CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Mental Unrest – A Common Problem1

It is commonly found in human nature that nobody wishes to feel pain or any
unfavorable or intolerable feeling, yet because of various competitions in life and so many
other factors, everyone has to undergo or to pass through such situations that bring pain to
him. That way unrest becomes a common thing in everybody’s life. Here, when we talk in
the context of Buddhism as a psycho-ethical system of philosophy as well as a practical way
of life, 2 it becomes more conspicuous. We find that the Buddha has laid utmost emphasis on
mind and its complex structure. It is very difficult to understand mind. There are so many
angles to understand it. Psychologists analyze mind in different ways; moralists and ethicists
too interpret it in some different tones.

Moreover, scientists analyze mind in the physical perspectives. Thus, the concept and
nature of mind has several perspectives and it is very difficult to understand it. The Buddha
has said that mind is the supreme. It is the fastest runner. Everything originates out of the
mind. Whatever we think, speak or act upon, is the product of mind. Mind is the fount aim
of all the good and evil those arising within and befalls us from without. That is why in the
Dhammapada, he says in the very beginning: 3

‘ManopubbaÙgamÅ dhammÅ manoseÊÊhÅ manomayÅ;

manasÅ ce paduÊÊhena bhÅsati vÅ karoti vÅ;
tato naµ dukkhamanveti cakkaµ va vahato padan’ti.”

(Mind foreruns of all things, mind is the chief, and so mind-made are they.
If one speaks or acts with evil mind, because of that, suffering follows him, even
as the wheel follows the hoof of the ox that draws the cart.)

And again immediately he says: 4

1
Domanassa: mental suffering.
2
Prof. Baidyanath Labh, PaññÅ in Early Buddhism (A Philosophical Analysis with Special Reference to the
Visuddhimagga), Delhi: Eastern Book Linkers Press, 1991, p.1.
3
Dh., T.W. Rhys Davids, Dialogues of the Buddha, London: PTS., Press, 1997, p.1.
4
Ibid. p.1.
2

‘ManopubbaÙgamÅ dhammÅ manoseÊÊhÅ manomayÅ;

manasÅ ce pasannena bhÅsati vÅ karoti vÅ;
tato naµ sukhamanveti chÅyÅ va anupÅyin≠’ti.

(Mind foreruns of all things, mind is the chief, and so mind-made are
they. If one speaks or acts with pure mind, 5 because of that, happiness follows
him, even as his own shadow that never leaves him.)

Thus, mind is the supreme. Whatever we act, whatever we do, whatever we speak, it
is a product of mind. This is the reason, Buddha has very clearly said ‘Oh, Bhikkhu’, I call
volition is action ‘CetanÅhaµ, bhikkhave, kammaµ vadÅmi.’6 CetanÅ means volition,
decision or resolution that we take at the level of mind. So mind has a very important role to
play in our life and when it feels unrest or faces unbearable situation, it feel unrest.
Obviously this uneasiness or unrest is a common problem applicable to all the human beings
whether living in India, Thailand and Myanmar, America, England or anywhere else.

Today we have progressed a lot in respect of science and technology, our life has
become quite easy monetarily, physically as well as mentally, but we have a lot something
very valuable yet to attain and that is ‘peace of mind’. So the basic question is how to get
peace, and if so, how to get it. The Buddha has tried to find out some viable solution. He had
observed and experienced the pinch of this problem in his princely life when he was in
Kapilavattu.

He noticed that people become sick, get old, and ultimately die,7 and even during
their life-time, experience various types of problem at different times and in different ways.
Can there be a permanent solution of this problem? However, first of all a question arises as
is there really a problem of ‘suffering’ at all? Who imposes suffering on the beings, is there

5
Whatsoever there is of good, connected with good, belonging to good
all issues from mind.
6
A.III.p.464. Karma As Volition: It is volition (CetanÅ) that the Buddha calls ‘Karma' (action). Having willed,
one acts by body, speech, and mind.
7
The three warnings: a man or a woman 1) one being sick, afflicted, and grievously ill, wallowing in his own filth.
2) who being eighty, ninety, or a hundred years old, frail, crooked as a gable-roof, bent down, resting on crutches, with
tottering steps, infirm, youth long since fled, with broken teeth, grey and scanty hair or none, wrinkled, with blotched limbs.
3) Corpse of a man, or a woman, one or two or three days after death, swollen up, blue-black in color, and full of
corruption. We also are subject to sick, old and death, and cannot escape it, (A.III.35).
 3

someone unseen who does all this? Why does suffering arise? Does it happen all of sudden
or is there any cause active behind it? Can there be a possibility to avert or stop suffering,
and if, so how? These questions used to appear before him and perturb him.

Ultimately he left his household life in the full youth at the age of 29 years, leaving
behind his old parents, young and beautiful wife, and a newly born son. The glittering world
could not prevent him from renunciation. He contacted a number of meditators, spiritual
practitioners, truth seekers, and himself underwent severe penance in the forest of UruvelÅ
(modern Magadh region in Bihar). Ultimately at the age of 35 on the fullmoon day of
VesÅkha month, he found the truth, which was totally unheard (Ananusuttesu dhammesu). It
was fourfold in nature technically called ‘Cattāri Ariyasaccāni’ (The Four Noble Truths).

The problem of first truth is Dukkhaµ Ariyasaccaµ (the Noble Truth of Suffering).
The second Truth is the origin of suffering. It reveals that suffering is neither unconditioned
nor uncaused nor is imposed by any unseen force. Rather it has some causing conditions and
these are nothing but threefold desire: KÅmataœhÅ (sensual craving), BhavataœhÅ (craving
for existence) and VibhavataœhÅ (craving for non-existence).8

In the second truth technically called ‘Dukkhasamudayaµ Ariyasaccaµ’, the Buddha

further finds that Dukkha, (unrestness, pain, despair, unpleasant feeling or in nutshell

suffering) arises of these threefold reasons. It becomes, thus, clear, that as suffering
originates due to some reason, there are many possibilities of removing them and when they
are completely destroyed, the state attained thereby is the eternal and highest bliss
technically called NibbÅna.

This is third truth of the Four Noble Truths. While revealing the Four Noble Truths,
the Buddha talks of a way that avoids the two extremes of life, e.g.,9 KÅmesu kÅma-
sukhallikÅnuyoga (the extreme of sensual indulgence; extreme hedonism) and Atta-
kilamathÅnuyoga (extreme of self-mortification; extreme asceticism) and takes the recourse
of MajjhimÅ PaÊipadÅ (middle path). This path is also called Ariyo AÊÊhaÙgiko Maggo

8
YÅyaµ taœhÅ ponobbhavikÅ nandirÅgasahagatÅ tatra tatrÅbhinandin≠ seyyath≠daµ kÅmataœhÅ bhavataœhÅ
vibhavataœhÅ, (A.III. 445).
9
Vin.I.10; S.V.420.
4

(Noble Eightfold Path), as it consists of eight steps. It is quite interesting to note that this is
like an anti-current, going opposite to the current of SaµsÅra (paÊisotÅgÅm≠).

Usually people sail with the flow of SaµsÅra full of lust or desire and get into the
trap of attachment, ill-will and ignorance and thereby, create suffering for themselves.
However, the Eightfold Path of the Buddha, liberates a person from the clutches of craving,
attachment, hate, ignorance etc. and suffering generated thereby. This way is just opposite to
the flow of the world (SaµsÅravaÊÊa, also called PaÊilomanaya), which goes to the state of
eternal bliss, i.e., NibbÅna.

1.2 Looking at Dukkha (Problems) without Mindfulness

When beings live without mindfulness, they ought to face many problems in their
life, whether it is the problem of body, mind or some what different ones. Because of that
mind is never steady, but always fleeting. They have no control over their mind so as to fix it
steadily on any object of meditation, and they cannot control their mind they resemble with
mad or mentally deranged persons. Society has no regard for such persons who have no
control over their mind. 10

Therefore, everybody tries to fulfill his desires and get pleasure from form (visible
objects), sound, smell, taste, touch and mental objects. He tries to seek happiness by looking
from outside rather than from within. Not only that, he tries to overcome his suffering by
resorting to drinking, gambling, dancing etc. and misunderstands that he has enjoyed and
made his life happy.

Hence, he tries by every means to change all the factors outside e.g. the society,
political system and in nutshell of the whole environment.

Craving is indeed endless by nature. The moment a desire is fulfilled, a new desire is
born so goes on the process, and a person again gets into the trap of craving. Therefore, it is
generally believed that by fulfilling all the desires, one will enjoy life completely. It is quite

10
MahÅthera Ledy Sayadaw, the Manuals of Buddhism (the expositions of the Buddha-dhamma). Bangkok:
MBU., Press, 1978, p. 422.
 5

strange that running after desires is just like a mirage, after which a deer runs in hope of
getting water, but never gets it. Thus, life comes to an end, but not the desires.

Otherwise, it is said that everybody is dominated or shrouded by darkness called the

Lobha (greed), Dosa (anger) and the Moha (delusion or ignorance),” such, a person becomes
like one who has not wisdom-eye and a blind who does not know the reality of world or life.
Here, it can be clearly shown through the word of wise man that: “The birds do not see the
sky, the fishes do not see the water, the worms do not know stool, and the human beings also
do not know the truth of the world.”11 They have wandered through many rebirths or the sea
of sufferings in the world of Saµsāra or SaµsÅra-vaÊÊa.12 The word “SaµsÅra” according
to “The word of the Buddha” (Nyanatiloka MahÅthera; 2008) is as follows:

SaµsÅra, the wheel of existence, literally, the ‘Perpetual Wandering’ -is the name
given in the PÅli scriptures to the sea of life ever restlessly heaving up and down, the symbol
of this continuous process of ever again and again being born, growing old, suffering, and
dying. Putting it more precisely: SaµsÅra is the unbroken sequence of the fivefold Khandha-
combinations, which, constantly changing from moment to moment, follow continually one
upon the other through inconceivable periods of time. Of this SaµsÅra a single lifetime
constitutes only a tiny fraction. Hence, to be able to comprehend the first Noble Truth, one
must let one’s gaze rest upon the SaµsÅra, upon this frightful sequence of rebirths. And not
merely upon one single lifetime, which, of course, may sometimes be not very painful.

The term ‘Dukkha’ (suffering), in the first Noble Truth, refers therefore, not merely
to painful bodily and mental sensations caused due to unpleasant impressions, but it
comprises in addition everything productive of suffering or liable to it. The Truth of
Suffering teaches that, owing to the universal law of impermanence, even high and sublime

11
The birds do not see the sky where they are flying and living. The fishes do not see the water where they are
swimming and living. The worms do not know that the stool which they are eating and hiding in is dirty, for them the stool
always smells good and tasty. The human beings also do not know the truth of the world where they are standing, walking,
sitting, sleeping, eating and living etc, they were born in the world of suffering but they never realize what the suffering is,
(SnA.2. p.174).
12
VaÊÊa: the triple round of three kinds: 1) KilesavaÊÊa: round of defilement that consists AvijjÅ (ignorance),
TaœhÅ (craving), and UpÅdÅna (clinging); 2) KammavaÊÊa: round of Kamma that consists SaÙkhÅra (conditioned things);
and Bhava (becoming); 3) VipÅkavaÊÊa: round of results that consists ViññÅna; NÅmarâpa; Sa¿Åyatana; Phassa; and
VedanÅ; which appeared by birth; old; decay etc, (Vism.581).
6

states of happiness are subject to change and destruction, and that all states of existence are
therefore unsatisfactory, without exception carrying in themselves the seeds of suffering.

Which do you think is more: the flood of tears, you have shed in the form of weeping
and wailing upon this long way-hurrying and hastening through this round of rebirths, united
with the undesired, separated from the desired or dear ones, or the waters of the four oceans.
How long have you suffered the death of father and mother, of sons, daughters, brothers, and
sisters? And whilst you were thus suffering, you have indeed shed more tears upon this long
way than the quantity of water in the four oceans. Which do you think is more: the streams
of blood that, through your being beheaded, have flown upon this long way, these, or the
waters of the four oceans?

Long have you been caught as robbers, or highway men or adulterers; and, through
your being beheaded, verily more blood has flowed upon this long way than there is water in
the four oceans. But how is this possible? Inconceivable is the beginning of this SaµsÅra;
not to be discovered is any first beginning of beings, who, obstructed by ignorance and
ensnared by craving, are hurrying and hastening through this round of rebirths. And thus
have you long undergone suffering, undergone torment, undergone misfortune, and filled the
graveyards full; truly, long enough to be dissatisfied with all the forms of existence, long
enough to turn away and free yourselves from them all. 13

Further, JÅti (birth), JarÅ (decay), Maraœa (death), Soka (sorrow), Parideva
(lamentation), Dukkha (pain), Domanassa (grief) and UpÅyÅsa (despair) are suffering, and in
brief, the five aggregates of attachment are suffering.14

What, now, is Birth? The birth of beings belonging to this or that order of beings,
their being born, their conception and springing into existence, the manifestation of the
Groups of Existence, the arising of sense activity: this is called birth.

13
Nyanatiloka, The Word of the Buddha (Version Thai-English), Bangkok: Buddhist Publication Society Press,
2008, p.41.
14
Vin.I. 10; S.V.420. (Jātipi dukkhā, jarāpi dukkhā, maraœampi dukkhaµ, soka-parideva-dukkha-domanassu-
pāyāsāpi dukkhā, Appiyehi sampayogo dukkho piyehi vippayogo dukkho yampicchaµ na labhati tampidukkhaµ,
SaÙkhittena pañcupādānakkhandhā dukkhā). And the word “five aggregates of attachment are suffering” means the
clinging or attachment of things such as that body and mind as ‘I’ and ‘mine’.
 7

And what is Decay? The decay of beings belonging to this or that order of beings;
their becoming aged, frail, grey, and wrinkled; the failing of their vital force, the wearing out
of the senses: this is called decay.

And what is Death? The departing and vanishing of beings out of this or that order of
beings. Their destruction, disappearance, death, the completion of their life-period,
dissolution of the Groups of Existence, the discarding of the body: this is called death.

And what is Sorrow? The sorrow arising through this or that loss or misfortune
which one encounters, the worrying oneself, the state of being alarmed, inward sorrow,
inward woe: this is called sorrow.

And what is Lamentation? Whatsoever, through this or that loss or misfortune which
befalls one, is wail and lament, wailing and lamenting, the state of woe and lamentation: this
is called lamentation.

And what is Pain? The bodily pain and unpleasantness, the painful and unpleasant
feeling produced by bodily impression: this is called pain.

And what is Grief? The mental pain and unpleasantness, the painful and unpleasant
feeling produced by mental impression: this is called grief.

And what is Despair? Distress and despair arising through this or that loss or
misfortune which one encounters: Distressfulness and desperation: this is called despair.

And what is the ‘Suffering of not getting what one desires’? To beings subject to
birth there comes the desire; O, that we were not subject to birth! O that no new birth was
before us! Subject to decay, disease, death, sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief, and despair, the
desire comes to them: O that we were not subject to these things! O that these things were
not before us! But this cannot be got by mere desiring; and not to get what one desires, is
suffering. 15

And what is (the meaning of the statement) ‘in brief, the five Aggregates of
clinging’? They are the aggregates of material form, feeling, perception, mental formations

15
Nyanatiloka MahÅthera, The Word of the Buddha, Op.Cit., pp.14-17.
8

and consciousness. This is what is called ‘in brief, the five aggregates of clinging are Dukkha
or suffering.16

In this context, Asha Maudgil has referred to the arising and extinguishing of
suffering that the real nature of suffering is because of attachment. Attachment to five
aggregates creates suffering to his (1). NÅma-Râpa (mind - Body), (2). ViññÅœa (Cognition),
(3). SaññÅ (Perceptions), (4). VedanÅ (Sensation) and (5). SaÙkhÅra or PaÊikiriyÅ (Reaction).
People cling strongly to their identities i.e. their mental and physical beings when there are
only evolving processes. This clinging is suffering. The greater the clinging greater the
suffering will be. Attachment may be to physical objects, our views or beliefs. No matter
what the content of attachment and whether they are right or wrong they will certainly make
us unhappy.

Analyzing his own nature the Buddha found that attachment develops because of the
momentary mental reaction of liking and disliking which when repeated and intensified,
moment after moment grow into attractions and repulsion which leads to attachment to the
pleasant sensation and repulsion to the unpleasant sensation. This leads us to the
examination of sensations.

“What causes sensation? It arises because of contact through the five senses and
mind. It is via this contact that we experience the world. The senses and mind are the
essential aspects of the flow of mind and matter, which arises because of consciousness or
the act of cognition which separates the world into the knower and the known subject and
objects ‘I’ and ‘other’.

From this separation evolves identity. Every moment consciousness arises and
assumes a specific mental and physical form. In the next moment again consciousness takes
a slightly different form throughout the existence. Consciousness flows and changes. At
death also consciousness assumes new form. From one existence to the next, life after life,
the flow of consciousness continues.

16
Nyanaponika Thera, The Heart of Buddhist Meditation, London: Rider and Company Press,1962, p. 128.
 9

“What causes this flow of consciousness? It arises because of reaction. A slight

reaction sustains the flow of consciousness only for a moment. But if that momentary
reaction of liking and disliking intensifies into craving or aversion.

It gains strength and sustains the flow of consciousness for a longer period, and if
throughout life one keeps on repeating and intensifying certain reactions, they develop
strength sufficient to flow from one life to the next.

