5x4 − 2x)3 (6x7 − x4 )2 (ix) y = (2x7 − 3x5 − 4x3 − 3)8
 4 6
(ii) y = x7 (3x3 − 2x2 − x)5 3x − 2
(x) y =
x3 + 1
(iii) y = (3x5 − 2)6 (x8 − 4x3 )3
(x2 − 5)6
2 5 3 4
(iv) y = (x − 1) (2x − x ) (7x − x ) 6 7 (xi) y =
(2x3 + 3)4
(v) y = x4 (1 − 2x5 )6 (5 − 8x3 )2 (xii) y = sin6 (3x2 − x + 1)
2
(vi) y = e−6x sin 6x5 x
(xiii) y = √
1 x+1
(vii) y =
(5x − 1)5
3 (xiv) y = e2x−1 tan 3x
1 sin x2
(viii) y = √ (xv) y =
x+ x x2

B. Use implicit differentiation to solve the following:

(i) y = y2 − cos xy = x2

(ii) 2x3 y2 − 5y = x2 − 3
d2y 2
(iii) Show that 2
= when xy + y3 = 1
dx (x + 2y)
d2y 2
(iv) Prove that 2
= when xy + y3 = 3.
dx (x + 2y)3
d2y a
(v) Show that when x2 + y2 = a2 , then 2
= − 3.
dx y
d
C. (i) Show that (sec x) = sec x tan x.
dx
(ii) Differentiate the following from first principle:

(α) 3x2 − 7x + 2 x−1

(γ)
x2
1 1
(β ) √ (ω)
x (x + 1)2
118
 D. Differentiate the following:

3
(i) y = 4x9 e−2x+x (vi) y = (x2 − 5) cos−1 4x
sin 2x 6
 
(ii) y = x2 ln (x − 1)3 (vii) y =
√ e−x
(iii) y = (x2 + 1) tan 2x r
x−1
(iv) y = x3 tan−1 x5 (viii) y =
x+1
p
(v) y = (x + 1)3 sin−1 (3x − 1) (ix) y = x3 1 + x2

9.9 THE CHAIN RULE

Suppose y is a differentiable function of u, and u in turn is a differentiable function of x;

Thus y = f (u)

and u = g(x)

Then y is a composite function of x

dy dy du
=⇒ = .
dx du dx

E.g. 1 If y = 2u and u = 3x then

dy dy du
= .
dx du dx
= (2)(3) = 6

E.g. 2 If y = u3 and u = x2 then

dy dy du
= .
dx du dx
= 3u2 (2x)

= 3(x2 )(2x) = 6x5

du u−1
E.g. 3 Find given that y = and u = x2
dx u+1
119
 Solution

u−1
y= ; u = x2
u+1
dy (u + 1)(1) − (u − 1)(1) 2
= =
du (u + 1)2 (u + 1)2
du
= 2x
dx
du dy du
but = .
dx  du dx 
2 4x
= (2x) =
(u + 1)2 (x2 + 1)2

dy 1
E.g. 4 Find given that y = 3u + 1, u = 2 , x = 1 − s
ds x
Solution

dy du dx
= 3; = −2x−3 ; = −1
du dx ds
dy dy du dx
But = . .
ds du dx ds
= (3)(−2x−3 )(−1)

= 6x−3
6
= 6(1 − s)−3 =
(1 − s)3

dy u+2 √
E.g. 5 Find at t = 9 given that y = , u = (3s − 7)2 and s = t
dt u−1
Solution

dy 3 du ds 1
=− ; = 6(3s − 7); = − √
du (u − 1)2 ds dt 2 t
dy dy du ds
= . .
dt du ds dt   
3 1
=− [6(3s − 7)] √
(u − 1)2 2 t
At t = 9 we have s = 3 and u = 4

