Basic Radio and Navigation Theory

Wave Propagation
Radio waves or hertzian waves:
“Electromagnetic waves of frequencies arbitrarily lower than 3 000 GHz, propagated
in space without artificial guide.” - International Telecommunication Union (ITU)
Radio waves are a type of electromagnetic radiation best-known for their use in
communication technologies, such as television, mobile phones and radios. These
devices receive radio waves and convert them to mechanical vibrations in the speaker
to create sound waves.

The radio-frequency spectrum is a relatively small part of the electromagnetic (EM)

spectrum. The EM spectrum is generally divided into seven regions in order of
decreasing wavelength and increasing energy and frequency. The common
designations are radio waves, microwaves, infrared (IR), visible
light, ultraviolet (UV), X-rays and gamma-rays.
Radio waves have the longest wavelengths in the EM spectrum

Properties of Radio wave:

 Radio waves in a vacuum travel at the speed of light.
 When passing through a material medium, they are slowed depending on the
medium's permeability and permittivity.
 The wavelength λ is the distance from one peak (crest) of the wave's electric
field to the next, and is inversely proportional to the frequency f of the wave.
The relation of frequency and wavelength in a radio wave traveling in vacuum or
air is
λ = c/f
where
c= 3×108 m/s
Bands of radio waves :

Band Frequency rage Wavelength range

Extremely Low Frequency <3 kHz >100 km
(ELF)
Very Low Frequency (VLF) 3 to 30 kHz 10 to 100 Km
Low Frequency (LF) 30 to 300 kHz 1 m to 10 km
Medium Frequency 300 kHz to 3 MHz 100 m to 1 km
(MF) )
High Frequency (HF) 3 to 30 MHz 10 to 100 m
Very High Frequency (VHF) 30 to 300 MHz 1 to 10 m
Ultra High Frequency (UHF) 300 MHz to 3 GHz 10 cm to 1 m
Super High Frequency 3 to 30 GHz 1 dm to 1 cm
(SHF)
Extremely High Frequency 30 to 300 GHz 1 mm to 1 cm
(EHF)
dm = decimetre (i.e. 10-1 m)

Propagation at various ranges:

i. Low Frequency (LF) :
The LF had been in use for radiotelegraphy till around 1930; however, it has not
gradually been in use for the purpose as it required a large-scale antenna and
transmitting device and the high frequency communication has been largely
developed. The LF is partially utilized for the sound broadcasting in Europe,
Africa, and some other regions.
ii. Medium Frequency (MF) :
It propagates by reflecting on the E layer of the ionosphere formed at the
altitude of about 100km. Because of it’s wave's characteristics ensuring stable
propagation in a long distance it is suitable for sound broadcasting. While
transmission of MF radio wave requires a large-scale transmitter and antenna,
only a simple type of receiver is necessary for its reception.

iii. High Frequency (HF) :

It can travel to the opposite side of the planet by repeating reflecting on the F
layer of the ionosphere formed at the altitude of about 200-400km the ground
surface. As it enables a long-distance communication, it is utilized for ocean
vessel communication, aeronautical communication, international broadcasting,
and amateur radio communications.

iv. Very High Frequency (VHF) :

It propagates straightforwardly not reflecting the ionosphere. It is utilized for
the VHF TV broadcasting, FM broadcasting, or mobile communications.

Polarization in waves :
 Refers to the orientation of the electric field component of the wave.
 For a linearly polarized wave, the orientation stays the same as the wave
moves through space. If we choose our axis system such that the electric
field is vertical, we say that the wave is vertically polarized.
 In circular polarization of an electromagnetic wave is a polarization state in
which, at each point, the electromagnetic field of the wave has a constant
magnitude and is rotating at a constant rate in a plane perpendicular to the
direction of the wave.
 Elliptical polarization occurs when there is a mix of linear and circular
polarization.
 It is possible for linearly polarized antennas to receive circularly polarized
signals and vice versa.
The ionosphere or thermosphere :
 The ionosphere exists between about 90 and 1000 km above the earth’s surface.
 This region extends from the mesopause to about 1000 km.
 It is characterized by the presence of ions and free electrons.
 The temperature increases to about 00 C at 110 km, to about 10000 C at 150 km
and peak of about 17800 C at 700 km (Ref.2.1).
 Some electrical phenomena like the aurora borealis occur in this region.