These reactions occur because of ignorance. We are unaware of the fact that we react,
and unaware of the real nature of what we react to. We are ignorant of the impermanent
nature of our existence and ignorant that attachment to it brings nothing but suffering. Not
knowing that we have reacted, we persist in our blind reactions which become a habit of
reacting because of ignorance.17 This is how the wheel of suffering starts turning as the
applied principle: 18

(A). Because of ignorance, mental formations arise; because of mental

formations, consciousness arise; because of consciousness, mind-and-body arise;
because of mind-and-body, the six senses arise; because of the six senses, contact
arise; because of contact, sensation arise; because of sensation, craving arise;
because of craving, attachment arise; because of attachment, becoming arise;
because of becoming, birth arise; because of birth, decay-and-death arise. Sorrow,
lamentation, suffering, grief, and distress too arise. This whole “heap of
suffering” arises in this way. 19

(B). Because ignorance has been completely disgorged, mental formations

are extinguished; because mental formations are extinguished, consciousness is

17
S.P. Sharma (Chief Editor) & B. Labh (Editor), The Ocean of Buddhist Wisdom, Delhi: New Bharatiya book
corporation Prees, 2008: pp.103-04.
18
S.II.1; Vism.517; Also vide in, Phra Brahmaguœābharaœa (P.A.Payutto), Buddhadhamma (Natural Laws and
Values for Life) Translated by Grant A.Olson, New York : State University Press, 1995, pp.80-82.
19
Vin.I.1; Vism. 517. (AvijjÅpaccayÅ SaÙkhÅrÅ; SaÙkhÅrapaccayÅ ViññÅœaµ; ViññÅœapaccayÅ NÅmarâpaµ;
NÅmarâpapaccayÅ Sa¿Åyatanaµ; Sa¿ÅyatanapaccayÅ Phosso; Phassa-paccayÅ VedanÅ; VedanÅpaccayÅ TaœhÅ;
TaœhÅpaccayÅ UpÅdÅnaµ; UpÅdÅnapaccayÅ Bhavo; BhavapaccayÅ JÅti; JÅtipaccayÅ JarÅmaraœaµ.
SokaparidevadukkhadomanassupÅyÅsÅ sambhavanti. Evametassa kevalassa dukkhakkhandhassa samudayo hoti).
[Appendix C, chart No.1].
10

extinguished; because consciousness is extinguished, mind-and-body is

extinguished; because mind-and-body is extinguished, the six senses are
extinguished; because the six senses are extinguished, contact is extinguished;
because contact is extinguished, sensation is extinguished; because sensation is
extinguished, craving is extinguished; because craving is extinguished, attachment
is extinguished; because attachment is extinguished, becoming is extinguished;
because becoming is extinguished, birth is extinguished; because birth is
extinguished, [so is] decay-and-death [extinguished]. Sorrow, lamentation,
suffering, grief, and distress are [thereby] extinguished. The extinguishing of this
whole “heap of Dukkha” occurs in this manner. 20

Thus arises the entire mass of suffering. By this chain of cause and effect conditioned
arising, we have been brought into our present state of existence and face a future of
suffering. True nature ‘I’ and the next cause of suffering is SaÙkhÅra, the mental habit of
reaction. Reactions of craving which develop into clinging leads to all kinds of unhappiness.
The habit of reacting is the shaper of our future Kamma. The way out of suffering is also
through the knowledge of Kamma or cause and effect. If the cause is eradicated, there will be
no effect.

In this way the process of arising and suffering can be reversed. If we put an end to
ignorance, there will be no blind reaction that brings suffering and if suffering is stopped, we
shall experience peace and happiness. When his underlying conditions of craving for
pleasant sensation of aversion towards unpleasant sensation, and of ignorance toward neutral
sensation are eradicated the meditator is called one who is totally free of the underlying
conditionings, who has seen the truth, who has cut off all craving and aversion, who has
broken all bondages, who has fully realized the illusory nature of the ego, who has made an
end of suffering.”21

20
Vin.I.1; Vism. 517. (AvijjÅya tveva asesavirÅganirodhÅ SaÙkhÅranirodho; SaÙkhÅra-nirodhÅ ViññÅœa-
nirodho; ViññÅœanirodhÅ NÅma-râpanirodho; NÅma-râpanirodhÅ Sa¿Åyatana-nirodho; Sa¿Åyatana -nirodhÅ Phassa-
nirodho; PhassanirodhÅ VedanÅnirodho; VedhanÅnirodhÅ TaœhÅnirodho; TaœhÅnirodhÅ UpÅdÅnanirodho;
UpÅdÅnanirodhÅ Bhavanirodho; BhavanirodhÅ JÅtinirodho; JÅtinirodhÅ JarÅmaranaµ; Sokaparideva
dukkhadomanassupÅyÅsÅ nirujjhanti: Evametassa kevalassa dukkhakhandhassa nirodho hoti.). Appendix C, chart No.1.
21
detailed study in S. PahÅnasutta.
 11

Thus, this Suffering22is the root that concerns the problems of human beings;
whether, it manifests itself as a problem inside, such as painful or unpleasant feelings
produced by bodily and mental impression are suffering or problem outside, such as problem
in the family, society, economic and environment etc.

However, all of suffering as mental unrest that leds to global problem started as one
that concerns mind. The Buddha has enunciated the regulation, arising, existence and
practice-way to cessation of this world that we feel occur in our body which is of two meters
in length, about twelve inches thickness are consisted with the perception and mind.23 So,
mind-training should be started to look inside.

1.3 Looking Inside the Mind

Even though our life consist of body and mind, yet mind is forerunner and body is
just a follower:- there is the saying of wise people “mind is like boss-man but body is
like server.” All our problem or suffering arises inside mind and the end of problems lies
in mind itself. So looking inside mind is the right point to begin with that leads to the study
or observation of the origin and cessation of the clinging of mind and matter as “me” and
‘mine’. The Buddha himself says: “Sabbe DhammÅ NÅlaµ AbhinivesÅya (One should not
cling to all things as ‘me’ and ‘mine’).”24

However, the significance of mind as understood in the Buddhist way is such that
mind is part of a psychological science, which includes investigation into the mental
activities of human life. However in the west, it originated as part of medical science,
philosophy, natural science, religion, education, and sociology, and extends into a myriad of
other disciplines and practices. In today’s society, psychology is applied to education,
industry, business, health care, national defense, law, politics, sociology, science, arts, and
even sports. Its importance has increased with time.25

22
Craving is root of suffering and then suffering is root of problems outside.
23
S.I. 89.
24
S.IV.49;
25
Master Hsing Yun, Buddhism and Psychology, Taiwan: Fo Guang Shan International Translation Center Press,
2006. p.1
12

In the Buddhist Canons, the Buddha often used simple stories to describe mind. Ten
of these stories are summarized below:26

1. Mind is like a monkey, 27 and difficult to control. As is said in an old proverb, “the
mind resembles a monkey and thoughts resemble horses.” The mind is compared to a
monkey that is hyperactive, jumping and swinging between tree limbs without a moment of
rest.
2. Mind is as quick as lightening and thunder. It is compared to lightening, thunder,
or a spark created by striking a stone. It functions so rapidly that in a moment’s thought, it
has traveled throughout the universe without obstruction, for instance, when one thinks
about taking a trip to Europe or America, immediately the scenery of Europe or America will
surface in his or her mind, as if he or she were already present at those places.

3. Mind is like a wild deer, chasing after sensory pleasures all the time. The wild deer
runs in the wilderness and becomes thirsty. To search for water, it scrambles in four
directions, looking for a stream. Mind is like this wild deer. It can hardly resist the
temptation of five sensual desires and the six sensory objects. It chases after sight, sound,
and other sensory pleasures all the time.

4. Mind is like a robber stealing our virtues and merits. Our body is like a village,
with the five sensory organs as the five entrances, and mind is the thief in the village who
steals beneficial deeds and merits that we have laboriously accumulated, leaving a negative
impression in others’ minds and a poor lifestyle. Confucian scholar Wang Yongming once
said, “It’s much easier to catch bandits hidden in the wilderness than to eradicate a thief in
our mind.” If we can tame the thief in our mind, making it obedient and compliant, we will
become the master of our minds and capable of fostering superior virtues and merits.

5. Mind is like enemy and the inflicts suffering upon us. It creates trouble and causes
all kinds of pain and suffering to appear. One Sâtra says, “Unwholesomeness in itself is
empty because it is a creation of mind; if mind is purified, unwholesomeness will disappear

26
Phandanaµ capalaµ cittaµ durakkhaµ dunivÅrayaµ; ujuµ karoti medhÅv≠ usukÅrova tejanaµ…(the
trembling, shaking mind, difficult to guard, difficult to control, the wise person straightens, as a fletcher an arrow)… More
detail in Dhammapada, 25. p.19-.
27
VanamakkaÊalolassa cittassa, (Visuddhimagga, PaÊhamo BhÅgo), p.48 (STP).
 13

quickly.” Mind has Buddha Nature as its original quality is pure, free, and contented. But
numerous delusions cause afflictions to the body and spirit. If we can eliminate delusions
and false views, we will be able to make friends with this enemy.

6. Mind is like a servant to various irritations. It acts as if it is the servant of external

objects, catering to and driven constantly by these objects, resulting in numerous afflictions.
Another Sâtra states that mind has three poisons, five hindrances, three defilements, eighty-
eight impediments, and eighty-fore thousand aggravations. These hindrances, obstacles,
defilements and impediments are all capable of impeding our wisdom, restraining our mind
and spirit, and making us restless. To transform mind from a servant into a master depends
largely on how we train it.

7. Mind is like a master who has the highest authority. It is the boss of the body. It
leads, governs, and commands everything, including the eyes, ears, nose, tongue, body, and
mental activities, to produce sensory feelings and cognitive functions.

8. Mind is like an ever-flowing spring. It is similar to running water that gushes

continuously. It holds unlimited potential and contains immeasurable treasures. If we can
effectively utilize our spring of wisdom, we will be free from the fear of scarcity.

9. Mind is like an artist who paints. The Flower Ornament Sâtra says, “Mind is like a
master painter experienced at painting many of things.” Mind can draw different kinds of
pictures. When one’s mind is inspired by wise ones and sages, one’s appearance will seem
wise and enlightened. When one’s mind is occupied by malice and hostility, one’s
appearance will look fierce and repulsive like that of a devil or ghost. In other words, “As
one’s mind changes, so does one’s appearance.”

10. Mind is like space and is without limits. The nature of mind is as expansive as
limitless space. It is capable of encompassing everything in the universe. A Sâtra states, “If
one wants to comprehend the enlightened state of a Buddha, or has to purify his or her mind
so it becomes empty like space.” Space is vast and enormous, without borders or limits.
Space supports everything but grasps nothing. If we want to understand the enlightened
states of the Buddhas, we have to expand the mind so that is becomes limitless and
14

boundless like the sky, friction-free and carefree like space. Then our minds will be able to
embrace all things in the universe and benefit all sentient beings. 28

Further, Nyanaponika Thera has captured the significance of mind in “The Heart of
Buddhist Meditation” (1962) that:

“Particularly does the culmination of human wisdom, the Teaching of the Buddha,
deal not with something foreign, far, or antiquated but with that which is common to all
humanity, which is ever young, and, nearer to us than hands and feet-the human mind. In the
Buddhist doctrine, mind is the starting point, the focal point, and also, as the liberated and
purified mind of the Saint, the culminating point. Mind is the very nearest to us, because
through mind alone are we aware of the so-called external world including our own body. If
mind is comprehended, all things are comprehended. 29

The Buddha teaches three things on the Doctrine of mind to know mind, -that is so near to us,
and yet is so unknown; to shape mind,-that is so unwieldy and obstinate, and yet may turn so pliant; to
free mind, that is in bondage all over, and yet may win freedom here and now.”30

Further, the looking within or inside mind is very important to understand the truths. According
to Venerable BuddhadÅsa, “This extremely important matter concerns looking within,
examining all things within ourselves. Looking within is essential for an understanding of
Dhamma or Buddhism. The teaching of Dukkha (suffering) is important as one of the four
Noble Truths, as one link in the chain of conditioned arising (PaÊicca-samuppÅda), and in
other contexts, all of which exclusively concern suffering within. Thus, the looking within
that we are speaking of, means looking at mind, looking at the ideas of ‘I’ and ‘my’ which
are the causes of action
good and bad. This is one aspect of Dhamma. As for the sixth
essence, this is the state that is void of ‘I’, void of ‘my’, void of the idea of being ‘I’ or
belonging to ‘I’ and-in other words, void of all defilements. To be free of defilements is to
be free of suffering, free of all the things that constitute Dukkha (suffering).

28
Master Hsing Yun, Buddhism and Psychology, Op. Cit., pp.8-14.
29
Nyanaponika Thera, The Heart of Buddhist Meditation, Op.Cit., p. 21.
30
Ibid, p. 23.
 15

There is a great benefit in being able to distinguish the within from the without,
and then to look at ‘within’. Looking within is essential, but let us not go so far as to
develop a negative, cynical attitude toward the ‘without’. That would be an error as
grave as ignoring the within. We have always to recognize the value of the outer shell,
the ‘without’, just as in the case of a fruit. If a fruit had no rind or shell, the flesh could
not exist. Without the rind, the fruit could not produce seeds or flesh, and could never
develop to an edible and useful stage. The rind is essential, but to think the rind is
everything would be altogether pitiful.” 31 The importance of mind is such that the entire
32
AbhidhammapiÊaka is the study of mind as has been clearly stated by the Buddha. The
commentary deals with a hundred and twenty-one (121) types of consciousness33 and fifty-
two kinds of mental factors.34

Consciousness is associated with mental factors. They should be understood to know

this role for the training of mind. 35 Indeed, there are several kinds of immorality and
morality of mental factors, such as the three unwholesome and wholesome roots etc., but
here there will briefly be stated the immoral and moral mental factors with the method of
clearing of mind-pollution and method of development moral states that are as follows:36

1.3.1 Akusala-cetasikas (Immoral Mental Factors)

Akusalamâla (Three Unwholesome Roots)37

Lobha (greed): It is a psychic factor which refers to covetousness, greed, lust etc, It
comes from the root√lubh which means to cling, attach itself, etc. Whatever an object, is
formed in the rain of the senses, there is attachment of the object. Immediately after that,
there is a beginning of the clinging in the process of feeling (VedanÅ) etc. Lobha has got a
characteristic of developing attachment with the object.

31
www.purifymind.com/LookingWithin.htm (Accessed on July 27, 2012).
32
Dhs. 34/21/10.
33
SaÙgaha. P.1-6.
34
Appendix B, as the Part.1.Citta.and Part.2 Cetasika.
35
Even there are a lot of kinds of mind but in the practice-way, it can contemplate only one mind in the moment.
36
More in number of immoral and moral mental factors at Appendix B, as the part 2. Cetasika.
37
D. PÅÊikavagga. p. 275.
16

Its function is to be attached, and to remain as stuck in the object just like the piece of
meat thrown in the hot pan, or not to leave the object just like the oil (Añjana) does not leave
the eye. It is, immediately, loving, clinging or stale of thinking in things to be coveted, it
goes on increasingly just like a fast going river and turning into the flow.38 In this way,
Lobha develops attachment to man wholly and makes him firmly to die with it.

Dosa (hatred): It means ‘hate’. What is hate? A desire to harm others is hate. It is just
opposite to MettÅ. It has the gentle appearance for destructive of others. Therefore, it is
defined as ‘ParavinÅsacintÅ’. 39 There is an exposition of the fourfold formula in the
background.

It can be expressed that its characteristic is savageness like a provoked snake. Its
function is like a drop of poison; or is like a forest fire that burns up its own support like a
forest. Its manifestation is persecuting like an enemy. Its immediate cause is the ground for
ÄghÅtavatthu (annoyance). Dosa should be regarded as the stale urine mixed with poison. In
fact, Dosa and ByÅpÅda are indeed in the same sense.

Moha (delusion): It means illusion and deception. This is basically called the
darkness of ignorance. It is derived from the root√muh which means to be deluded. Its
function is to create a state of confusion in the mind and make it contrary to the fact of
reality of things as they really are.

It covers the nature of reality as impermanent, subject to suffering and substanceless.

It creates the notion of the things which are substanceless as having permanent substance. In
brief, it makes delusion. It is in this way, Moha in its generic sense, is ignorance.

The word ‘Moha or Moho’ (delusion or ignorance) has come again and again, and
not following the evil course of delusion has been considered as one of the five qualities to
be in the various officials of the Order. This quality indicates to the clear cut knowledge of
does and don’ts. Moha has the characteristic of covering the nature of reality- “Dhamma-

38
The similes are described in AÊÊhasÅlin≠, Commentary of the DhammasaÙgaœi; DhsA. p. 306.
39
DhammasaÙgaœi-AÊÊhakathÅ-AÊÊhasÅlin≠ ,I . pp. 149,314 .(MTP-2532)
 17

sabhÅva-paÊicchÅdanalakkhaœo Moho.” Things covered by delusion, appear falsely and keep

one in bewilderment.40

Otherwise, TaœhÅ (Craving) as it is root of unwholesome, is not the only cause of

evil action, and thus of all the suffering and misery produced thereby in this and the next
life; but wherever there is craving, there, dependent on craving, may arise envy, anger,
hatred, and many other evil things productive of suffering and misery. And all these selfish,
life-affirming impulses and actions, together with the various kinds of misery produced
thereby here or thereafter, and even all the five groups of phenomena constituting life.
Everything is ultimately rooted in blindness and ignorance (AvijjÅ).41

1.3.2 Kusala-cetasikas (Moral Mental Factors)

Kusalamâla (Three Wholesome Roots)42

Alobha (greedlessness): This word can be analyzed as ‘A + Lobha’. ‘A’ is a prefix

and it indicates the sense of negation. The word ‘Lobha’ means greed. Thus the absence of
greed is Alobha. However, in the Buddhist context it is much more than that. It is here taken
as sacrifice. One becomes able to offer something to someone by dint of this Kusalamâla.
Any kind of benevolence is not performed without Alobha. It has vital role in generosity in
the sense of sacrificing something to others.