120
    
dy 3 1
=⇒ =− [6(9 − 7)] √
dt (4 − 1)2 2 9
   
1 1
= − (12) −
3 6
2
=−
3

9.9.1 Exercise
dy 1
1. Find given that y = ; u = 2x + 1
dx 1 + u2
dy 2u
2. Find given that y = ; u = (3x + 1)4
dx 1 − 4u
dy 1 − 7x
3. Find if y = 1 + u2 ; u= ; x = 5t + 2
dt 1 + x2

9.10 PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS

In some cases, it is more convenient to represent a function by expressing x and y separately in
terms of a third independent variable called a parameter. E.g. y = cos 2t, sint, the two equa-
tions are parametric equations and the parameter is t.

dy
E.g. 1 Given y = cos 2t and x = sint, find .
dx
Solution

dy dx
= −2 sin 2t; = cost
dt dt
dy dy dt
=⇒ = .
dx dt dx  
dy 1 1
= . dx = (−2 sin 2t)
dt dt cost
1
= −4 sint cost.
cost
= −4 sint

121
 2 − 3t 3 + 2t dy
E.g. 2 If x = and y = , find .
1+t 1+t dx
Solution

2 − 3t
x=
1+t
dx (1 + t)(−3) − (2 − 3t)(1)
=⇒ =
dt (1 + t)2
−3 − 3t − 2 + 3t −5
= 2
=
(1 + t) (1 + t)2
3 + 2t
y=
1+t
dy (1 + t)(2) − (3 + 2t)(1)
=
dt (1 + t)2
2 + 2t − 3 − 2t −1
= 2
=
(1 + t) (1 + t)2
dy dy dt
=⇒ = .
dx dt dx
(1 + t)2
 
dy 1 −1 1
= . dx = =
dt dt (1 + t)2 −5 5

122
 CHAPTER 10
MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION

• This is a set of pattern in which natural induction can be carried out. It is a technique for
proving the validity of statements about the integer n that are suspected to be true for all
integers greater than or equal to some starting integer n.

• Suppose we have a sequence of identities or theorems or rules and we wish to prove that
they are all true. Let us call the nth term of the sequence Pn . For the simple form of
mathematical induction, the pattern is that we have to show that

(i) If P1 is true and

(ii) Pn is true for any n, then Pn+1 is true.

• For a general form of mathematical induction, the pattern is that we have to show that

(i) P1 is true and

(ii) If P1 , P2 , ..., Pn for any n, are true then Pn+1 is also true.

E.g. 1 Prove by mathematical induction that 1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + (2n − 1) = n2

Solution

Let Pn = 1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + (2n − 1) = n2
For n = 1 P1 : LHS = (2(1) − 1) = 1; RHS = 12 = 1 which is true
For n = 2 P2 : LHS = 1 + (2(2) − 1) = 4; RHS = 22 = 4 which is true
.. ..
. .
=⇒ Pn is true
If Pn is true then Pn+1 is also true

123
 =⇒ Pn+1 = Pn + (n + 1)th term
= 1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + (2n − 1) + (2[n + 1] − 1) = n2 + 2[n + 1] − 1
= 1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + (2n − 1) + 2n + (2n + 1) = n2 + 2n + 2 − 1
From the RHS n2 + 2[n + 1] − 1 = (n + 1)(n + 1)
= (n + 1)2

∴ The formula holds for all integers n ≥ 1.

 2
3 2 3 n(n + 1)
3
E.g. 2 Prove by mathematical induction that 1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + n =
2
Solution

n(n + 1) 2
 
3 2 3 3
Let Pn = 1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + n =
2
 2
1(1 + 1)
For n = 1 P1 : LHS = 13 = 1; RHS = = 1 which is true
2
2(2 + 1) 3
 
3 3
For n = 2 P2 : LHS = 1 + 2 = 1 + 8 = 9; RHS = = 32 = 9 which is true
2
.. ..
. .
=⇒ Pn is true
If Pn is true then Pn+1 is also true
=⇒ Pn+1 = Pn + (n + 1)th term
 2
3 2 3 3 n(n + 1)
3
= 1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + n (n + 1) = + (n + 1)3
2
2
n (n + 1) 2
= + (n + 1)3
4
n2 (n + 1)2 + 4(n + 1)3
=
4
(n + 1)2  2 
= n + 4(n + 1)
4
(n + 1)2 2

= n + 4n + 4
4
(n + 1)2
= (n + 2)2
4
(n + 1)(n + 2) 2
 
=
2

∴ The formula holds for all integers n ≥ 1.