Fig.: Typical variations of temperature and pressure in the earth’s atmosphere

  The ionosphere is usually thought of as an area where radio waves on the short
wave bands are refracted or reflected back to Earth. However it is also found that
signals are reduced in strength or attenuated as they pass through this area.
 Free electron densities on the order of 10 10 to 1012 electrons per cubic metre are
produced by ionization from the sun’s rays. Layers of high densities of electrons are
given special names called the D, E, and F layers. During the day the F layer splits
into two layers called the F1 and F2 layers, while the D layer vanishes completely at
night
 Most of the attenuation occurs in the D region. There is some in the E and F
regions, but the level is very much less than that experienced in the D region and it
can generally be ignored.

Skip distance:
The skip distance is the distance over the Earth's surface between the point where a
radio signal is transmitted, and the point where it is received having travelled to the
ionosphere, and been refracted back by the ionosphere.

Fading:
 There are several conditions that can produce fading.
 When a radio wave is refracted by the ionosphere or reflected from the Earth's
surface, random changes in the polarization of the wave may occur. Vertically
and horizontally mounted receiving antennas are designed to receive vertically
and horizontally polarized waves respectively. Therefore, changes in polarization
 cause changes in the received signal level because of the inability of the antenna
to receive polarization changes.
 Fading also results from absorption of the radio frequency energy in the
ionosphere.
 Absorption fading occurs for a longer period than other types of fading, since
absorption takes place slowly.
 Fading on ionosphere is mainly a result of multipath propagation.

Ionospheric scatter :
A form of scatter propagation in which radio waves are scattered by the lower E layer
of the ionosphere to permit communication over distances from 600 to 1400 miles (10
00 to 2250 kilometers) when using the frequency range of about 25 to 100 megahertz.
The signal is scattered in all directions. Some energy makes it back to the earth's surface.
This seems to be most effective in the range of 600-1000 miles.

Variations in the Ionosphere :

1) Sun spot cycle:
 One of the most notable phenomena on the surface of the sun is the
appearance and disappearance of dark, irregularly shaped areas known as
SUNSPOTS.
 These sunspots are responsible for variations in the ionization level of the
ionosphere
 A regular cycle of sunspot activity cycle has both a minimum and maximum level
of sunspot activity that occur approximately every 11 years .

2) Irregular Variations

The more common irregular variations are sporadic E, sudden ionospheric

disturbances, and ionospheric storms.

a) SPORADIC E :

 Irregular cloud-like patches of unusually high ionization, called

sporadic E.
 At times the sporadic E is so thin that radio waves penetrate it
easily and are returned to earth by the upper layers. At other times,
it extends up to several hundred miles and is heavily ionized.

b) SUDDEN IONOSPHERIC DISTURBANCES (SID) :

 These disturbances may occur without warning and may prevail

for any length of time, from a few minutes to several hours.
 When SID occurs, long distance propagation of hf radio waves is
almost totally "blanked out."
 The immediate effect is that radio operators listening on normal
frequencies are inclined to believe their receivers have gone
dead.

c) IONOSPHERIC STORMS

 Ionospheric storms are disturbances in the Earth's magnetic field.