Buddhaghosa has gradually explained it by illustrating its characteristic of making

mind free from the desire for an object of thought. It creates the feeling of detachment like
the drop of water on the lotus leaf. It has the function of appropriating like an emancipated
monk. Its manifestation is detachment. From this it appears that Alobha is the quality of
detachment.

Adosa (hatelessness, good-will,): It is a positive concept of virtue to another. This

literally means the absence of the hate, but literally speaking, it is good-will or loving-
kindness. It radiates and takes into consideration all the beings for being happy, may be

40
Prof. Baidyanath Labh, PaññÅ in Early Buddhism, Op.Cit., p.36.
41
Nyanatiloka MahÅthera, the word of the Buddha, Op. Cit., p.54.
42
D. PÅÊikavagga. p. 275.
18

beings of this world, higher world or beings of anywhere. Let them be happy with long life.
May ill man and disturbed man direct their lives with happiness.

Adosa has the characteristic of extension of the well-being of other. It also indicates
characteristic mark of lack of savagery or non-opposing like a good friend. Its function is to
remove annoyance or fever as sandal wood does. Its manifestation is generation of
agreeableness just like the full-moon. It is in this way that the concept has examined and
illustrated in the AÊÊhasÅlin≠.

Amoha (wisdom): It is Paññindriya that can be analyzed as ‘Pa-ña-indriya’. ‘Pa’

literally means ‘rightly’, ‘ÑÅ’ means knowledge and ‘Indriya’ means the faculty. By this
sense it refers to the faculty of rightly knowing. The characteristic of PaññÅ or wisdom is
understanding of something as it really is, or irresistible understanding, i.e. penetrative
knowledge. As PaññÅ or wisdom dominates in understanding the real nature and as it
overcomes ignorance, It is called a controlling faculty. In Abhidhamma, ÑÅœa, PaññÅ and
Amoha are used as interchangeable terms. In types of consciousness connected with
knowledge, the reference is to PaññÅ. By Amoha, one of three moral roots is also meant by
PaññÅ.

As one of the four means of IddhipÅda (accomplishing) one’s ends, it assumes the
name of VimaµsÅ (lit. examination). When purified by SamÅdhi, PaññÅ assumes the
honorable role of AbhiññÅ (higher knowledge). Highly developed PaññÅ is elevated to the
state of a BojjhaÙga-dhammavicaya (investigation of the truth) and MaggaÙgasammÅdiÊÊhi
(right view). The culmination of PaññÅ is the omniscience of the Buddha.

PaññÅ, in the strictest sense of the term, is seeing things as they truly are, i.e. in the
light of Anicca (impermanent), Dukkha (suffering) and AnattÅ (selflessness). And again as
expressed in previous detail to present, a brief descriptive account of the moral and immoral
mental factors, it, therefore appears that the man has got at a natural phenomena such basic
state of leaning toward moral and immoral activities. It is through them, one becomes able
to have a ground of the moral and immoral states and knowing them properly, as they
really are.
 19

One becomes able to eliminate immoral one and develop the moral one. On getting
such ability, the immoral states gradually come under control and get eliminated in the end.
The moral states are arisen, develop the function properly to generate and help the process of
such element to bring peace to mind. If it is so, then, first of all, we must know what is the
PahÅna or Nirodha (elimination) and what are various factors for elimination of immoral
mental states.

Even though, there are lot of immorality or morality of mental factors that are
different in name and meaning, all of them can divide or conclude in three wholesome and
unwholesome by itself. However, all these things depend on mind that will be needed to
develop as looking within or inside mind.

1.4 The Way of Mind-Development

Everybody naturally loves Sukha (happiness) and hates Dukkha (suffering), or

searches for happiness avoiding suffering. Interestingly we really do not know what to do.
Therefore, we need proper knowledge and guidance as extended by the Buddha. He has
discovered the profound truth and enunciated to human being with great compassion. His
Dhamma is so difficult to perceive, difficult to understand and is not to be gained by mere
reasoning but is only visible, only to the wise.

The Buddhadhamma is comparable with the one who holds the lamp to guide these
who are lost in darkness. 43 Buddha has clearly shown the way (Noble Eightfold Path) that
leads to the extinction of suffering. 44These eight steps may be summarized in three (S≠la-
SamÅdhi-PaññÅ) as follows:

III. PaññÅkkhandha (Wisdom)

1. SammÅ-diÊÊhi (Right Understanding) 45

2. SammÅ-saÙkappa (Right Thought) 46

43
Vin.I.9.
44
Vin.4.18-19. S.II. 421.
45
These are: understanding of suffering, understanding of the origin of suffering, understanding of the cessation
of suffering, understanding of the path leading to the cessation of suffering.
46
These are: Thought of renunciation, thought of negating ill-will, and thought of negating cruelty:
20

I. S≠lakkhandha (Morality)

3. SammÅ-vÅcÅ (Right Speech) 47

4. SammÅ-kammanta (Right Action) 48
5. SammÅ-Åj≠va (Right Livelihood) 49

II. SamÅdhikhandha (Concentration)

6. SammÅ-vÅyÅma (Right Effort) 50

7. SammÅ-sati (Right Mindfulness) 51
8. SammÅ-samÅdhi (Right Concentration). 52

This is the Middle Path which the Perfect One has found out, which makes one both
to see and know, which leads to peace, to discernment, to enlightenment, to NibbÅna. The
figurative expression ‘Path’ or ‘Way’ has sometimes been misunderstood as implying that a
single factor of that Path has to be taken up for practice, one after the other, in the given
order. In that case, Right Understanding, i.e. the full penetration of Truth, would have to be
realized first, before one could think of developing Right Thought, or of practicing Right
Speech etc. however in reality the three factors (3-5) forming the section ‘Morality’ (S≠la)
have to be perfected first after which one has to give attention to the systematic training of
mind by practicing the three factors (6-8) forming the section Concentrations (SamÅdhi).
Only after that preparation, man’s character and mind will be capable of and relevant for
reaching perfection in the first two factors (1-2) forming the section of ‘Wisdom’ (PaññÅ).

However, a basic minimum conception of Right Understanding is required at the

very beginning, because a grasp of the facts of suffering, etc., is necessary to provide
convincing reasons, and an incentive, for a diligent practice of the Path. A measure of Right

47
These are: Abstaining from lying, from slandering, from abusing, from frivolous talk:
48
These are: Abstaining from killing, from stealing, from sexual misconduct
49
It means abandonement of wrong livelihood, making a living by right livelihood:
50
The four efforts: 1. the effort to aviod the evil that has not arisen, 2. the effort to overcome the unwholesome
has arisen. 3. the effort to develop wholesome that has not arisen. And 4. the effort to maintain wholesome that has arisen.
51
It means the four SatipaÊÊhānas.
52
It means the four absorptions.
 21

Understanding is also required for helping the other Path factors to fulfill intelligently and
efficiently their individual functions in the common task of liberation. For that reason, and to
emphasize the importance of that factor, Right Understanding has been given the first place
in the Noble Eightfold Path.

This initial understanding of the Dhamma, however, has to be gradually developed,

with the help of the other Path factors, until it reaches finally that highest clarity of Insight
(VipassanÅ) which is the immediate condition for entering the four Stages of Holiness and
for attaining NibbÅna.

Right Understanding is, therefore, the beginning as well as the culmination of the
Noble Eightfold Path. Free from pain and torture is this path, free from groaning and
suffering: it is the perfect path. Truly, like this path there is no other path to the purity of
insight. If one follows this path, one will put an end to suffering. However, each one has to
struggle for himself, the Perfect One has only pointed out the way.

“Give ear then, for the Deathless is found. I reveal, I set forth the Truth. As I reveal
it to you, so act! And that supreme goal of the holy life, for the sake of which sons of good
families rightly goes forth from home to the homeless state: This you will, in no long time,
in this very life, make known to yourself, realize, and make your own”.53

Further, Venerable Master Hsing Yun has stated an interesting way of Purifying
mind that has been applied following the noble eightfold path in “Buddhism and
Psychology” (2006) that Modern medicine is very advanced, and all kinds of
pharmaceuticals are widely available. The great variety of drugs corresponds to the
numerous physical ailments modern people now experience, many of which were non-
existent before. However, while it is true that there are illnesses and cancers in our physical
bodies, aren’t there cancers in our minds as well? Greed, anger, ignorance, arrogance, and
doubt are illnesses that we cannot ignore. When we have physical disorders, we treat them
with medicine, injections, or nutritional supplements. There is an old Chinese saying,
“Medicine can only cure symptoms of ailments. It will not heal the real illness.”

53
Nyanatiloka MahÅthera, the word of the Buddha, Op.Cit., pp.66-70.
22

The real illness is the illness of mind. As a matter of fact, many physical diseases are
caused by psychological factors. The most obvious examples are illnesses of stomach and
digestive system. Eighty percent of these disorders are related to emotional distress. If we
can maintain a balance and peaceful mind, many diseases will automatically disappear.

In addition to the major illnesses caused by the three poisons, there are all kinds of
psychological sicknesses that need to be healed, transformed or overcome. The following are
treatments prescribed in the Buddha’s teachings:

1. A calm mind is the antidote to a busy mind. The tempo of modern life is rather
fast and compact. Most of the people suffer from distress caused by anxiety and insecurity.
Therefore, in our daily life, it is beneficial if we take a few minutes to practice the art of self-
healing through mind calming and purification. When the “Impurities” in our minds are
cleansed, insight and wisdom emerge from calmness.

2. A benevolent mind is the antidote to a malevolent mind. The mind sometimes is

like that of a ‘sage,’ but at other times like that of a “troubled one,” rambling here and there
between positive and negative. When the benevolent mind arises, everything goes well;
when the malevolent mind arises, millions of defilements result. Therefore, we must
eradicate the unwholesome mind and guard and keep our correct thoughts in order to
cultivate a mind of loving-kindness and compassion.

3. A trusting mind is the antidote to a doubtful mind. Many mistakes and tragedies in
the world are due to doubt and suspicion. Suspecting the trust of a friend, infidelity of
spouse, or ill will of a relative are some of the most common examples. When doubt arises,
it is like a rope restraining body and making movement almost impossible.

4. A true mind is the antidote to a deluded mind. Due to attachment to the notion of
self, personal preference, and judgment, minds of ordinary people are constantly
discriminating and deliberating, creating countless illusions and unwarranted responses. To
lead a life of truth, beauty, and virtue, we must use our minds without discrimination or
duality, perceiving things as they are and treating all sentient beings as inherently equal.

5. An open mind is the antidote to a narrow mind, [We need to make our minds like
an ocean, capable of receiving all the water from hundreds of rivers and tributaries without
 23

changing their characteristics.]. Only an all-embracing mind of gratitude and forbearance can
relieve us from a jealous and intolerant mind.

6. A balanced mind is the antidote to a fragmented mind. If material wealth is the

only thing we value in life, we will feel anguished if we lose our fortune. If ordinary love is
the focal point of life, we will suffer tremendously if that loving relationship can no longer
be maintained. Whenever there is grasping and clinging, there is differentiation and bondage.
How can one be free? It is better to react to transient, worldly possessions, and the attached
illusions with an even mind. In doing so, one will become free and unperturbed at all times
without any attachment or restriction.

7. An enduring mind is the antidote to an impermanent mind. Although Buddhism

maintains that all things and phenomena, including thoughts and feelings, are impermanent
and constantly changing, it also holds that when we vow to serve others and not just
ourselves, the power of the vow and devotion is so immeasurable that it reaches beyond the
universe. It is like the Bodhisattva, he or she must maintain that momentum, without falling
back, in order to attain perfect enlightenment.

8. An unattached mind is the antidote to an impulsive mind. Modern men and

women fancy novelty and fads. They are curious about any new gimmick and thus become
easy targets of bizarre and eccentric scams and frauds perpetrated by con artists. Chan
Buddhism states that, “An unattached mind is the path to enlightenment.” Maintaining an
unattached mind in daily life enables us to appreciate that, “every day is a delightful day;
every moment is an enjoyable moment.”

In addition to these eight observations, we should cultivate a mind of patience,

humility, thoughtfulness, filial piety, sincerity, honesty, innocence, purity, loving-kindness,
forgiveness, joyfulness, charity, reverence, equanimity, forbearance, contrition, repentance,
thankfulness, wisdom (PaññÅ), compassion (a trait of a Bodhisattva), and enlightenment (a
trait of a Buddha) in order to fully develop its boundless potential. 54

54
Master Hsing Yun, Buddhism and Psychology, Op. Cit., pp.14-20.
24

1.5 Summary

On the whole, all of them can be included in the four noble truths that are like special
medicine. So, the four Noble Truths which have been realized, practically examined and
framed as the basic fact by the Buddha. And the definition of the main Dhamma of the
Buddha has been stated, thus:55

“What is suffering; what is the cause of suffering; what is the cessation of sufferings
and what is the path leading to the cessation of suffering?.” “It is like a physician, who is
examiner the patient, determines his or her disease, finds out the causes, describes the
treatment and prescribes the process of it as ministering. Likewise the Buddha as a physician
of the world lays down the process of removal of suffering of the mankind with the
prescription of the four noble truths,” (S.V.421., Vbh.99).

According to the Buddhist tradition, the basic noble truth is suffering. It captures the
fundamental problem in this tradition. Categorically the Buddha, in course of his way-faring,
explained, “In previous days as well as now, I teach only one thing and that is the suffering
and its cessation (Pubbe cÅhaµ bhikkhave, etarahi ca dukkhaµ ceva paññÅpemi dukkhassa
ca nirodhaµ…” [M. I. p.185]). And he has clearly stated these truths along with the path
that lead to the cessation of suffering.

Nowadays, there are many kinds of meditation on mind, several methods, and a lot of
concentration techniques, which is used by majority of people. Even though there are many,
to put it in a nutshell, according to the MahÅsatipaÊÊhÅna Sutta (TheravÅda PÅli texts) the
meditative techniques belong to one of these four kinds only. So, the study of MahÅ
SatipaÊÊhÅna Sutta is essential. Its meditative techniques are significant, for those who want
to practice meditation, according to the TheravÅda tradition. Talking about Buddhist
meditation, it is not complete without MahÅ SatipaÊÊhÅna Sutta.
……………………………………..

55
The principles of the four noble truths: What is it? Through what cause does it arise? What is its purpose? How
does it succeed in that purpose?.
 25

CHAPTER II:

SIGNIFICANCE OF SATIPAÂÂHÄNA AS STATED IN PÄLI LITERATURE

The present chapter aims at the detailed study of the background, meaning and
distinctive feature of SatipaÊÊhāna. Even though there are many Suttas in the PÅli Texts
about SatipaÊÊhāna,56 this study will focus on the main purpose of SatipaÊÊhÅna more than
the word “Suttas”. However, MahÅsatipaÊÊhÅnasutta being one of the greatest Sutta explains
perfectly the way of Dhamma-practice.

Lord Buddha’s original ‘Discourse’ ‘SatipaÊÊhÅna Sutta’ (the Foundations of

Mindfulness’) is indeed recorded twice in the Buddhist scriptures namely:

(1) The 10th Discourse of the Majjhima NikÅya (Middle Collection of Discourses)
with the title SatipaÊÊhÅnasutta;

(2) the 22nd Discourse of the D≠gha NikÅya (‘Long collection’) with the title MahÅ-
SatipaÊÊhÅna Sutta i.e. the Great Discourse on SatipaÊÊhÅna.

The latter Sutta differs from the first Sutta only in more details of the Four Noble
Truths especially in the ‘Dhammānupassanā (Contemplation of Mental Contents) ’.57

However, during the forty-five years of teaching, the Buddha taught the SatipaÊÊhāna
method at many different places and occasions. In the collection of the kindred sayings, there
is a chapter on SatipaÊÊhÅna which consists of 140 short Suttas, but it was only to the people
of Kuru that the Buddha taught this Sutta in greater detail. 58

56
Appendix A. at the Part 1: Suttas concerened MahāsatipaÊÊhānasutta in Pāli Texts.
57
Nyanaponika Thera, The Heart of Buddhist Meditation, Op. Cit., p. 9.
58
Commentary of MahÅsatipaÊÊhÅna Sutta, No, 9, MahÅvagga, D≠gha NikÅya, 2. p. 333.
26

2.1 The Background of MahÅsatipaÊÊhÅna Sutta

2.1.1 The Place where SatipaÊÊhÅna was Preached

The MahÅ SatipaÊÊhÅna Sutta was preached by the Buddha in Kuru country as
indicated in the PÅli Texts. At that time the Buddha was living in the Kuru country at a
town of the Kurus named KammÅsadamma or Kammāsadhamma.59 There he said thus:

“EkÅyano ayaµ, bhikkhave, maggo sattÅnaµ visuddhiyÅ soka-

paridevÅnaµ samatikkamÅya, dukkhadomanassÅnaµ atthaÙgamÅya ñÅyassa
adhigamÅya, nibbÅnassa sacchikiriyÅya, yadidaµ : cattÅro SatipaÊÊhÅnÅ”.60

(Bhikkhus,61 this is the only way that leads to the attainment of purity of
human beings, to the overcoming of sorrow and lamentation, to the end of pain
and grief, to the entering upon the right path and the realization of NibbÅna, is by
the “Four Foundations of Mindfulness).

The Kuru country: It is said that this Sutta had been delivered in the land of the
Kurus62 or Kuru people.