124
 n
n(n + 1)
E.g. 3 Prove by mathematical induction that ∑r= 2
r=1

Solution
n
n(n + 1)
∑ r = 1+2+3+···+n = 2
r=1
n(n + 1)
Let Pn = 1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + n =
2
1(1 + 1)
For P1 : LHS = 1; RHS = = 1 which is true
2
2(2 + 1)
For P2 : LHS = 1 + 2 = 3; RHS = = 3 which is true
2
.. ..
. .
=⇒ Pn is true
If Pn is true then Pn+1 is also true
=⇒ Pn+1 = Pn + (n + 1)th term
n(n + 1)
= 1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + n + (n + 1) = +n+1
2
n(n + 1) + 2(n + 1)
=
2
(n + 1)(n + 2)
=
2

∴ The formula holds for all integers n ≥ 1.

E.g. 4 Prove by mathematical induction that 1 + 7 + 13 + · · · (6n − 5) = n(3n − 2)

Solution

Let Pn = 1 + 7 + 13 + · · · + 6n − 5 = n(3n − 2)
For n =1, P1 : LHS = 1
RHS = 1(3.1 − 2) = 3 − 2 = 1 which is true
For n=2 P2 : LHS = 1 + 7 = 8;
RHS = 2(3.2 − 2) = 2(6 − 2) = 8 which is true
.. ..
. .
=⇒ Pn is true
If Pn is true then Pn+1 is also true
=⇒ Pn+1 = Pn + (n + 1)th term

125
 =⇒ 1 + 7 + 13 + · · · + (6n − 5) + [6(n + 1) − 5] = n(3n − 2) + [6(n + 1) − 5]
=⇒ 1 + 7 + 13 + · · · + (6n − 5) + (6n + 1) = n(3n − 2) + 6n + 1
= 3n2 − 2n + 6n + 1
= 3n2 + 4n + 1
= (n + 1)(3n + 1)
= (n + 1) [3(n + 1) − 2]

∴ The formula holds for all integers n ≥ 1.

n(n + 1)(n + 2)
E.g. 5 Prove by mathematical induction that 1.2 + 2.3 + 3.4 + · · · + n(n + 1) =
3
Solution
n(n + 1)(n + 2)
Let Pn = 1.2 + 2.3 + 3.4 + · · · + n(n + 1) =
3
For n =1, P1 : LHS = 1(2) = 2;
1(2)(3)
RHS = = 2 which is true
3
For n=2 P2 : LHS = 1(2) + 2(3) = 8
2(3)(4)
RHS = = 8 which is true
3
.. ..
. .
=⇒ Pn is true
If Pn is true then Pn+1 is also true
=⇒ Pn+1 = Pn + (n + 1)th term
n(n + 1)(n + 2)
=⇒ 1.2 + 2.3 + 3.4 + · · · + n(n + 1) + (n + 1)(n + 2) = + (n + 1)(n + 2)
3
n(n + 1)(n + 2) + 3(n + 1)(n + 2)
=
3
(n + 1)(n + 2)
= [n + 3]
3
(n + 1)(n + 2)(n + 3)
=
3

∴ The formula holds for all integers n ≥ 1.