 Scientists believe that ionospheric storms result from
particle radiation from the sun. Particles radiated from a solar
eruption have a slower velocity than ultraviolet light waves
produced by the eruption
 The most prominent effects of ionospheric storms are a turbulent
ionosphere and very erratic sky wave propagation. Critical
frequencies are lower than normal, particularly for the F2 layer.
 Critical frequency and Maximum Usable Frequency (MUF):

 The maximum frequency that gets bent and reaches the receiver station with
minimum attenuation, can be termed as critical frequency. This is denoted by fc.
 It is obtained by sending a signal pulse directly upwards.
 Critical frequency is defined as the maximum frequency at which the total
internal reflection(TIR) takes place from the ionosphere. The mathematical
representation is given as:

fc= 9√ N max

Where, fc is the critical frequency in Hz, N max is the maximum electron density
/ionization density (electrons per cubic meter)

 Critical frequency varies depending upon atmospheric conditions, time of the

day and the angle of incidence of the radio waves by the antenna.
 The Maximum Usable Frequency (MUF) is the highest frequency delivered by
the transmitter regardless of the power of the transmitter. The highest
frequency, which is reflected from the ionosphere to the receiver is called
as critical frequency, fc.

Critical frequency
MUF= =f c secϴ
cos ϴ

Where,
f cis the critical frequency in Hz
θ is the angle of incidence

The factor secθ is called the MUF factor and it is a function of the path length if
the height layer is known.

Troposphere temperature inversion :

 Under normal conditions, temperature usually decreases with increase in
altitude in the troposphere at a rate of 1 degree for every 165 metres. This is
called normal lapse rate.
 Temperature inversion: It is a reversal of the normal behavior of temperature
in the troposphere. Under this meteorological phenomenon a layer of warm air
 lies over the cold air layer.

o It occurs due to horizontal or vertical movement of air. (But mainly

Vertical because the warm air being heavy rise upward and cold air being
heavy move downward).
o Temperature inversion is usually of short duration but quite common
nonetheless
Favourable Conditions for Temperature Inversion:

 Long winter nights: Loss of heat by terrestrial radiation from the ground
surface during night may exceed the amount of incoming solar radiation.
 Cloudless and clear sky: Loss of heat through terrestrial radiation proceeds
more rapidly without any obstruction.
 Dry air near the ground surface: It limits the absorption of the radiated
heat from the Earth’s surface.
 Slow movement of air: It results in no transfer or mixing of heat in the
lower layers of the atmosphere.
 Snow covered ground surface: It results in maximum loss of heat through
reflection of incoming solar radiation.

Relationship between velocity of propagation frequency and wave length

Frequency wavelength and wave velocity are related as follows :
Wave length is the distance travelled by the wave during the time a particle of the medium
completes one vibration.
Therefore, if λ be the wavelength and T the time period then the wave travels a
distance λ and time T
Hence,
Distance
Wave velocity = Time
λ
v= T
1
∴v=νλ [ T =Frequency (ν )]
∴ Wave velocity= Frequency × Wavelength

The wave velocity in a medium remains constant under the same physical condition.

Frequency tolerance and stability:

a) Frequency tolerance
The Frequency Tolerance of a crystal is defined as the allowable deviation from the
specified Frequency when measured at 25°C or room temperature.
b) Frequency Stability
The frequency stability is defined as the allowable deviation over the rated
temperature range. Typically -40° ~ +85°C.
Frequency stability represents the variation of output frequency of a crystal
oscillator due to external conditions like temperature variation, voltage variation,
output load variation, and frequency aging. Frequency stability is typically expressed in
parts per million (ppm) or parts per billion (ppb) which can be represented in the form
of frequency (usually in Hz).

Antennae Fundamentals
An antenna is a device that provides a transition between guided electromagnetic
waves in wires and electromagnetic waves in free space.
An antenna can be defined in the following different ways:

1. An antenna may be a piece of conducting material in the form of a wire, rod or any
other shape with excitation.
2. An antenna is a source or radiator of electromagnetic waves.
3. An antenna is a sensor of electromagnetic waves.
4. An antenna is a transducer.
5. An antenna is an impedance matching device.
6. An antenna is a coupler between a generator and space or vice-versa.