59
Where there was a market town of Kurus, name KammÅsadamma or Kammāsadhamma, (vide in K.T.S. Sarao,
Urban Centres and Urbanisation (As Reflected in the PÅli Vinaya and Sutta PiÊakas), Delhi: Department of Buddhist
Studies, University of Delhi, 2007,pp. 62-63.
60
D≠ghanikÅya Sutta . 10/273-300 /322-346 (STP)
61
“Bhikkhave or Bhikkhâ”: there are two meanings: 1) Begger: it means one who begs by quiet, Dhamma or
creditor from debtor with MettÅ, analysis: “Bhikkhat≠’ti Bhikkhu; 2) Seer of danger in SaµsÅra analysis: “Saµsāre bhayaµ
ikkhat≠’ti Bhikkhu.” In this case, the Buddha always addressed the monks as Bhikkhus. Bhikkhus were excellent persons
who accepted his Teachings. However, this does not mean that, in saying ‘Bhikkhus,’ other people who were not monks
were not addressed. Moreover, anybody who accepts and follows the Buddha’s Teachings can be called a bhikkhu in PÅli.
So, when the Buddha said, “Bhikkhus,” it must be understood that monks as well as nuns and lay people are addressed,
DA.2. p. 685, (STP), and also vided in (Nyanaponika Thera, The Heart of Buddhist Meditation, Op.Cit.,p.132).
62
Commentary of MahÅsatipaÊÊhÅna Sutta, No, 9, MahÅvagga, D≠gha NikÅya, 2.p. 333. The Kuru country can be
found near New Delhi. That part of the country was called Indraprastha in Sanskrit. The term ‘Kurus’ is the name of a
district or a small country in India. In PÅli it requires the plural, hence, kurusu, in ‘Kurus.’ And see more in the recent time
(Greater Kailash is located in the southern part of modern Delhi city. Greater Kailash is an upmarket residential suburb in
south Delhi. Greater Kailash is the preferred residential area for the rich and famous in Delhi).
 27

2.1.2 The Reason of Preaching in Kuru Country

Why did the Buddha preach this Sutta to the Kurâ people? Was it a mere
coincidence? The Kurâs lived a life of morality, observing S≠la, from the king to the lowest
subject. This was quite unusual, and what is now called S≠la-dhamma had then been called
Kurâ-dhamma. Morality was their nature. And the commentary mentions that the people of
Kuru were so well-endowed with good climate and good food. Since they were in these
comfortable conditions, they were always happy in body and mind.

It is because of their healthy bodies and minds, their power of wisdom got matured
and they were capable of receiving profound teachings named “SatipaÊÊhÅna”. When people
told them that they were practicing such and such foundation of mindfulness, Kuru people
would praise, “well done! Your life is blessed, your life as a human being is worth living. It
is for such people like you that the Buddha appeared in the world.”

That is why the Buddha widely preached this Sutta to them. So SatipaÊÊhÅna Sutta
was preached here for this simple reason. The commentary goes even so far as to say that
even animals practiced SatipaÊÊhāna meditation in the Kuru country.63 There are some
examples as follows:

2.1.3 The Parrot’s SatipaÊÊhÅna Practice

Once there was a gypsy dancer who wandered along from one place to another. He
had a parrot which he had trained to sing and dance. Wherever the dancer traveled, he stayed
at monasteries and nunneries so that he could get free food and place to sleep. Once, he spent
some time in a certain nunnery and when he left that place he forgot to take his parrot with
him. So, the parrot was taken care of by the female novices in the nunnery. He was given the
name Buddharakkhita, which means ‘one protected by the Buddha.’

One day, when the parrot was sitting in front of the chief nun who was the abbess,
she asked the parrot, ‘Do you practice any meditation?’ The parrot answered, ‘No.’ Then she
said, “People, who live with ascetics, monks, or nuns, should not be heedless. Since you are
an animal, you cannot do much, therefore, just repeat, ‘Bones, bones, bones.’ Thus, the nun

63
DA. 2. pp. 583-584.(STP).
28

taught the parrot the repulsiveness of the body meditation and the parrot kept repeating
‘bones, bones, bones.’

One day, when the parrot was basking in the sun on top of a gate, a big bird swooped
down, sized parrot with its claw and flew away. The parrot made a noise which sounded like
‘kiri-kiri.’ When the novices heard the noise, they said, ‘Buddharakkhita has been abducted
by a bird.’ They took sticks and stones and scared the big bird so that it released the parrot.
When the novices bought the parrot to the abbess, she asked, ‘Buddharakkhita, what were
you thinking when you were taken away by that bird?’ Then the parrot answered, ‘I didn’t
think of anything else but that a skeleton is taking a skeleton away. I don’t know where it
will be scattered. That is the only thing I thought of when I was taken away by the bird.’ The
abbess was pleased and told the parrot, ‘It will serve you as a cause for the cessation of
existence in the future.’ This is the story of the parrot that practiced SatipaÊÊhāna
meditation.64

2.2 The Meaning of SatipaÊÊhÅnasutta

The term “SatipaÊÊhÅna-Sutta or MahÅsatipaÊÊhÅna-Sutta” is composed of four

words. i.g., MahÅ, Sati, PaÊÊhÅna and Sutta. MahÅ stands for great, for instance, MahÅ-
upÅsikÅ (a great female devotee). The word ‘Sati’ (Sanskrit-SmŸti) in “SatipaÊÊhÅna” is
derived from the root√Sara which means to remember, and to which the suffix Ti is added. It
means wakefulness of mind, alertness or mindfulness. 65 It also means the sense of arousing,
making alert and functioning, making mindfulness activate, making right efforts for
gradually removing the layers of pollution and realization of a state of eternal bliss etc. 66

Similarly the word “PaÊÊhāna” means getting established in a proper way, following
different ways, or Pakārena: Pakārena Jānātīti Paññā. Paññā (wisdom), Jānāti
(understands), reality from different angles. Understood from only one point of view results
in partial distorted truth. One has to try to witness the whole scenario by observing it from
different points of view. Then it is Pakārena, and it becomes Paññā. Thus Sati becomes

64
DA. 2. p. 585.(STP).
65
Royal Highness Prince Kitiyakara Krommaphra Chandaburinarunath (Complied). PÅli-Thai-English-Sanskrit
Dictionary. Bangkok: Mahamakutrajavidyalaya Press, 1970.p.766.
66
S.P. Sharma (Chief Editor) & B. Labh (Editor), The Ocean of Buddhist Wisdom, Op. Cit., pp. 101-102.
 29

PaÊÊhāna when it is combined with Paññā. 67 The word “Sutta” is used for the discourse of
the Buddha.

Thus, MahÅsatipaÊÊhÅnasutta means a discourse on setting up of mindfulness or

awareness on the objects of meditation. And, there is significant meaning of SatipaÊÊhāna as
follows:

The Vinaya PiÊaka68 has given the meaning of SatipaÊÊhÅna as Uttari-

manussadhamma (superhuman condition) “If a Bhikkhu who does not know, or attain the
SatipaÊÊhāna, but, claims before lay man, lay woman or other Bhikkhus that he has known
and attained the SatipaÊÊhāna; then by this way, he, one who has lay claim to
Uttarimanussadhamma, is defeated.”69

Further SatipaÊÊhāna means MaggabhÅvanÅ (Noble fundamental path of meditation),

that is first factor of 37 Bodhipakkhiyadhammas:70 In Suttanta PiÊaka, SatipaÊÊhāna means
right mindfulness (SammÅsati). And Abhidhamma has widely explained the right
mindfulness as power (Bala) and enlightenment factor (BojjhaÙga), etc,.71

In AÊÊhakathās (Commentaries) SatipaÊÊhāna means ‘Satigocara’ (right Domain of

mindfulness), etc..,.72 And they have stated to the four kinds of Sampajañña (clear
comprehension):73 (1) Satthaka-sampajañña (the clear comprehension of purpose), (2)

67
S.N. Goenka, Discourses on SatipaÊÊhāna Sutta, Second Edition, Mumbai: Apollo Printers Press,
2001, p.5.
68
Again, in Vinaya, SatipaÊÊhāna is both tadaÙgavinaya or khaœikasamādhi and vikkhambhanavinaya or
appanāsamādhi (tattha vineyyā’ti tadaÙgavinagyena vā vikkhambhanavinayena vā vinayitvā), DA.2.
p.608 (STP).
69
Vin. MahÅvibhaÙga, p.173. (PÅrÅjiko= One is defeated).
70
Vbh. 249. ( thirty seven Bodhipakkhiyadhammas: 1) The Four SatipaÊÊhÅnas 2). The Four SammÅ VÅyÅmas:
Saµvara-padhÅna (the effort to avoid); PahÅna-padhÅna (the effort to overcome); BhÅvanÅ-padhÅna (the effort to
develop); AnurakkhanÅ-padhÅna (the effort to maintain). 3). Four IddhipÅdas: Chanda (the aspoiration); Viriya (energy or
effort); Citta (thoughtfulness or active thought); and VimaµsÅ (investigation); 4). Five Indriyas: Saddhindriya (the
confidence); Viriyindriya (energy); Satindriya (mindfulness); SamÅdhindriya (concentration); and Paññindriya (wisdom).
5). Five Balas: Just like controlling faculties. 6). Seven factors of Enlightenment. 7). the Noble Eightfold Path).
71
Phra Brahmaguœābharaœa (P.A. Payutto), Buddhadhamma, Op.Cit., pp. 254-255;. See explanation of right
mindfulness later.
72
PaÊisambhidÅmagga, p.522; Nyanaponika Thera, The Heart of Buddhist Meditation, p 10.
73
VbhA. 347.
30

SappÅya-sampajañña (the clear comprehension of suitability), (3) Gocara-sampajañña

(clear comprehension of the domain of meditation), (4) Asammoha-sampajañña [lit. of non-
delusion;], (clear comprehension of reality). 74

Generally, the connotation of Sati or SatipaÊÊhāna as memory becomes particularly

prominent with the recollections (Anussati). The discourses often list a set of six
recollections: recollection of the Buddha, of the Dhamma, of the SaÙgha, of one’s ethical
conduct, of one’s liberality, and of heavenly beings (Devas). Another kind of recollection,
usually occurring in the context of the ‘higher knowledge’ gained through deep
concentration, is the recollection of one’s past lives (PubbenivÅsÅnussati). With regard to all
these, it is Sati that fulfils the function of recollecting. This recollective function of Sati can
even lead to awakening; as documented in TheragÅthÅ in the case of a monk who gained
realization based on recollection, the qualities of the Buddha. 75

Further, Sati as present moment awareness is similarly reflected in the presentations

of the Visuddhimagga, according to which the characteristic quality of Sati is “presence”
(UpaÊÊhÅna), whether as a faculty (Indriya), as an awakening factor (BojjhaÙga), as a factor
of the Noble Eightfold Path, or at the moment of realization.

Thus mindfulness being present (UpaÊÊhitasati) can be understood to imply presence

of mind, in so far as it is directly opposed to absent-mindedness (MuÊÊassati); presence of
mind in the sense that, endowed with Sati, one is wide awake in regard to the present
moment. Owing to such presence of mind, whatever one does or says will be clearly
apprehended by the mind, and thus can be more easily remembered later on.76

74
More detail of four kinds of clear comprehension in Chapter in section 2.4.2 as the definition of Sampajañña.
75
Anālayo, SatipaÊÊhÅna: The Direct Path to Realization, Candy Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society Press,
2003, pp.46-47.
76
Ibid., p.48.
 31

2.3 Distinctive feature of SatipaÊÊhāna

2.3.1 SatipaÊÊhÅna as Right Mindfulness

In this context, Sati in “SatipaÊÊhÅna” as right mindfulness (Sammāsati) is the second

factor in the Samādhi (concentration) section of the Eightfold Noble Path; it is a path of the
higher mental training. 77 The usual definition of Sammāsati given in the Suttas is as follows:

Bhikkhus, what is Sammāsati? This is called Sammāsati, namely, that a

Bhikkhu in this Dhamma-Vinaya contemplates, the body in the body, with effort,
clear comprehension (Sampajañña), and mindfulness (Sati), eliminating greed
and grief related to the world; contemplates sensations in sensations, with effort,
clear comprehension, and mindfulness, eliminating greed and grief related to the
world; contemplates the mind in the mind with effort, clear comprehension and
mindfulness, eliminating greed and grief related to the world; and contemplates
Dhammas in Dhammas with effort, clear comprehension and mindfulness,
eliminating greed and grief related to the world. 78

Another definition, which appears in the Abhidhamma texts, is as

follows: What is Sammāsati? Sati means to reflect upon or bring to mind. Sati
is the state of recollecting, the state of remembering, the state of non-dissipation,
and the state of non-forgetting. Sati means Sati that is a sense-faculty, Sati that
has power (Bala), Sati that is a factor of enlightenment (BojjhaÙga), Sati that is
a factor of the Path and is linked with the Path. This is what is called
Sammāsati.79

Therefore, Sati occupies a very important position in the Buddhist tradition. It is

referred to as a useful pillar in the day to day life as well, like a noble friend in a spiritual
life. Its alternative meaning is to generate awareness and keep a watch or the mind-door, just
like a door-keeper. Therefore sometimes, it is defined as-‘Dovāriko viya daÊÊhabbā sati’80

77
Phra Brahmaguœābharaœa (P.A. Payutto), Buddhadhamma, Op. Cit., pp. 262.
78
D.II.313; M.I.62.
79
Vbh.107.
80
Vism. 2. p.22 (MBU).
32

(regarded Sati as a door-keeper). As the door-keeper does not allow anyone unwanted or
any intruder one to enter into the house, similarly Sati also remaining at the mind-door,
keeps a watch over the incoming pollutants process at the surface of mind by alerting and
instigating force from within.

However, talking of mindfulness (Sati) means right mindfulness (SammÅsati) and the
foundation of mindfulness (SatipaÊÊhÅna) together. Therefore, the Sutta called “SatipaÊÊhÅna
Sutta” is very important, for it constructs the foundation of mindfulness as right mindfulness.
Moreover, it means the foundation of mindfulness as AppamÅda-Dhamma (Heedfulness).

2.3.2 SatipaÊÊhÅna as AppamÅda (Carefulness)

SatipaÊÊhÅna as AppamÅda81 or Heedfulness. The word refers to living with right

mindfulness, heedfulness, carefulness,82thoughtfulness, watchfulness, and there is no living
without Sati (SatiyÅ AvippavÅso).83 Indeed, after the PÅli Canon, Venerable Prayuth Payutto
has clearly stated about Mindfulness (Sati) in his book “Buddhadhamma: Natural Laws and
Values for Life” 84(1995) that:

Sati is the most simply rendered as “recollection,” but such a translation may convey
the idea that it is merely an aspect of memory. While memory is certainly a valid aspect of
Sati’s function, it does not do justice to the full meaning of the term. To put this in a negative
sense, apart from meaning ‘non-forgetting’ (the direct counterpart of the positive term
‘recollection’, Sati also refers to ‘non-carelessness,’ ‘non-distraction’, and ‘non-fuzziness’.
These negatively expressed meanings of Sati point to the positive qualities of carefulness,
circumspection, and clarity about one’s duties and the condition of being constantly prepared
to deal with situations and respond appropriately.

Especially when speaking of ethical conduct, the functioning of Sati is often

compared to that of a gatekeeper whose job is to keep his eyes on the people passing in and

81
Phra Brahmaguœābharaœa (P.A. Payutto), Buddhadhamma, Op.Cit., pp. 255.
82
DhA.4 (Verse 21) says that; “AppamÅdo’ti satiyÅ avippavÅso”, AppamÅda or living with mindfulness.
83
Rhys Davids, T. W. and William Stede (Edited), PÅli-English Dictionary, London: The PÅli Text Society
Oxford Press,1998, p. 57.
84
Phra Brahmaguœābharaœa (P.A. Payutto), Buddhadhamma, Op.Cit., pp. 255-259.
 33

out restricting entry and exit to only the proper people. Thus, Sati is of major importance to
ethics. It oversees the performance of our duties, and it guards and restrains us; this is
accomplished by preventing us from taking foolish pleasure in the bad and preventing evil
from sneaking into the mind. Simply put, Sati reminds us to open the door to the good and
close it to the bad.

Appamāda involves continual attention to and appreciation of one’s duties, non-

negligence, and the performance of daily tasks with sincerity and unflagging efforts aimed at
improvement. In other words, Appamāda constitutes Buddhist responsibility.

In terms of importance, Appamāda is classified as an internal factor, as, one will

recall, is Yonisomanasikāra (critical reflection), which is linked with its external counterpart,
Kalyāœamittatā (association with good and noble friends).

The Buddha’s description of the significance of Appamāda occasionally overlaps

with descriptions of Yonisomanasikāra - and these two supporting factors are of equal
importance, although they differ in application. Yonisomanasikāra is a member of the Paññā
section of the path; it is a tool to be used. Appamāda, on the other hand, is a member of the
Samādhi section; it governs the use of the tool of Yonisomanasikāra and serves as a motivate
in force to further progress.

Further, in AppamÅdavagga, the Buddha says: “mindfulness is the path to the

deathless, carelessness is the path to death the mindful are free from death the careless
though still living, are as if already dead.” 85

Furthermore, MaraœasaññÅ or Maraœassati (the conception of death) as dealt with in

an exposition of this practice found in the AÙguttara NikÅya:

When day has passed and night has commenced, a Bhikkhu reflects thus:
“Many things can cause my death. A snake or a scorpion or a centipede may bite
me. I may die from it. That would be a hindrance to me. I may stumble and fall;
the food I have eaten may harm me;... I may die from it. That would be a

85
“AppamÅdo amataµ padaµ, pamÅdo maccuno padaµ,
AppamattÅ na m≠yanti, ye pamattÅ yathÅ matÅ’ti.” (Dh. Verse no. 21.; Also vide in Ajahn
Mitsuo Gavesako. Ānāpānasati (The Path to Peace). Book 1, Copied by Donation, 2552 B.E. p.46.
34

hindrance to me.”, The Bhikkhu should reflect thus: “Are there any evil
unwholesome states in me that have not been abandoned and would be a
hindrance to me if I die tonight?” If the Bhikkhu on reflection realizes that there
are these states, he should arouse extraordinary desire...and exercise mindfulness
and full awareness in order to abandon these states.86

This mindfulness of death serves as a means to motivate introspective awareness and

protective awareness for Appamāda.