E.g. 6 Prove by mathematical induction that the sum of the first n terms of an AP is

1
Sn = n [2a + (n − 1)d]
2
126
 Solution

n
Let Sn = a + (a + d) + (a + 2d) + · · · + [a + (n − 1)d] = [2a + (n − 1)d]
2
1
For n =1, S1 : LHS = a; RHS = [2a + (1 − 1)d] = a which is true
2
2
For n=2 S2 : LHS = a + (a + d) = 2a + d; RHS = [2a + (2 − 1)d] = 2a + d which is true
2
=⇒ Pn is true
If Pn is true then Pn+1 is also true
=⇒ Pn+1 = Pn + (n + 1)th term

n
=⇒ a + (a + d) + · · · + [a + (n − 1)d] + [a + ([n + 1] − 1)d] = [2a + (n − 1)d] + a + dn
2
n
= [2a + dn − d] + a + dn
2
n(2a + dn − d) + 2(a + dn)
=
2
2
2an + dn − dn + 2a + 2dn
=
2
2
2an + dn + 2a + dn
=
2
(2an + 2a) + (dn2 + dn)
=
2
2a(n + 1) + dn(n + 1)
=
2
n+1
= [2a + dn]
2
n+1
= [2a + [(n + 1) − 1]d]
2

∴ The formula holds for all integers n ≥ 1.

E.g. 7 Prove by mathematical induction that

n  
1 1 1 1 1 1 3 1 1
∑ = + + +···+ = − −
r=1 r(r + 2) 1.3 2.4 4.5 n(n + 2) 2 2 n + 1 n + 2

Solution

127
  
1 1 1 1 1 3 1 1
Let Pn = + + +···+ = − −
1.3 2.4 4.5 n(n + 2) 2 2 n + 1 n + 2
1 1
For n =1, P1 : LHS = = ;
1.3
 3 
1 3 1 1
RHS = − −
2 2 2 3
 
1 9−3−2 2 1
= = = which is true
2 6 6 3
1 1 1 1 8 + 3 11
For n =2, P1 : LHS = + = + = = ;
1.3
 2.4 3 8 24 24
1 3 1 1
RHS = − −
2 2 3 4
   
1 18 − 4 − 3 1 11 11
= = = which is true
2 12 2 12 24
..
.
=⇒ Pn is true
If Pn is true then Pn+1 is also true
=⇒ Pn+1 = Pn + (n + 1)th term
 
1 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 1
+ +···+ + = − − + (1)
1.3 2.4 n(n + 2) (n + 1)(n + 3) 2 2 n + 1 n + 2 (n + 1)(n + 3)

1
Expressing in partial fractions, we have
(n + 1)(n + 3)

1 1  
1 2 2 1 1 1
= − = −
(n + 1)(n + 3) n + 1 n + 3 2 n + 1 n + 3

From (1):
   
1 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 1
+ +···+ + = − − + −
1.3 2.4 n(n + 2) (n + 1)(n + 3) 2 2 n + 1 n + 2 2 n+1 n+3
 
1 3 1 1 1 1
= − − + −
2 2 n+1 n+2 n+1 n+3
 
1 3 1 1
= − − which is true for all n
2 2 n+2 n+3

10.0.1 Exercise
Prove by mathematical induction the following statements
n
n(n + 1) 2
 
3
1. ∑ r =
r=1 2

128
 n
n(n + 1)(4n − 13)
2. ∑ r(2r − 5) = 6
r=1
n
1 n(n + 3)
3. ∑ r(r + 1)(r + 2) = 4(n + 1)(n + 2)
r=1
n
1 n
4. ∑ r(r + 1) = n + 1
r=1
n
n(n + 1)(n + 2)
5. ∑ r(r + 1) = 3
r=1
n
1 n
6. ∑ (3r − 1)(3r + 2) = 6n + 4
r=1

7. 13 + 33 + 53 + · · · + (2n − 1)3 = 2n4 − n2

8. 1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + (2n − 1) = n2
n
n
9. ∑ r(r + 1)(r + 2) = 4 (n + 1)(n + 2)(n + 3)
r=1

5 6 7 n+4 n(3n + 7)
10. + + +···+ =
1.2.3 2.3.4 3.4.5 n(n + 1)(n + 2) 2(n + 1)(n + 2)

129