Half wave dipole antenna

 The dipole antenna is cut and bent for effective radiation. The length of the total
wire, which is being used as a dipole, equals half of the wavelength (i.e., l = λ/2).
Such an antenna is called as half-wave dipole antenna. Also called as Hertz
antenna.
 A dipole antenna is two pieces of wire, rod, or tubing that are one-quarter
wavelength long at the operating resonant frequency.
 The range of frequency in which half-wave dipole operates is around 3 KHz to 300
GHz. This is mostly used in radio receivers.
 The radiation pattern of this half-wave dipole is Omni-directional in the H-plane
Advantages :
 Input impedance is not sensitive.
 Matches well with transmission line impedance.
 Length of the antenna matches with size and directivity.

Disadvantages :
 Not much effective due to single element.
 It can work better only with a combination.
Applications :
 Used in radio and television receivers.
Quarter wave antennae :
 A quarter wave monopole antenna is half of a dipole antenna placed over a
grounded plane.
 The radiation pattern above the grounded plane ( in the upper hemisphere) will
be same as that of a half wave dipole, however, the total radiated power will be
half of that of a dipole since the field will be radiated only in the upper
hemisphere.
 An ideal quarter wave antenna mounted over a perfectly conducting ground
plane has radiation resistance 36.56 Ω, half that of a dipole antenna, radiating
in free space.
 The directivity of such antennas become double of that of dipole antennas.
 Quarter wave monopole antennas are often used as vehicle mounted antennas,
the vehicle providing required ground plane for the antenna
 Fig.: Basic quarter wave vertical antenna showing current magnitudes

NOTE:
Current and voltage distribution:
 A current flowing in a wire of a length related to the RF produces an
electromagnetic field. This field radiates from the wire and is set free in space.
The principles of radiation of electromagnetic energy are based on two laws.
(1) A moving electric field creates a magnetic (H) field.
(2) A moving magnetic field creates an electric (E) field.
 In space, these two fields will be in-phase and perpendicular to each other at
any given moment. Although a conductor is usually considered to be present
when a moving electric or magnetic field is mentioned, the laws governing
these fields do not say anything about a conductor. Thus, these laws hold true
whether a conductor is present or not.
 The current and voltage distribution on a half-wave Hertz antenna is shown in
figure (i). In view A, a piece of wire is cut in half and attached to the terminals of
a high frequency
(HF), alternating current (AC) generator. The frequency of the generator is set
so each half of the wire is one-quarter wavelength of the output. The result is
the common dipole antenna.
 Fig. (i) : Current and voltage distribution on an antenna

 At a given moment, the generator's right side is positive and its left side is negative. A
like charges repel each other. Consequently, electrons will flow
away from the negative terminal as far as possible while the positive terminal will attract
electrons. View B of figure (i) shows the direction and distribution of electron flow. The
distribution curve shows that most current flows in the center and none flows at the ends.
The current distribution over the antenna is always the same, regardless of how much or
how little current is flowing. However, current at any given point on the antenna will
vary directly with the amount of voltage that the generator develops.
 One-quarter cycle after the electrons begin to flow, the generator develops it; minimum
voltage and the current decreases to zero. At that moment, the condition shown in view C
of Figure (i) will exist. Although no current is flowing, a minimum number of electrons
are at the left end of the line and a minimum number are at the right end. The charge
distribution along the wire varies as the voltage of the generator varies (view C).
 Thus:
1. A current flows in the antenna with an amplitude that varies with the generator voltage.
2. A sine wave distribution of charge exists on the antenna. The charges reverse polarity
every half cycle.
3. The sine wave variation in charge magnitude lags the sine wave variation in current by
one-quarter cycle.