Again, even few minutes before the passing away of the Buddha, he had given the
last words as below: “Bhikkhus, we remind you that all conditioned factors must inevitable
pass away. May you all fully practice heedfulness and mindfulness.” 87 The 84,000 teachings
of the Buddha can be summarized in the word ‘AppamÅda or mindfulness’. So, SatipaÊÊhÅna
as AppamÅda is the heart of the teaching of the Buddhas. It is a powerful Dhamma needed in
all situations that leads to cessation of problems. So it is essential to know the position and
significance of SatipaÊÊhÅna in Buddhadhammas.

2.3.3 SatipaÊÊhÅna as the only way to NibbÅna

EkÅyano ayaµ, bhikkhave, maggo (Bhikkhus, this is the only way):88 Now, a
question arises as to; “why did the Buddha call this type of practice or SatipaÊÊhÅna as one
and the only or main way?” The Buddha has called this practice as the principal way, not
because of a single reason but on the basis of several reasons which may be presented as
mentioned below:

86
A.22/291/343, (STP); (Idha pana bhikkhave bhikkhu rattiyā nikkhantāya divase paÊihite iti paÊisañcikkhati
bahukā kho me paccayā maraœassa ahi vā maµ Øaµseyya vicchiko vā maµ Øaµseyya satapad≠ vā maµ Øaµseyya tena me
assa kālakiriyā so mamassa antarāyo upakkhalitvā vā papateyyaµ bhattaµ vā me bhuttaµ byāpajjeyya pittaµ vā me
kappeyya semhaµ vā me kuppeyya satthakā vā me vātā kuppeyyuµ tena me assa kālakiriyā so mamassa antarāyo’ti tena
bhikkhave bhikkhunā iti paÊisañcikkhitabbaµ atthi nu kho me pāpakā akusalā dhammā appah≠nā ye me assu divā kālaµ
karontassa antarāyāyā’ti sace pana bhikkhave bhikkhu paccavekkhamāno evaµ jānāti atthi me pāpakā akusalā dhammā
appah≠nā ye me assu divā kālaµ karontassa antarāyā’ti tena bhikkhave bhikkhunā tesaµ yeva pāpakānaµ akusalānaµ
dhammānaµ pahānāya adhimatto chando ca vāyāmo ca ussāho ca usso¿h≠ ca appaÊivān≠ ca sati ca sampajaññañca
karaœ≠yaµ.).
87
“HandadÅni bhikkhave ÅmantyÅmi vo khayavaya DhammÅ saÙkhÅrÅ appamÅdena sampÅdethÅ’ti” (D.II.156;
DB.II.173 (PTS); Ajahn Mitsuo Gavesako, Ānāpānasati, Op.Cit., p.47.
88
D.II. 322.
 35

It is clear from the utterance of the Buddha, that in the course of describing
SatipaÊÊhÅna, he uses two terms “Äyana” and “Maggo”. These two terms are synonymous.
The term “Magga” has been used in the sense of “Äyana” to emphasize the meaning that; “A
single way (going or road), way. And further “Ekāyana” means it goes to the One (Ekaµ
ayat≠’ti Ekāyano). There are no two ways; there is only one way (EkÅyanamaggo Ayaµ,
Bhikkhave, maggo; na ØvedhÅ Pathabhâto).” 89 As the only way, the Buddha used the first
term, i.e. AÊÊhaÙgika-magga for the first time in first sermon called Dhamma-
cakkappavattana Sutta at SÅranath on the full Moon-day of ÄsÅ¿ha. 90

In the Dhammapada, the Buddha is rather, more explicit about the Way. There He
says, “Eseva Maggo Natthañño”91 this is the only way and there is no other way to reach
NibbÅna. SatipaÊÊhÅna is the only way that leads to the destruction of mental defilement.
This is a solution for all of arguments connecting with EkÅyana.

Therefore, “EkÅyanamaggo” is a way that has to be taken by oneself alone: having

given up association with the crowd, one should live secluded and detached. A twofold
seclusion is meant here: bodily seclusion, that is living without a companion, away from the
crowd; and inner seclusion, that is keeping free from craving which is called ‘man’s
companion’.

Further, SatipaÊÊhÅna is the only way because there is no other road that leads to
NibbÅna. Here one may object in asking: Is it only SatipaÊÊhÅna that is meant by the word
‘way’? Are there not several other factors that comprise the (eightfold) way such as right
understanding…right concentration,? – that is true. But all these other factors are comprised
in SatipaÊÊhÅna and cannot exist without it.92

89
DA.2, p.586.
90
Vin.MahÅvagga. p. 18.(STP).
91
Dh., verse No, 25. p 51. (STP).
92
The passages printed in italics are taken from the Sub-commentary to the SatipaÊÊhÅna Sutta; and also from
Nyanponika Thera, The Heart of Buddhist Meditation, Op.Cit., pp.191-92.
36

2.3.4 SatipaÊÊhÅna as the Clear Aim

The four SatipaÊÊhānas being the only way when practiced well, will lead to the
attainment of five factors: 1) to purify our mind, 2) to overcome sorrow and lamentation,
3) to overcome pain and grief, 4) to practice the Noble Path, and 5) to realize NibbÅna.93

1) SattÅnaµ visuddhiyÅ (To purify our mind): It means for the purification of minds
of all beings. Minds of all beings are tainted with or contaminated by different defilements.
Most of the time, our minds are not pure. There are attachments, craving, greed, hatred,
anger, ignorance, pride, envy or jealousy, and so forth. These attachments defile mind. The
technique of SatipaÊÊhāna helps to purify our mind. This is the only way for the purification
of minds of all beings. When we practice VipassanÅ meditation, we do not have greed,
hatred, delusion, pride or other defilements. All these things are absent from the mind during
meditation. When we reach the destination, mind gets absolutely free from mental
defilements.

As the Buddhist tradition says: “Beings are polluted because of the pollution of their
mind. They are purified because of the purification of their mind.”94 The polluted mind
brings suffering and purified mind brings happiness.95

The problem of pollution of mind and the purification of mind of beings can be
solved only by the practice of SatipaÊÊhÅna. In support of this statement, the Buddha cites the
examples of the previous Buddhas beginning from TaœhaÙkara, MedhaÙkara, SaranaÙkara,
D≠paÙkara...upto Gotama, the Buddha. All had followed this path and purified themselves.
The Paccekabuddhas and AriyasÅvakas practiced Mindfulness and got purification. There
are also a number of beings who got the complete purification by following this path (Ime
sattÅ sabbe cittamalaµ pavÅretvÅ paramavisuddhiµ pattÅ).96

93
Nyanaponika Thera, The Heart of Buddhist Meditation, Op. Cit., p 117.
94
S.17/100/119 (MTP).
95
Dh., Verse 1-2.
96
DA.2. p.590.(STP).
 37

Thus, it may be stated that the practice of this way i.e. SatipaÊÊhÅna is essential as it
helps one not only in elimination of pollutions but also in attaining the purification of mind
and the state of freedom.

To make it more clearly, here, it may be asked ‘How are the pollutions
accumulated?’ Answering to this, it may be stated that a man under the binding influence of
ignorance, performs the various types of immoral deeds. Whenever one’s immoral deeds are
performed, it leaves some impression or effect on his mind which is called “VipÅka”. This
VipÅka develops there as the layers of defilement. With the increase in the number of
immoral deeds, the layer of pollution also increases. 97

In this way, they develop as the layer of pollution of consciousness. Due to these
pollutions, the pure nature of consciousness disappears, and there remains a polluted
consciousness which becomes the source of all the types of suffering. When the pollutions
are removed by the practice of Mindfulness, the consciousness becomes purified, i.e. free of
all kinds of pollution.

Thus, mindfulness as a purified gem removes the pollution. It is in this sense,

SatipaÊÊhÅna is stated as the method of purification of beings. The purification of beings is
very difficult but for those who are putting into practice and following according to the
MahÅ SatipaÊÊhāna Sutta, will see the end result for certain.

2) SokaparidevÅnaµ samatikkamÅya (To overcome Sorrow and Lamentation):98 It

means sorrow and lamentation can be overcome by this meditation. When we practice
VipassanÅ meditation, we are required to be aware of everything that is happening to us, to
notice everything that comes to us at the present moment. When we are aware of everything,
when we observe everything during meditation, the defilements will disappear. When we
reach the final stage of Arahanta-hood, we will have overcome sorrow and lamentation
altogether. After we have reached such a stage, sorrow and lamentation will never come to

97
DA.2. p.590. (Râpena saÙkiliÊÊhena sankilissanti mÅnavÅ râpe suddhe visujjhanti anakkhÅtaµ mahesinÅ cittena
saÙkiliÊÊhena saÙkilissanti mÅnavÅ citte suddhe visujjhanti iti vuttaÚ mahesinÅ.).
98
The example in the Appendix A, as the Part 2: She has mindfulness to overcome Sorrow and Lamentation.
38

us again. There are many whose sorrow and lamentation have been overcome by the practice
of SatipaÊÊhÅna VipassanÅ meditation.

The purpose of practice of SatipaÊÊhÅna is indeed to overcoming of the sorrow and

lamentation (SokaparidevÅnaµ SamatikkamÅya). Sorrow and lamentation jointly refer to the
disagreeable feeling caused by disappointment in getting something or by disappearance or
loss of something which one is attached to. Due to them, mind is disturbed internally and
externally. Hence, to cast out sorrow and lamentation, the way of SatipaÊÊhÅna has been
prescribed by the Buddha.

3) Dukkhadomanassaµ AtthaÙgamÅya (To Overcome pain and grief):SatipaÊÊhÅna,

here, is defined as “DukkhadomanassÅnaÚ AtthaÙgamÅya” which means “for the destruction
of suffering and grief” here, suffering (Dukkha) refers to physical pain while grief
(Domanassa) refers to mental pain. Both can be destroyed by the practice of Mindfulness.

In practice way, physical pain and mental pain can be overcome by VipassanÅ
meditation. Initially, when we have sat for some time, we feel pain in the body’ but when we
persevere in watching pain or taking note of pain, and our concentration becomes powerful,
then the pain will go away and we will have overcome pain. We can also overcome it
through the practice of VipassanÅ meditation. When we have reached the highest stage, you
will have overcome pain and grief once and for all.

4) ÑÅyassa AdhigamÅya (To Reach the Right Path): The Right Path here means a
type of consciousness that appears at the moment of realization. When a meditator realizes
the truth, i.e. NibbÅna, there arises in him a type of consciousness called “path consciousness
or Magga Citta.” It is called “path consciousness” because when one has reached this stage
of consciousness, one can be certain to reach NibbÅna on this path. It will surely lead one
there.

There are four stages of realization and so there are four types of path-consciousness.
Each path consciousness eradicates some mental defilements completely so when one
reaches the fourth path-consciousness, all of them are altogether eradicated. The defilements
eradicated by path-consciousness will not return to the practitioner. For reaching the Noble
 39

Path, for attaining this type of consciousness that can eradicate the mental defilement
altogether, SatipaÊÊhÅna is the only way.

5) NibbÅnassa sacchikiriyÅya (To the Realization of Nibbāna): It means “for the

realization of NibbÅna”. What is NibbÅna? In DhammasaÙgaœ≠, it is said that: “Vimutti or
salvation is NibbÅna.” “Therefore, NibbÅna is the extinction of suffering. 99 Again, the end of
lust, hatred and illusion is also called NibbÅna.100 It is said in the commentary of
MahÅsatipaÊÊhÅna Sutta that the state where there is the total absence of craving like lust,
etc., is called NibbÅna. The word “Sacchikiriyā” means ‘realization’. The practice of
SatipaÊÊhÅna leads to the realization of NibbÅna which is the extinction of suffering.

Besides, the practice of mindfulness makes the five faculties and five powers perfect.
Then seven factors of enlightenment are developed to their fullness. When the seven factors
of enlightenment are fully practiced, then insight and salvation appear. A trained mind
becomes free from all defilements and pollutions. This is the realization of NibbÅna.

Therefore, SatipaÊÊhāna has several distinctive features, for instance: it is anytime as

Dhamma to be our own refuge or island. 101 It is as continuance of the Teaching, because
when it is cultivated and practiced regularly, then the Good Law will continue for long even
after the decease of the Buddha.102 It is as Dhamma to practice for all whether those who are
new or not long gone forth, have just come in Dhamma-vinaya103tradition in childhood,
youth and old age. They have to practice the same way called ‘SatipaÊÊhāna’. It is like the
gift of friendship,104 as when we give special gift to one another, we should be encouraged,
introduced to and established in the SatipaÊÊhāna.

99
Vin. 4/14/14 (MTP); Dukkhanirodho ariyasaccaµ; yo tassa yeva taœhÅya asesavirÅganirodho cÅgo
paÊinissaggo mutti anÅlayo.
100
Itivuttaka, NibbÅnadhÅtu Sutta, 25/46/267-8 (MTP); Tassa yo rÅgakkhayo dosakkhayo mohakkhayo ayaµ
vuccati, bhikkhave, saupÅdisesanibbÅnadhÅtu.
101
Nyanponika Thera, The Heart of Buddhist Meditation. Op.Cit., p.140.
102
Ibid, p.141.
103
Ibid, p.143.
104
Ibid, p.150.
40

2.4 Essence of SatipaÊÊhÅna practice

In essence, the teaching of SatipaÊÊhāna informs us that our lives have just four areas
which require the watchful eye and governance of Sati, namely, 1) body and its behavior, 2)
various feelings of pleasure and pain, 3) different states of mind, and 4) Dhammas,
Conducting one’s life with Sati guarding over these four points will help to ensure freedom
from danger and suffering and a life of clarity and well-being, culminating in the realization
of the ultimate truth. These four factors have in turn three main characteristics as follows:

“Bhikkhus, a Bhikkhu in Dhamma-Vinaya exists contemplating the body in

the body…the feeling in the feelings,…the consciousness in the consciousness,…
the Dhammas in the Dhammas with effort (ÄtÅp≠), clear comprehension
(SampajÅno), and mindful (SatimÅ), finally there is result of being free from greed
and grief related to the world (Vineyya loke abhijjhÅ-domanassaµ).”105

In fact, three words are the main points or the heart of SatipaÊÊhÅna as they assist
into freeing us from greed and grief related to the world finally. Three concepts
singled out by name in the definition of Sammāsati is: 1. Ātāpī,106
2. Sampajāno,107 3. Satimā (mindfulness exists). However the three words are always co-
related as harmony of Dhamma in the practice-way.

2.4.1 The Definition of ĀtÅp≠ (effort)

The term “Ätāp≠” literally means Tapas, “burning”. A practitioner who is working
very ardently, very diligently, burns off the mental impurities. This is called “Ätāp≠ ”.

2.4.1.1 Effort as Method of Development of Mind

SammÅvÅyÅma (Right Effort) is the six factor of the Noble Eightfold Path. An
attempt has been made in the previous pages to briefly introduce the method of getting rid of
pollution. In this process, one should know that there are some other ways also stated by the

105
D.II.313.
106
Effort exists (this refers to Sammāvāyāma, or proper effort, the sixth factor of the Noble Eight-fold Path,
which entails guarding against and abandoning what is evil and creating and maintaining what is good).
107
Clear comprehension exists (this refers to the wisdom-faculty).
 41

Buddha. The first in this direction appears to be the SammÅvÅyÅma or Right Effort. It is the
mental effort of destroying immoral states and allowing the moral states to develop. There
are four kinds:108

1. Saµvara-padhÅna (effort to prevent or avoid): In this context, it does not allow

immoral states to come which have not come. Immoral states appear as Äsava (canker),
Yoga (bond), Gantha (binding), N≠varaœa (hindrance), Kilesa (defilements), UpÅdÅna
(clinging) etc., Before their arising, they remain dormant. If they are not allowed to appear,
they remain dormant and gradually disappear. They are gradually made weaker and thereby
reduced to nothing. Therefore the effort as suggested does not allow the immoral states to
come to existence, which have not appeared so far.

2. PahÅna-padhÅna (effort to abandon or overcome): In this context, it is to destroy

immoral states which have arisen and not allow them to functioning on the surface of mind.
When they appear, they start functioning. They first of all, make the mind polluted. When
mind becomes polluted, it affects the physical, verbal and mental activities. In this way, all
the threefold activities; physical, verbal and mental become polluted. Therefore, it has been
advised by the Buddha to make right efforts for destroying them and not allowing at all
functioning on the surface of mind. This is as PahÅna-padhÅna.

3. BhÅvanÅ-padhÅna (effort to develop): In this context, it is to allow moral states to

come into existence which have not so far come. There are a number of moral states stated
under Bodhipakkhiyadhammas which are helpful in developing purification of mind and
thereby making the three activities (physical, verbal and mental) pure. Such states are the
natural gifts. Everyone in the foundation has these moral states. There may be situation
where they remain dormant. Therefore it has been advised to make right effort to give life to
this state to come into existence.

4. AnurakkhanÅ-padhÅna (effort to maintain): It is to help the moral states which

have come on the surface of mind to start functioning, progressing well and fully developed.
With these fourfold efforts, immoral states are reduced, made functionless as well as moral
states arise, start functioning and also make activities saturated with wisdom. This is the only

108
D. PÅÊikavagga). III, P. 221. (STP),; A.II.74. (PTS).
42

method of destroying immoral states and allowing moral states to function and thereby make
the mind full of spiritual harmony.

By developing these fourfold efforts, one becomes able to minimize polluting forces
and develop moral ones. This helps in the practice of mindfulness for smooth righteous way-
training, for purification and attainment of a state of eternal Bliss. So, it is needed to develop
power-mind for this ultimate purpose.

2.4.1.2 Effort as Method of Clearing of Mind-Pollution

In this context, the focus is on from the effort to overcome (PahÅna-padhÅna) and
this is the second factor of effort. We find five factors of PahÅna or elimination in scriptural
texts. They are: 1) TadaÙga-pahÅna, 2) Vikhambhana-pahÅna, 3) Samuccheda-pahÅna, 4)
PaÊipassaddhi-pahÅna, and 5) Nissaraœa-pahÅna. 109

1) TataÙgapahÅna is the process of elimination and destroying different organs of

polluting factors existing not in isolation but with various types of organs. In the first case, it
helps in elimination of the fetters.

2) VikkhambhanapahÅna means the sacking of pollution off in this process and

making them weak. As a tree rooted deeply in the ground, is not taken out easily but the
parts and roots are taken through the exercise of a PahÅna only. In the same way, the
functioning pollutions are shaken and made weak.

3) SamucchedapahÅna: It means the elimination of defiling process from roots.

These are eliminated by destroying various organs of pollution.

4) PaÊipassaddhipahÅna: It means calming down the process of polluting factors. It

means the pollution-processes are seen at work with powerful existing ways. They are
crushed and situation is created so that they do not function forcefully. They become
subdued and calmed down.

109
Vism .p.410 (MBU).
 43

5) NissaraœapahÅna: Nissaraœa means coming out from the threshold of polluting-

process thus, it is clear that these the five forms of elimination of the polluting forces are
quite effective in cleaning mind from defilements and taking it to the heights of purification.

2.4.2 The Definition of Sampajañña (clear comprehension)

Here, understanding the second concept, Sampajāno rendered as Sampajañña (clear

comprehension), is noteworthy. Sampajāñña is a concept that usually appears coupled with
Sati. Sampajañña is the wisdom-faculty (Paññā). One explanation of it has been given as the
observation with PaññÅ of the arising, staying and passing away of three things: VedanÅ
(feeling), SaññÅ (perception), and Vitakka (the sense object)
for instance a sound at the ear
sense door,110that three Dhammas will stay with Vedanā, that there is knowing to the arising
and passing away of Vedanā. This is predominant in Sampajañña. Further, Sampajañña is
VipassanÅ (insight meditation). It is mindful contemplating to Ti-lakkhaœa (three
characteristics of existence)111of Nāma-râpa (mind and body) or all phenomena as they
really are.

So, here the concept of Sampajañña may be discussed as it is a very important

Dhamma. According to the AÊÊhakathÅs (Commentaries), Commentators have identified
four kinds of ‘Sampajañña:112 (a) the SÅtthaka-sampajañña, (b) the SappÅya-sampajañña,
(c) Gocara-sampajañña, (d) the Asammoha-sampajañña. They may be discussed as follows:

a. SÅtthaka-sampajañña (Clear Comprehension of Purpose)

The first kind of clear comprehension enjoins that, before acting, one should always
question oneself whether the intended activity is really in accordance with one’s purpose,
aims or ideals.

110
S.N. Goenka, Discourses on SatipaÊÊhāna Sutta, Op.Cit., p.36.
111
Ti-lakkhaœa: all formations are ‘transient’ (Anicca); all formations are ‘subject’ to suffering’ (Dukkha); all
things are ‘without a self’ (Anatta)
112
DA.I.183.
44

b. SappÅya-sampajañña (Clear Comprehension of Suitability)

The second kind of clear comprehension teaches the Art of practicable, adaptation to
the conditions of time, place and individual character. Clear comprehension of suitability
teaches the ‘skillfulness in choice of right means’ (UpÅya-kosalla), a quality which the
Buddha possessed in the highest degree and which he so admirably applied to the instruction
and guidance of men.

c. Gocara-sampajañña (Clear Comprehension of Domain of Meditation)

The clear comprehension of the Domain of meditation is explained by the earlier

commentators as ‘not abandoning the subject of meditation’ during one’s daily routine. It
was with reference to this all-comprehensive domain of the SatipaÊÊhÅna method, that once
the Master spoke as follows: ‘Which, O monks, is the monk’s domain (Gocara) his very
own paternal place? It is just these four foundations of mindfulness’.

d. Asammoha-sampajañña (Clear Comprehension of Reality)

The clear Comprehension of reality removes, through the clear light of an unclouded
comprehension of actuality, the deepest and the most obstinate delusion in man: his belief in
a self, a soul, or an eternal substance of any description. This delusion, with its offspring of
craving and hatred, is the true motivating power of that revolving wheel of Life and
suffering to which, like an instrument of torture, beings are bound, and on which they are
broken again and again. 113

Therefore, the first two divisions of clear comprehension apply also to the purely
practical purposes of ordinary life, though conformity to the religious ideal (Dhamma) is
insisted upon with regard to that practical application too. Now we enter the proper domain
of the Dhamma as a life-transforming force.

By the third kind of clear comprehension the characteristic methods of mind-

development used in the Dhamma are incorporated in everyday life itself; and by the fourth

113
Nyanaponika Thera, The Heart of Buddhist Meditation., Op.Cit, p.46-55.
 45

kind ‘reality’ the same is done with the fundamental tenet of the Dhamma, i.e. the teaching
of impersonality, or absolute fluidity of the ‘individual’.114

In this context, it is the main point or the heart of SatipaÊÊhÅna that will be stated
thus: “This is, briefly, the statement of mindfulness-meditation. Meditators are
contemplating the body, feelings, consciousness, and Dhammas, free from greed and grief
related to the world.”

2.4.3 The Definition of Sati (mindfulness)

Sati (Skt.-SmŸti) means mindfulness or awareness. However, in the context of

philosophy, religion and spiritual life, it is used in the sense of mental awareness or
mindfulness. In the Buddhist philosophy particularly, Sati reflects a combined concept of
memory as well as that of mindfulness. It has been explained with the help of a simile as a
forepart of a ploughshare which ploughs and digs the land taking out all the harmful insects
hiding underground and making the soil soft and proper for planting. Therefore, the Buddha
calls it as his ploughshare and goad-‘Sati me phālapācanaµ.’115

For clear understanding of the meaning of mindfulness, Upatissa MahÅthera had

replied to the good question116 “what are the characteristics,117 function, manifest and
proximate cause of mindfulness?” “Recalling or remembrance is characteristic of
mindfulness, fight against forgetfulness is function, protection is manifest, and foundation of
mindfulness is the proximate cause of it.”

Further, the quality of Sati is brought out clearly in the conversation held between
King Milinda and Venerable NÅgasena. The latter explains two characteristics of Sati:

114
Ibid, p.49.
115
Dh.II. 341.
116
They are: “ApilÅpanalakkhaœÅ, AsammosanarasÅ, ArakkhapaccupaÊÊhÅnÅ, StipaÊÊhÅnapadaÊÊhÅnÅ”:
Phradhammaghosajahn (Prayoon Dhammacitto) (Editor), Vimuttimagga of Arahant Upatissa, (Thai Edition), Bangkok:
MCU. Press, 2538 B.E., pp.47,103-04,08.
117
The 17 Characteristics of Sati: Abhijābati Sati, kuÊumbikāya Sati, o¿ārikaviññāœto sati, hitaviññāœato sati,
ahitaviññāœato sati, sabhāganimittato sati, vibhāganimittato sati, kathābhiññāœato sati, lakkhaœato sati, saraœato sati,
muddhato sati, gaœanāto sati, dhāraœato sati, bhāvanāto sati, potthakanibandhanato sati, upanikkhepanato sati, and
anubhâtato sati, (Milindapakaraœa : Satiākārapañhā paÊhamo, pp.70-71.)
46

At that time, the king said: “What, NÅgasena, is the characteristic mark
of mindfulness?” “Repetition, O king, and keeping up.” “And how is repetition
the mark of mindfulness?” “As mindfulness, O king, springs up in his heart, he
repeats over the good and evil, right and wrong, slight and important, dark and
light qualities, and those that resemble them, saying to himself: “These are the
four modes of keeping oneself ready and mindful, these the four modes of
spiritual effort, these the four bases of extraordinary powers, these the five
organs of the moral sense, these the five mental powers, these the seven bases of
Arahant-ship, these the eight divisions of the Excellent Way, this is serenity and
this insight, this is wisdom and this emancipation. Thus does the recluse follow
after those qualities that are desirable, and not after those that are not; thus does
he cultivate those which ought to be practiced, and not those which ought not.
That is how repetition is the mark of mindfulness.”

“Give me an illustration.” “It is like the treasurer of the imperial

sovereign, who reminds his royal master early in the morning and late in the
evening saying: ‘So many are thy war elephants, O king, and so many thy
cavalry, thy war chariots and thy bowmen, so much the quantity of thy money,
and gold, and wealth, may your Majesty keep yourself in mind thereof.”

“And how, Sir is keeping up a mark of mindfulness?” “As mindfulness

springs up in his heart, O king, he searches out the categories of good qualities
and their opposites, saying to himself: ‘Such and such qualities are good, and
such bad; such and such qualities helpful, and such the reverse.’ Thus does the
recluse make what is evil in himself to disappear, and keeps up what is good.
That is how keeping up is the mark of mindfulness.”

“Give me an illustration.” “It is like the confidential adviser of that

imperial sovereign, who suggests him in good and evil, saying: ‘These things are
 47

bad for the king and these good, these helpful and these reverse,’ and thus the
king makes the evil in himself die out, and keeps up the good.”118

Further, Venerable H. Guœaratane has brought out several characteristics of Sati or

mindfulness that:119 Mindfulness as mirroring thought to reflect only what is presently
happening. Mindfulness as an impartial watchfulness sees all experiences as equal, all
thoughts as equal, and all feelings as equal, nothing is suppressed, nothing is repressed, and
mindfulness does not play favorites. Mindfulness as non-conceptual awareness focuses in
the present or here and now. Mindfulness as non-egotistic alertness is without the concept
like ‘me,’ ‘my’ or ‘mine.’ Mindfulness as awareness of change observes the flow of things
that are changing by state of Ti-lakkhaœa.

However, summarily the words whether characteristic, function, manifest and

proximate cause, can be a concord or synonymic of one another by itself.

2.4.4 Accompaniment of Sati and Sampajañña

Mindfulness and clear comprehension, because these two qualities serve to remove
hindrances and to foster meditative development, are to be considered as helpers, and that
too, at all time, for all types of meditators, and in the practice of all subjects of meditation.

The functions of mindfulness and clear comprehension are of equal importance.

There is no mental process concerned with knowing and understanding which is without
mindfulness. Negligence is, in brief, absence of mindfulness. Mindfulness is that unremitting
heedfulness that brings about perseverance in any activity. Developed sense-faculties are
called those which, under the impact of habitual work at mind-development, have become
impregnated with the fragrance of mindfulness and clear comprehension.120

Again, training in mindfulness is part of the process of wisdom development.

Sampajañña or Paññā, is the clear and penetrating understanding of the object of

118
Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University, Milindapañhappakaraœaµ, Bangkok : ViññÅœa Press, 2540
B.E., pp. 38-39; The Questions of King Milinda, translated by T. W. Rhys Davids Part I of II , “The Sacred Books of the
East” ,1890. pp. 58-60;
119
Venerable H.Guœaratane: Mindfulness in Plain English, Press, 2002. pp. 144-47.
120
Nyanaponika Thera, The Heart of Buddhist Meditation, Op.Cit., p.194.
48

mindfulness; or it is establishing the purpose of a mind-object, its nature, and knowing how
to deal with it in a way that is free of delusion and misunderstanding. 121

‘Sati and Sampajañña’ are highly significant in this practice. The former refers to
awareness and the latter is indicative of the fact of perfect understanding of the situation. It
means that one is mindful and aware in the state of knowing the same. At every movement
and with respect to all activities, the practitioner is always conscious and he is also aware of
the fact that he is conscious. This understanding of situation is technically known as
Sampajañña. The Buddha, as a practical thinker, has made an effort to throw light on its
method of practice. MahÅsatipaÊÊhÅna Sutta makes the notion that:

“And again, Bhikkhus, in going forward and in going back, a Bhikkhu

applies clear comprehension; in looking straight ahead and in looking away from
the front,…in bending and in stretching (his limbs),…in wearing the inner and
outer robes and in carrying the alms bowl,…in eating, drinking, chewing and
savoring,…in answering the calls of nature,…in walking, standing, sitting,
falling asleep, waking, speaking and in keeping silent, he applies clear
comprehension. …”

Such awareness and understanding at every state or activity. The meaning is that
continuity is required. This is called Sati and Sampajañña.

2.4.5 Keeping free from AbhijjhÅ (Covetousness) and Domanassaµ (Grief)

In this context, the statement like “Vineyya loke abhijjhÅ-domanassaµ” stands for
keeping away of covetousness and grief towards the Loka (mind-matter phenomena) either in
overcoming a bad quality by its opposite good quality (TadaÙga-pahÅna) or by temporary
suppression (Vikkhambhana-pahÅna) during JhÅna.

Here the term covetousness is meant to include sense-desire (KÅma-chanda), and the
term grief comprises ill-will (ByÅpÅda). Therefore this statement of the Discourse refers to
the abandonment of the five hindrances (N≠varaœa), by naming the two strongest of them. In
particular, this passage intends to convey the following:

121
Phra Brahmaguœābharaœa (P. A. Payutto), Buddhadhamma’., Op.Cit., p 265.
 49

Keeping away of covetousness means giving up satisfaction caused by bodily

gratification; giving up delight in the body; ceasing to be carried away by the illusory beauty
and the illusory bliss of body.

Keeping away of grief means giving up dissatisfaction caused by bodily misfortune;

giving up discontent with the (continued) contemplation on body; ceasing to recoil from the
actual impurity and misery of body. Hereby the Yog≠’s yogic power and yogic skill are
shown. For just this is yogic power: to become free of satisfactions and dissatisfactions; to
master one’s likes and dislikes; to cease alike from being carried away by the unreal and
from recoiling from the real, and to accomplish all this, is the real yogic skill. 122

2.5 The Position of SatipaÊÊhÅna

The terms like Sati (mindfulness), SatipaÊÊhāna, Sammāsati etc., occur in the
Buddhist scriptures in many contexts and are members of several groups of doctrinal terms,
of which only the most important ones shall be mentioned here.

SammÅsati (Right Mindfulness) is the seventh factor of the “Noble Eightfold Path123
leading to the extinction of suffering” that constitutes the fourth of the Four Noble Truths. In
a threefold division of that eightfold path-into Virtue, concentration and wisdom-right
mindfulness belongs to the second group, concentration (SamÅdhi), together with right effort
and right concentration.

Mindfulness is the first of the seven factors of Enlightenment (BojjhaÙga).124 It is the

first among them, not only in the order of enumeration, but because it is base for the full
development of the other six qualities, and in particular, it is indispensable for the second
factor the “investigation of (physical and mental) phenomena” (Dhamma-Vicaya-
SambojjhaÙga). Direct experiential insight into reality can be accomplished only with the
help of the enlightenment factor mindfulness (Sati-SambojjhaÙga).

Mindfulness is one of the five faculties (Balas): the other four are: confidence,
energy, mindfulness, concentration and wisdom. Mindfulness, apart from being a basic

122
Nyanaponika Thera, The Heart of Buddhist Meditation., Op. Cit., p.193.
123
D.II .312.
124
D.III. 251.
50

faculty in its own right, has the important function of watching over the even development
and ablation to wisdom (reason) and of energy in relation to concentration (or inner calm). 125

In these contexts, the function of mindfulness covers both present moment awareness
and memory126 and appears among these Dhammas as follows:

2.6 SatipaÊÊhÅna as Spiritual Power

Mindfulness is one of the five faculties in the scheme of mind-development, whether

its suffering or happiness, purity is the product of mind. So, it is with utmost confidence that
it is our own mind that should be established in all the Roots of the Good; it is our own mind
that should be soaked in the train of truth; it is our own mind that should be purified from all
obstructive qualities; it is our own mind that should be made vigorous by energy. 127

In this context it may be stated that mind has many powers, but here it means the
128
five spiritual powers of mind (Pañcabala): SaddhÅ (confidence), Viriya (energy or
effort), Sati (Mindfulness), SamÅdhi (concentration), and PaññÅ (wisdom or
understanding). Therefore, the significance and balance of the five powers should be
maintained and developed. They counted in part of wholesome Dhamma are controlling
faculty which means that there is power in own duty by itself, it can avoid unfaith,
slothfulness, heedlessness, confusedness and illusion or mistake.

Sarah Doering has brought out interesting experience of the significance of these
five spiritual powers that the five qualities of heart and mind which are known as the “five
spiritual powers.” They’ve been called “five priceless jewels,” because when they’re well
developed, mind resists dominance by the dark forces of greed, hated and delusion. When
mind is no longer bound by those energies, understanding and love develops to no limits.

These five powers are also called the “controlling faculties.” When they’re strong
and balanced, they control the mind, and generate the power which leads to liberation. The

125
Nyanaponika Thera, The heart of Buddhist Meditation, Op. Cit., p. 29.
126
Anālayo, SatipaÊÊhÅna: The Direct Path to Realization. Op.Cit., p.49.
127
Nyanaponika Thera, The heart of Buddhist Meditation, Op. Cit., p. 22.
128
D.III.239; A.III.10.
 51

five are faith, effort, mindfulness, concentration and wisdom. They’re all necessary. They
all work together and interweave very closely.