Basic antenna parameters:

1) Input impedance:
One of the most significant parameters of an antenna is its input impedance

Zin= Rin + j Xin

This is the impedance present at the antenna feed point. Its real part Rin can be
split up into the radiation resistance RR and the loss resistance RL.
Rin = RR + RL
The imaginary part Xin of the input impedance disappears if the antenna is
operated at resonance. Electrically very short linear antennas have capacitive
impedance values (Xin < 0), whereas electrically too long linear antennas can be
recognized by their inductive imaginary part (Xin > 0).
2) Methods of feeds on antenna:
a) Cassegrian feed:
 It is feed given to the parabolic reflector antenna.
 In this type, the feed is located at the vertex of the paraboloid, unlike in
the parabolic reflector.
 A convex shaped reflector, which acts as a hyperboloid is placed
opposite to the feed of the antenna. It is also known as secondary
hyperboloid reflector or sub-reflector. It is placed such that its one of
the foci coincides with the focus of the paraboloid. Thus, the wave gets
reflected twice.
 Typical efficiency levels of 65 to 70% can be achieved using this form of
parabolic reflector feed system

Fig. : Cassegrian feed for a parabolic reflector antenna

b) Gregorian Feed:

 The Gregorian parabolic reflector feed technique is very similar to the

Cassegrain design. The major difference is that except that the
secondary reflector is concave or more correctly ellipsoidal in shape,
i.e. the convex shaped hyperboloid of casssegrain is replaced with a
concave shaped paraboloid reflector, which is of course, smaller in
size
 The feed beamwidth is progressively increased while antenna
dimensions are held fixed.
 These Gregorian feed type reflectors can be used in four ways :
  Gregorian systems using reflector ellipsoidal sub-reflector at
foci F1.
 Gregorian systems using reflector ellipsoidal sub-reflector at
foci F2.
 Cassegrain systems using hyperboloid sub-reflector (convex).
 Cassegrain systems using hyperboloid sub-reflector (concave
but the feed being very near to it.)
 Typical aperture efficiency levels of over 70% can be achieved because
the system is able to provide a better illumination of all of the
reflector surface.

c) Focal feed system:

 The parabolic reflector or dish antenna consists of a radiating element
which may be a simple dipole or a waveguide horn antenna. This is
placed at the focal point of the parabolic reflecting surface.
 The energy from the radiating element is arranged so that it illuminates
the reflecting surface.
 For lower frequencies a dipole element is often employed as radiator,
whereas at higher frequencies a circular waveguide may be used.
 It is one of the most widely used feed system for larger parabolic
reflector antennas.
 The major disadvantage is that the feed and its supports block some of
the beam, and this typically limits the aperture efficiency to only about
55 to 60%.
 Fig.: Focal feed arrangement for parabolic reflector antenna

d) Off axis or offset parabolic reflector antenna feed

 Antenna feed is offset from the centre of the actual antenna dish
used.
 The reflector used in this type of feed system is an asymmetrical
segment of the parabolic shape normally used. In this way the
focus, and the feed antenna are located to one side of the reflector
surface.
 The advantage of using this approach to the parabolic reflector feed
system is to move the feed structure out of the beam path. In this
way it does not block the beam.
 It is always used in home satellite dishes.

Fig.: Diagram of an offset feed parabolic reflector of dish antenna

Polarization:
 The polarization of an antenna refers to the orientation of the electric field it
produces.
 It is defined as the direction of the electric vector of the EM wave produced
by an antenna.
 If the E field component of the radiated wave travels in a plane perpendicular
to the Earth's surface (vertical), the radiation is said to be vertically polarized.
If the E field propagates in a plane parallel to the Earth's surface (horizontal),
the radiation is said to be horizontally polarized.
 It is of three types:
(i) Linear polarization
 All of the radiation is in one plane.
(ii) Circular polarization
 Electric and magnetic field rotate at the frequency of the transmitter.
 Used when the orientation of the receiving antenna is unknown, Will
work for both vertical and horizontal antennas.
(iii) Elliptical polarization
 It is mix of linear and circular polarization. This can be visualized by the
tip of the electric field vector tracing out an elliptically shaped
corkscrew.