Faith means trust and confidence in the Dharma here that inspires an outpouring of
energy. When energy is strong, the effort to be made and attention to be paid get easy.
Mindfulness prospers and becomes more and more continuous. Stronger the continuity of
mindfulness, more focused and steady is mind. Concentration grows. As concentration
deepens, in the stillness of an attentive mind, wisdom emerges. This is the wisdom of
emptiness, the only expression of which is love.129

Further, equilibrium of the five ethical faculties: faith, energy, mindfulness,

concentration and wisdom have to be maintained. When one of them is predominant others
are not able to perform their functions properly. For instance, when faith becomes
predominant other faculties become weak in nature. This is generally true of other faculties
also. Especially the balance between faith and wisdom on the one hand, and energy and
concentration on the other has to be maintained”. 130

For mindfulness, Buddhaghosa has stated that strong mindfulness is needed in all
instances; for mindfulness protects mind from lapsing into agitation through faith, energy
and understanding, which favor agitation, and from lapsing into idleness through
concentration, which favors idleness. Hence it is mentioned (in the commentaries), ‘And
mindfulness has been called universal by the Blessed One. For what reason? Because mind
has mindfulness as its refuge and mindfulness is manifested as protection, and there is no
exertion and restraint of mind without mindfulness.131

Further a balance of emotion and intellect must be maintained in the proper ratio;
otherwise the whole personality gets diseased. It is just like moving with only one leg. We
may keep on using it, but get nowhere; and simply tire ourselves. The other leg must be used
in balance. Emotion and intellect are like two wings: when we use only one wing the

129
http://www.urbandharma.org/udharma7/5powers.html (Accessed on July 27,2012).
130
U. Dhammaratana, Guide through Visuddhimagga, Saranath, Varanasi: MahÅ Bodhi Society Press, 1994.
pp.51-52.
131
Vism. IV. p.135 (BPS).
52

outcome will be frustration. Then the bliss that comes from using both wings
simultaneously, in balance and harmony, is never attained. 132

2.7 The Typology of SatipaÊÊhÅna

Now, the important question is why did the Buddha teach just four SatipaÊÊhÅnas,
neither more nor less? He did so for the benefit of different types of character among those
susceptible to instruction. For a character bent on Craving (TaœhÅ-carita), if he is of slow
intelligence, the suitable way of purification is the SatipaÊÊhÅna concerned with the
contemplation of body, which is coarse and distinct; for a craving-type of keen intelligence,
it is the subtle contemplation of feeling. 133

For a character bent on theorizing (DiÊÊhi-carita), if he is of slow intelligence, the

suitable way of purification is the SatipaÊÊhÅna concerned with the not too diversified
contemplation of the state of mind; for a theorizing type of keen intelligence, it is the greatly
diversified contemplation of mental objects.

Body and feelings are the chief inducements to enjoyment (which stands foremost for
one of the craving type). For overcoming (his particular propensity) it is easier for the
craving type of slow intelligence to see impurity in the coarser of those two bases of craving
that is in the body. For the craving type of keen intelligence, it is easier to see suffering in
the subtle object of feeling. Similarly, the state of mind (Citta) and mind contents (DhammÅ)
are the chief inducements to theorize since they may become the basis for a tenacious belief
in permanence and selfhood.

For giving up belief in permanency, it is easier for the theorizing type of slow
intelligence to see the impermanence of consciousness (Citta) in its not too diversified
classification as ‘mind with lust’, etc. For giving up the belief in selfhood it is easier for the
theorizing type of keen intelligence to see the absence of selfhood (AnattÅ) in the mental
concomitants (Cetasika) with their greatly detailed classification as perception, sense
impression, etc.

132
Osho, The Great Challenge Exploring the World within, New Delhi: Printed and bound at Thomson Press
(India) Ltd. 2007, pp.83-84.
133
DA.2. p. 600. (STP).
 53

Interestingly mind and mind contents can as well, be bases for craving (and not only
for theorizing); while body and feelings may also be bases for theorizing (and not only for
craving). However, for indicating which of the four are stronger conditions for craving and
theorizing respectively, the above differentiation has been made and the word ‘chief
(inducement)’, has been added to qualify these statements.134 Coming to this stage,
it is desirable to say some thing about the four SatipaÊÊhÅna: “KÅyÅnupassanÅ,
VedanÅnupassanÅ, CittÅnupassanÅ and DhammÅnupassanÅ” in the next Chapter.

2.8 Summary

The MahÅ SatipaÊÊhÅna Sutta was preached by the Buddha in Kuru country that was
a well nourished and flourishing country. It is because of this, that people have acquired a
matured power of wisdom and were capable of receiving profound teachings named
“SatipatthÅna. It is not only the people who practiced SatipaÊÊhÅna, but also the animals
there practiced the SatipaÊÊhÅna.135 And this constitutes the only way to NibbÅna. While
practicing KÅyÅnupassanÅ, VedanÅnupassanÅ, CittÅnupassanaÅ or DhammÅnupassanā, it
has to be accompanied by the harmony of three Dhammas: 1) Ātāpī = effort exists, 2)
Sampajāno = clear comprehension exists, 3). Sati = mindfulness. Only then can a person be
free from greed and grief related to the world, which, is the main purpose here. Sati is
always important in every situation and will lead us to reach the ultimate goal. As evidenced
in the Buddha’s saying that ‘Sati ca pana Sabbatthikā,’ (DA.2. p. 656). Sati not only
restrains the mind from committing immoral but also supports and sustains it, depending on
the situations.
……………………………………..

134
Nyanaponika Thera, The Heart of Buddhist Meditation, Op. Cit., pp. 192-93.
135
May be there is doubt how will the parrot practice SatipaÊÊhÅna? Actually wise persons never hear
conversation of animals but they try to listen by bowing always, or, that it may be Bodhisattva-parrot.
54
 55

CHAPTER III:
CHARACTERISTICS AND FUNCTIONS OF SATIPAÂÂHÄNA PRACTICE

Characteristics and functions of the foundations of mindfulness are must to be

identified and analyzed as they provide technique of the SatipaÊÊhÅna-practice. Indeed, the
definition of characteristics and functions as meaning of SatipaÊÊhÅna have already been said
in the second chapter. Here, focus has been laid to technical feature of the functioning of
SatipaÊÊhÅna-practice. They are as follows:

1) KÅyÅnupassanÅ-satipaÊÊhÅna’ mindfulness which is firmly established

on physical phenomena; 2) VedanÅnupassanÅ-satipaÊÊhÅna, mindfulness which is
firmly established on sensations; 3) CittÅnupassanÅ-satipaÊÊhÅna, mindfulness
which is firmly established on thoughts or mental processes; 4) DhammÅnu-
passanÅ-satipaÊÊhÅna, mindfulness which is firmly established on phenomena. 136

All of them should be contemplated by ĀtÅp≠ (ardent effort), SampajÅno (clear

comprehension) and SatimÅ (mindful), after putting away worldly greed and grief.

3.1 Kāyānupassanā

The term ‘KÅyÅnupassanÅ’ may further be divided into three parts as KÅya-anu-
passanÅ. The term KÅya consists of four elements or MahÅbhâta, namely, earth, water, fire
and air. Of course, there is a ViññÅna or consciousness attached to it. The term, ‘Anu’ is a
prefix which means “mindfully, elaborately, and clearly and so on. Further the team
‘PassanÅ’ literally means seeing, looking, observing etc., or contemplation of the body on
the body. Technically speaking, it means contemplating, analyzing, realizing and visualizing
directly the nature of reality. It observes things in two ways, e.g; things as they appear and as
they really are. This act of observation is comparable to having a clear vision of things.

In the Dhammapada137 the body has been said to have been reduced to nothing but a
heap of bones surrounded by flesh and blood. It is this body that serves as the habitat of old

136
Mahāthera Ledi Sayādaw AggamahāpaœØita, The Manaul of Buddhism, Op.Cit., p. 307.
137
Dh. 25/150 (MTP): Atth≠naµ nagaraµ kataµ, maµsalohitalepanaµ, yattha jarÅ ca maccu ca, mÅno makkho
ca ohito.
56

age and death and evils like pride, deceit etc. So, the Buddha has pointed out that these
sense-organs are nothing but the door of receiving different types of object and excreting
dirty or filthy things. This is why the Buddha is very much clear in saying that if the internal
things are made external, one will have always to remain watchful to guard the body from
the attacks of the jackals and crows. Seeing thing as it really is, one should adopt the practice
of KÅyÅnupassanÅ.

Indeed, in the KÅyÅnupassanÅ there are six types of contemplation on the nature of
body, such as: 1) Änāpāna-pabba (The Part of Breathing); 2) Iriyāpatha-pabba (The Four
Postures); 3) Sampajañña-pabba (The Clear Comprehension); 4) PaÊikâla-manasikāra-
pabba (The Contemplation of Loathsomeness); 5) Dhātu-manasikāra-pabba (The Analysis
of Four Elements); 6) NavasīvathikÅ-pabba (The Meditation on Nine Cemeteries). And, all
of them there are the fourteen topics that are functions contemplating clearly as under:

3.1.1 ÄnÅpÅna (The Mindful Breathing )

The term ‘ÄnÅpÅna’ refers to the observation of breathing ‘In’ and ‘Out.’ ‘Pabba’
means the part or chapter. Breathing is a natural process and continues throughout life.
Whether we walk or stand, the process of ‘in-and-out breathing’ goes on at every moment of
our life. As mentioned earlier, mindfulness about anything is ‘Sati’. Thus, the ÄnÅpÅna is the
mindful breathing in and out.138

3.1.2 IriyÅpatha (The Four Postures)

Analyzing the term ‘IriyÅpatha’ literary means ‘movement’ - that is the path of
movement; it has been used here in a very technical sense and is restricted to the four types
of movement of the body. They are namely; walking; sitting standing, and lying down,
etc.139

138
Detail in the Chapter IV, as 4.3 Application of Änāpānassati as Samatha and VipassanÅ to be balance of life.
139
Detail in the Chapter IV, as 4.4.1 Preliminaries: Physical and Mental.
 57

3.1.3 Sampajañña (The Clear Comprehension)

In KÅyÅnupassanÅ after IriyÅpatha comes the turn of the Sampajañña. In this

context, a Sampajañña is essential Dhamma140 of SatipaÊÊhÅnabhÅvanÅ and
alwaysaccompanied with mindfulness. It is necessary in all situations or activities. 141

3.1.4 PaÊikâlamanasikÅra (Contemplation of Loathsomeness)

In mindful contemplation on PaÊikâlasaññÅ, it comes as the fourth stage. PaÊikâla

means “loathsomeness or repulsive.” ManasikÅra means ‘reflection’ or ‘contemplation.’
This is the development of attitude of mind towards the body. Man indeed remains ever
conscious of his body and thinks much about its beauty or youthfulness etc. on the contrary,
body, on a proper analysis, can be reduced to a heap of thirty two things as constitutive of
head-hairs, body-hairs,- nails, teeth, skin, etc.

In the mindful contemplating on the nature of body as PaÊikâla, the Buddha has
clearly said a similitude of a double-mouthed bag, like this:

“Bhikkhus, as if there were a double-mouthed provision bag filled with

various kinds of grain, such as, hill paddy, paddy, green gram, cowpea, sesame
and husked rice; a man with sound eyes, having opened it, should examine it thus,
‘This is hill paddy, this is paddy, this is green gram, this is cowpea, this is sesame,
this is husked rice,’ Just so, Bhikkhus, a Bhikkhu reflects on this very body,
upward from the soles of his feet, downward from the tips of his hair, enclosed by
the skin and full of diverse impurities, thus: ‘There are in this body, hair of the
head, hair of the body, nails, teeth, skin; flesh, sinews, bones, marrow, kidneys;
heart, liver, pleura, spleen, lungs; intestines, mesentery, gorge, faces, brain; bile,
phlegm, pus, blood, sweat, fat; tears, lymph, saliva, nasal mucus, oil of the
joints, urine. …”142

140
Viriya (effort), SampajÅno (clear comprehension) and SatimÅ (mindfulness).
141
This topic has been stated to detail in Chapter II, as 2.4.2 Definition of Sampajañña and 2.4.4 The
Accompaniment of Sati and Sampajañña.
142
MahÅsatipaÊÊhÅna Sutta, 22. and see more detail of PaÊikâlamanasikÅra in Vijayasutta of SuttanipÅta,
Uragavagga 25/312/362 (STP).
58

On the conscious reflection upon this body from the soles of the feet upwards and
from the crown of the head downwards, one finds that it is full of diverse impurities. He
watches each one of them carefully and fully understands the reality of the body. He has
often observed the body inside and out (Ajjhatta-bahiddhÅ) as it is repulsive. The arising and
passing away is observed (Samudaya-vaya). Then ‘Atthi kÅyo’, “this is body”. The
awareness gets established, and without any support in this world of mind and matter, there
is nothing to grasp (Na ca kiñci loke upÅdiyati) in the stage of full liberation.143

3.1.5 DhÅtumanasikÅra ( Analysis of Four Elements )

DhÅtumanasikÅra where there is the reflection over the primary DhÅtu or element.
Again, for a certain type of person with strong attachment to the body and to sexual
pleasures, thinking is involved at the beginning of the practice. However, the body is placed
or disposed (KÅyaµ yathÅÊhitaµ yathÅpaœihitaµ), the element remains as it is just thought
about (Paccavekkhati).144 According to the tradition, there are four primary DhÅtus: PaÊhav≠
- earth, such as it refers to the quality of roughness (kakkhalatÅ yeva paÊhav≠); such as KesÅ
(hairs) or AÊÊh≠ (bones); Äpo - water, it is, thus defined as fluid or element of cohesion
(Bandhanattaµ râpassa), such as Pittaµ (bile), Semhaµ (phlegm); Tejo – fire, it is the
quality of heat, hence, it is defined as (Uœhattaµ Tejo), such as that one is heated; and
VÅyo – air, it refers to the quality of holding the things together (Thambhitattaµ vÅyo), such
as that winds of stomach.

This practice continues the dissection of the body into components of a more and
more impersonal nature, by reducing it to those four primary manifestations of matter which
it has in common with inanimate nature. The result will likewise be disenchantment,
alienation and detachment, as well as an intensified awareness of the egolessness of body.145
In mindful contemplating on the nature of the body as DhÅtu, the Buddha has clearly said a
similitude of a skillful butcher, like this:

143
S.N. Goenka, Discourses on SatipaÊÊhāna Sutta, Op. Cit., p.44.
144
Ibid., p.44.
145
Nyanaponika Thera, The Heart of Buddhist Meditation, Op.Cit., p 66.
 59

“As a skillful butcher or a butcher’s apprentice, having slaughtered a cow

and divided it into portions, were sitting at the junction of four highways. Even
so, a Bhikkhu reflects upon this very body, just as it is placed or disposed, with
regard to its primary elements: There are in this body, the earth element, the water
element, the fire element, and the air element. …”146

Thus, by observing within and having a clear understanding, there are four basic
elements which are available in the bodies as internal and external. The stage is reached of
“Atthi kÅyo’ti” (this is body) to which there was formerly so much attachment, and putting
aside all attachment the practitioner reached the ultimate goal.

3.1.6 Navas≠vatthikÅ (The Meditation on Nine Cemeteries)

Navas≠vatthikÅ stands for nine types of dead body abandoned in charnel - field or
cemetery. So mindful contemplating over the cemetery is an object lesson of impermanence,
by showing the dissolution of this composite body, which, in other exemplars but
particularly in that of one’s own, one sees moving about full of life: ‘thus he applies it to
himself. “Verily, this body of mine, too, is of the same nature as that body, it will become
like that, and will not escape it”. MahāsatipaÊÊhāna sutta has stated to the nine types of dead
body as follows:

1. And further, just as if the disciple were looking at a corpse thrown on a charnel-
ground, one, two, or three days dead, swollen up, blue-black in color, full of corruption
so
he regards his own body: ‘This body of mine also has this nature, has this destiny, and
cannot escape it.’
2. And further, just as if the disciple were looking at a corpse thrown on a charnel-
ground, eaten by crows, hawks or vultures, by dogs or jackals, or devoured by all kinds of
worms-so he regards his own body; ‘This body of mine also has this nature, has this destiny,
and cannot escape it.’
3. And further, just as if the disciple were looking at a corpse thrown on a charnel-
ground, a framework of bones, flesh hanging from it, bespattered with blood, held together
by the sinews;

146
D. 10/273-300 /322-346 (STP).
60

4. A framework of bone, stripped of flesh, bespattered with blood, held together by

the sinews;
5. A framework of bone, without flesh and blood, but still held together by the
sinews;
6. Bones, disconnected and scattered in all directions, here a bone of the hand, there a
bone of the foot, there a shin bone, there a thigh bone, there a pelvis, there the spine, there
the skull-so he regards his own body: ‘This body of mine also has this nature, has this
destiny, and cannot escape it.’
7. And further, just as if the disciple were looking at bones lying in the charnel-
ground, bleached and resembling shells;
8. Bones heaped together, after the lapse of years;
9. Bones weathered and crumbled to dust
so he regards his own body: ‘This body of
mine also has this nature, has this destiny, and cannot escape it.’147

In this context, the Buddha says that after each of these contemplations, the
disciple tells himself: (even so will be with my body) even so the bodies of the others.
He considers how bodies arise, how they disappear. He tells himself: there is nothing but
bodies there and no permanent ‘ego.’ Then having been possessed in understanding and
penetration; he lives independently, free from attachment to anything in the world.
Thus, a capable one should practice mindfulness on body to clearly understand the
reality as it is. Therefore, there is concluding remarks on body contemplation: the
exercises in the section now concluded, on ‘contemplation of the body’, cover both types
of the practice: they belong partly to bare attention and partly to clear comprehension.