Linear polarization is again of three types, namely Horizontal, Vertical and

Theta polarizations. Circular and elliptical polarizations can also be described
in terms of their sense of rotation. The sense of rotation can be right-handed
or left-handed. Accordingly, they are called right-handed or left-handed
circular/elliptical polarizations.
 Polarization is important because the receiving antenna should have the
same polarization as the transmitting antenna to maximize received power.
 Fig. : Polarization

Effective Height (Effective Length):

 The effective height of the antenna indicates its vertical position from the
mean ground level.
 It is defined as the ratio of induced open-circuit voltage V on the antenna to
the incident electric field E .

he = effective height
Ae = effective aperture
 Effective length of an antenna is always less than it’s actual length.
Radiation pattern (or antenna pattern) of antenna:
 An antenna radiation pattern is a three dimensional variation of the
radiation field. It is a pattern drawn as a function of ϴ and Ф. The pattern
consists of one main lobe and a number of minor/side lobes
 Since the radiation pattern is a three dimensional figure, hence the co-
ordinate system usually used is the spherical coordinate (r, ϴ, Ф ).
 For an antenna, the
a. Field pattern (in linear scale) typically represents a plot of the magnitude
of the electric or magnetic field as a function of the angular space.
b. Power pattern(in linear scale) typically represents a plot of the square of
the magnitude of the electric or magnetic field as a function of the angular
space.
c. Power pattern(in dB) represents the magnitude of the electric or magnetic
field, in decibels, as a function of the angular space.
 To find the points where the pattern achieves its half-power(-3 dB points),
relative to the maximum value of the pattern, you set the value of the
a. field pattern at 0.707 value of its maximum, as shown in Figure (a)
b. power pattern (in a linear scale) at its 0.5 value of its maximum, as shown
in Figure (b)
c. power pattern (in dB) at -3 dBvalue of its maximum, as shown in Figure (c)
 Fig.: Two-dimensional normalized field pattern(linear scale), power
pattern(linear scale), and power pattern(in dB) of a 10-element linear array
with a spacing of d = 0.25λ.
 All three patterns yield the same angular separation between the two half-
power points, 38.640, on their respective patterns, referred to as Half Power
Band Width (HPBW)

 An electrically short dipole in free space has a three-dimensional radiation

pattern shown in figure below with nulls in the direction of the antenna's
axis.

Fig.: Three dimensional radiation of a dipole antenna

Radiation Pattern Lobes
 Various parts of a radiation pattern are referred to as lobes, which may be sub
classifiedinto major or main, minor, side, and back lobes.

.
Fig.: Radiation lobes and beamwidths of an antenna pattern
i. Major lobe: It is also called as a main beam and is defined as the radiating lobe
containing the direction of maximum radiation. In above figure the major lobe
is pointing in the θ = 0 direction. In some antennas, such as split-beam antennas,
there may exist more than one major lobe.
ii. Minor lobe: This is any lobe except a major lobe i.e. all the lobes except the
major lobes are called minor lobe.
iii. Side lobe: It is a radiation lobe in any direction other than the intended lobe.
Normally a side lobe is adjacent to the main lobe and occupies the hemisphere
in the direction of the main lobe.
iv. Back lobe: Usually it refers to a minor lobe that occupies the hemisphere in a
direction opposite (180o) to that of the major (main) lobe.

Reciprocity of an antenna:
 It is the ability to use the same antenna for both transmitting and receiving.
 The more efficient an antenna is for transmitting a certain frequency, the more
efficient it will be as a receiving antenna for the same frequency.
 This is illustrated by figure below, view A. When the antenna is used for
transmitting, maximum radiation occurs at right angles to its axis. When the
same antenna is used for receiving (view B), its best reception is along the same
path; that is, at right angles to the axis of the antenna.

Properties under Reciprocity

The properties of transmitting and receiving antenna that exhibit the reciprocity are −

 Equality of Directional patterns.

 Equality of Directivities.
 Equality of Effective lengths.
 Equality of Antenna impedances.
Parasitic elements of an antenna:
 It is an element, which depends on other’s feed. It does not have its own feed .
 These are the elements, which are added that does not possess an electrical
connection between them to the driven element or the feed. They are
positioned so that they lie in the induction field of the driven element.