As a feature common to all these exercises, we have found that observation of its
nature and from a true understanding of it, detachment gives, with regard to its objects,
mastery as well as freedom. This holds true in the case of the body, too, no mortification
of the body is here required to assert mind’s mastery over it. Above the extremes of
mortification and sensuality leads to the middle path, the simple, realistic and non-
coercive way of mindfulness and clear comprehension, bringing mastery and freedom. In
following that ‘only way to the destruction of pain and grief,’ the body will become light

147
D.II. 295-298 (PTS).
 61

and pliant to the wanderer on the path; and even if the body succumbs to sickness and
pain, the serenity of his mind will not be affected.148

3.2 VedanÅnupassanÅ

3.2.1 Significance of Vedanā

It has been said, “VedanÅ-samosaraœÅ sabbe dhammÅ (DhammÅ flowing with

feelings or sensations).”149 So Vedanānupassanā is very important like Kāyānupassanā.
First of all, the term ‘VedanÅ’ is derived from the root ‘Vida’ which means “to experience, to
feel or to know”. ‘Anu’=elaborately, clearly. ‘PassanÅ’ = seeing, looking, observing;’ etc.
‘VedanÅ’ is a PÅli term, rendered here by ‘feeling’, signifies, in Buddhist psychology, just
pleasant, unpleasant or indifferent sensation of physical or mental origin. It is not used, as in
the English language, in the sense of ‘emotion,’ which is a mental factor of a much more
complex nature.150

In the formula of ‘dependent origination’ (PaÊicca-samuppāda) by which the Buddha

shows the conditioned ‘arising of this whole mass of suffering’, sense impression is said to
be the principal condition of feeling (Phassa-paccayā vedanā), while feeling, on its part, is
the potential condition of craving, and , subsequently, of , more intense, clinging (Vedanā-
paccayā taœhā, taœhā-paccayā upādanaµ) and so on.

This is therefore, a crucial point in the conditioned origin of suffering, because it is

at this point that feeling may give rise to passionate emotion of various types, and it is,
therefore, here that one may be able to break that fatuous continuation. If, in receiving a
sense impression, one is able to pause and stop at the phase of feeling, and make it, in its
very first stage of manifestation, the object of bare attention, feeling will not be able to
originate craving or other passions. It will stop at the bare statements of ‘pleasant’,
‘unpleasant’ or ‘indifferent’, giving clear comprehension time to enter and to decide about
the attitude or action to be taken. Furthermore, if one notices, in bare attention, the
conditioned arising of feeling, its gradual fading away and giving room to another feeling,

148
Nyanaponika Thera, The Heart of Buddhist Meditation., Op.Cit., p. 68.
149
A. 23/187/349.(STP).
150
Nyanaponika Thera, The Heart of Buddhist Meditation., Op.Cit., p. 68.
62

one will find from one’s own experience that there is no necessity at all for being carried
away by passionate reaction, which will start a new concatenation of suffering.

This decisive role of feeling in the mental continuum makes it understandable why
the contemplation of feeling has in the Buddhist scriptures a place of similar importance
within the sphere of mind as the contemplation of the four material elements has in regard to
the body as soon as the meditator has come to a stage of smooth progress with the bodily
objects of mindfulness.151

Further, once, the Venerable Ānanda went to see the Blessed One. Having saluted
him respectfully, he sat down at one side. Thus seated, he said:

“O Buddha, What now is feeling? What is the origin of feeling, what are
their cessation and the way leading to their cessation? What is the gratification in
feelings? What is the danger in feelings? And what is the escape from them?

“There are, Ānanda, three kinds of feelings: pleasant, painful and neutral.
Through the origin of sense-impression (contact, impact: Phassa), there is origin of
feelings; through the cessation of sense-impression there is cessation of feelings. It
is the noble eightfold path that is the way leading to the cessation of feelings,
namely: right understanding, right resolution, right speech, right action, right
livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness and right concentration.

“It is the happiness and gladness arising dependent on feelings that is the
gratification in feelings. Feelings are impermanent, (liable to bring) pain, and are
subject to change; this is the danger in feelings. The removal, the giving up of the
desire and lust (chandarÅga) for feelings, are the escape from feelings.

“I have further taught, Ānanda, the gradual cessation of conditioned

phenomena (SaÙkhÅra). In him who has attained the first meditative absorption,
speech has been stilled. Having attained the second absorption, thought-conception
and discursive thinking has ceased…Having attained the cessation of perception

151
Ibid. p. 69.
 63

and feeling, perception and feeling have ceased. In taint-free Bhikkhu greed, hatred,
and delusion are quietened.”152

Here feeling is a more appropriate word than the sensation in rendering of VedanÅ.
Feeling has been described with the simile of a bubble blown - VedanÅ PubbubâpamÅ153
as
the bubble arisen. Feeling enjoys the taste of sense-object. Feeling is very important to
worldly people. People are struggling day and night for the enjoyment of sensual pleasure
which is nothing but pleasant feeling. And here NibbÅnic bliss should be noted but it is not
connected with feeling. Because of that NibbÅnic bliss is ultimate happiness (Sukha) to be
free from suffering. It is not the enjoyment of unworldly object.

3.2.2 Kinds of Vedanā

Concerning feeling, the Buddha says “I shall show you, O Bhikkhus, a way of
Dhamma presentation by which there is one hundred and eight (feelings). Hence listen to
me. “In one way, O Bhikkhus, I have spoken of two kinds of feelings, and in other ways of
three, five, six, eighteen, thirty six and one hundred and eight feelings. What are the two
154
feelings? Bodily and mental feelings. What are the three feelings? Pleasant, painful and
neither-painful-nor-pleasant feelings.155 What are the five feelings? The faculties of pleasure,
156
pain, gladness, sadness and equanimity. What are the six feelings? The feelings born of
sense-impression through eye, ear, nose, tongue, body and mind. 157

What are the eighteen feelings? There are the (above) six feelings by which there are
an approach (to the objects) in gladness; and there are six approaches in sadness and there
are six approaches in equanimity. What are the thirty six feelings? There are six feelings of
gladness based on the household life and six based on renunciation; six feelings of sadness
based on the household life and six based on renunciation; six feelings of equanimity based
on the household life and six based on renunciation. What are the hundred and eight

152
S.18/399-404 /272-274(STP).
153
S.III.141-142; (PTS-1975).
154
S.IV.231 (PTS)
155
D.III.216 (PTS)
156
S.IV.232 (PTS)
157
S.IV.232 (PTS)
64

feelings? There are the (above) thirty six feelings of the past; there are thirty six of the
futures and there are thirty six of the present.

These, O Bhikkhus, are called the hundred and eight feelings; and this is the way of
the Dhamma presentation by which there are one hundred and eight feelings.”158

3.2.3 Contemplation of Feeling (Vedanānupassanā)

Concerning feeling, the Buddha has expounded the nine fold method of
contemplation of feeling (VedanÅnupassanÅ) in the MahÅsatipaÊÊhāna Sutta, as follows: 159

“And, Bhikkhus, how does a Bhikkhu dwells contemplating the feeling in

the feelings? “Bhikkhus, Bhikkhu in Dhamma-Vinaya, when experiencing 1)
SukhavedanÅ (a pleasant feeling), the Bhikkhu knows ‘I experience a pleasant
feeling';…2) DukkhavedanÅ (a painful feeling); 3) AdukkhamasukhavedanÅ (a
neutral feeling); 4) SÅmisa-sukhavedanÅ (a pleasant worldly feeling); 5) NirÅmisa-
sukhavedanÅ (a pleasant unworldly feeling); 6) SÅmisa-dukkhavedanÅ (a painful
worldly feeling); 7) NirÅmisa-dukkhavedanÅ (a painful unworldly feeling); 8)
SÅmisa-adukkhamasukhavedanÅ (a neutral worldly feeling);…when experiencing
9) NirÅmisa-akukkhamasukhavedanÅ (a neutral unworldly feeling); he knows, ‘I
experience a neutral unworldly feeling.

3.2.3.1 Sukhavedanā (Pleasant Feeling)

Here the term ‘Sukhavedanā’ means Kāyikasukha (bodily feeling) and Cetasikasukha
(mental feeling). How is Sukhavedanā? For instance: When we have a good feeling, a
pleasant feeling, we just observe it, “Pleasant, pleasant, pleasant,” or “good, good, good,” or
“happy, happy, happy,” There, the meaning of “pleasant feeling” is as follows: The
meditator when experiencing a bodily or mental pleasant feeling knows, “I experience a
pleasant feeling.” 160

158
S.18/427- 457/285-295 (STP); Bhikkhu Pesala, The Debate of King Milinda, England: Association for insight
meditation, Press 2001, p.45.
159
D. 10/273-300 /322-346 (STP).
160
Phra Sobhaœamahathera (Mahasīsayādaw), MahāsatipaÊÊhāna-sutta (The Path to Nibbāna), Thai version
translated by Phra GandhasÅrÅbhivaµsa, Bangkok: Thairaivankarnpim, Press, 2549, p.233.
 65

3.2.3.2 Dukkhavedanā (Unpleasant Feeling)

Unpleasant feeling here means itching, pain and whatever undesirable it is, while we
are practicing meditation. A good number of meditators face this unpleasant feeling fairly at
the very beginning. At the time of the Buddha, there were innumerable people who realized
the truth of Dhamma by practicing unpleasant feeling meditation. So, this unpleasant feeling
is really essential for those who are really fancy to realize the truth of Dhamma. When we
have painful feelings in the body, pain or numbness or stiffness, we focus our mind on the
place of pain and take note of the pain by saying, “pain, pain, pain.” Here the Commentator
tells us the story of a certain Bhikkhu dealing with unpleasant feeling.

The Elder at a time when he was sick, was groaning and rolling from side to side
through the violence of his feeling. A young Bhikkhu, said to him: ‘what place is hurting,
venerable sir?’ ‘Friend, there is no particular place that hurts. It is just feeling that feels by
making the basis it objects.’ ‘From the time there comes to be such knowledge is it not
proper to endure, venerable sir?’ ‘I am enduring, friend.’ ‘Enduring, venerable sir is
admirable.’

The Elder endured. The windy humour burst up to his heart. His entrails lay in a heap
on the bed. The Elder showed this to the young Bhikkhu, ‘Is endurance to such an extent
proper, friend?’ The young Bhikkhu was silent. The Elder, by yoking together energy and
tranquility, reached Arahat-ship together with the discriminations and as “Equal-Headed
one” (Samas≠s≠) he attained complete extinction simultaneously with death. 161

We should know that this feeling does not last. When we have a painful feeling and
we keep noting this feeling as being “pain, pain, pain,” it may take ten or fifteen minutes
until we come to see that this pain is not constant. It is not one solid pain. There are different
stages of pain and different moments of pain. One pain comes and goes, and then the next
pain comes and goes. We come to see the impermanence of it, and come to see the rising and
fading away, the appearing and disappearing of feeling as all of things.

161
DA.2. pp.633-634.(STP).
66

3.2.3.3 Adukkhamasukha or Upekkhā- vedanā (Neutral Feeling)

Neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling is hard to illustrate. It is obscure and unobvious.

It becomes evident to one who infers it thus: “that neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling is the
central kind, opposed to the agreeable and the disagreeable, when pleasure and pain are
absent.”162

Like what? Like a deer hunter who is following the footprints of a fleeting deer and
infers that the deer must have run on the flat rock. There is a flat rock, and on this side and
on the other side he sees footprints, but on the flat rock he sees nothing. Then he infers that
the deer must have run on threat flat rock. He knows thus: ‘Here it went up, here it came
down, and in between it will have gone over the flat rock in this place.’ Thus, like the
footprint where it went up, the arising of pleasant feeling is evident; like the footprint in the
place where it came down, the arising of painful feeling is evident; like the inference thus:
‘here it went up, here it came down, in between it went thus,’ it becomes evident to one who
infers it thus: ‘Neutral feeling is the central kind, opposed to the agreeable and disagreeable,
when pleasure and pain are absent.

3.2.3.4 Sāmisasukhavedanā (Worldly Pleasant Feelings)

This is worldly pleasant feeling or ‘Cha Gehasitasomanassavedanā)’ that whether

worldly P≠ti (joy), Sukha (happiness) of body and mind which have connected these five
cords of sense desire: forms cognizable by the eye that are wished for and desired, agreeable
and endearing, associated with sense-desire and tempting to lust, sounds cognizable by the
ear, odors cognizable by the nose, flavors cognizable by the tongue, tangibles cognizable by
the body, that are wished for and desired, agreeable and endearing, associated with sense-
desire and alluring or tempting to lust. It is the joy that arises dependent on these five cords
of sense desire which is called “six pleasures connected with the world”.163

162
Phra Sobhaœamahathera (Mahasīsayādaw), MahāsatipaÊÊhāna-sutta, Op.Cit., p.236.
163
Phra Sobhaœamahathera (Mahasīsayādaw), MahāsatipaÊÊhāna-sutta, Op.Cit., p.237.; Bhikkhu Pesala, The
Debate of King Milinda, Op.Cit., p.46.
 67

3.2.3.5 Nirāmisasukhavedanā (Unworldly Pleasant Feeling)

This is worldly pleasant feeling or ‘Cha Nekkhamasitasamanassavedanā)’ that

whether worldly P≠ti (joy), Sukha (happiness) no relating with five Kāmaguœas (sensual
pleasures): Râpa (visible object), Sadda (sound), Gandha (smell), Rasa (taste) and
PhoÊÊhabba (touch).164 But it has done with wholesomes such as Änāpānassati (breathing of
mindfulness). It has meditator made to be joyful as he contemplated the Ti-lakkhaœa. It is
happiness of the six doors that is called “six of [pleasant] renunciation”,165

3.2.3.6 Sāmisadukkhavedanā (Worldly Unpleasant Feeling)

This is worldly unpleasant feeling or ‘Cha Gehasitadomanassavedanā)’ that whether

Kāyikadukkha (bodily unpressure) and Cetasikadukkha (mental unpleasure) have been
without these five cords of sense desire: forms cognizable by the eye that are wished for and
desired, agreeable and endearing, associated with sense-desire and tempting to lust, sounds
cognizable by the ear, odors cognizable by the nose, flavors cognizable by the tongue,
tangibles cognizable by the body, that are wished for and desired, agreeable and endearing,
associated with sense-desire and alluring or tempting to lust. It is unpleasant feeling that
arises without these five cords of sense desire which is called “six worldly sorrows”.166

3.2.3.7 Nirāmisadukkhavedanā (Unworldly Unpleasant Feeling)

This is unworldly unpleasant feeling or ‘Cha Nekkhamasita-domanassavedanā’ that

is Dukkha related with Vipassanā (insight meditation). It means one who has practiced
Vipassanābhāvanā, but he cannot complete it, because of that is unworldly unpleasant. So it
is called “six of [unpleasant] renunciation”. 167

3.2.3.8 Sāmisaupekkhāvedanā (Worldly neutral Feeling)

This is worldly neutral Feeling or ‘Cha Gehasitaupekkhāvedanā’ that means worldly

neither-pleasant-nor-painful feeling refers to the six feelings of indifference connected with

164
M.I.85. (PTS)
165
Phra Sobhaœamahathera (Mahasīsayādaw), MahāsatipaÊÊhāna-sutta, Op.Cit., p.238.
166
Ibid., p.240.
167
Ibid., p.241.
68

the six sense-doors, and dependent on that which is tainted by defilements. Spiritual neither-
pleasant-nor-painful feeling refers to the six feelings of indifference connected with the six
sense-doors, and not dependent on sense-desire.

Again, neither pleasant nor unpleasant feeling that has habitually consumed the five
Kāmaguœas (sensual pleasures): Râpa (visible object), Sadda (sound), Gandha (smell), Rasa
(taste) and PhoÊÊhabba (touch).168 It is Aññāœupekkhā (unknown equanimity) to not know
the five sense desires as Ti-lakkhaœa. so it is called ‘Sāmisaupekkhāvedanā’. 169

3.2.3.9 Nirāmisaupekkhāvedanā (Unworldly neutral Feeling)

This is unworldly neutral Feeling or ‘Cha Nekkhammaupekkhavedanā’ that is

Upekkhā related with Vipassanā (insight meditation). it means one who has practiced
Vipassanābhāvanā, he can know sense-objects in the six sense doors as SaÙkhāru-
pekkhāñāœa (equanimity of knowledge in reactions). So it is called ‘Nirāmisaupekkhā-
vedanā’. 170

Further there is the Nirāmisā nirāmisatarā vedanā (Greater Unworldly Feeling):

There is a still greater unworldly joy. There is a still greater unworldly happiness. There is a
still greater unworldly equanimity. There is a still greater unworldly freedom. "And what is
the still greater unworldly joy? When a taint-free practitioner looks upon his mind that is
freed of greed, freed of hatred, freed of delusion, and then there arises joy. This called a ‘still
greater unworldly joy.’ ‘Unworldly happiness’… ‘Unworldly equanimity’ should be
understood in the same way of unworldly joy.

3.2.4 Abandonment

The Buddha said to no clinging to anything in the world of the five aggregates of
clinging:

In pleasant feelings, Bhikkhus, the inclination to greed should be given up;

in unpleasant feelings the inclination to aversion should be given up; in neutral

168
M.I.85. (PTS)
169
Phra Sobhaœamahathera (Mahasīsayādaw), MahāsatipaÊÊhāna-sutta (The Path to Nibbāna), Op.Cit., p.243.
170
Ibid., p.244.
 69

feelings the inclination to ignorance should be given up. If a Bhikkhu has given up
in pleasant feelings the inclination to greed, in unpleasant feelings the inclination
to aversion, and in neutral feelings the inclination to ignorance, then he is called
one who is free of (unsalutary) inclinations, one who sees clearly. He has cut off
craving, sundered the fetters, and through the destruction of conceit, has made and
ends of suffering.

If one feels joy, but knows not feeling’s nature, bent towards greed, he
will not find deliverance. If one feels pain but knows not the feeling’s nature, bent
towards hated, he will not find deliverance. And even neutral feeling which as
peaceful the Lord of wisdom has proclaimed. If, in attachment, he should cling to
it, will not set free him from the round of ill. But if a Bhikkhu is ardent and does
not neglect to practice mindfulness and comprehension clear, the nature of all
feelings will he penetrate. And having done so, in this very life will he be free
from cankers, from all taints. Mature in knowledge, firm in Dhamma’s ways,
when once his life span ends, his body breaks, all measure and concept he has
transcended.171

Because of above reasons, be it a pleasant feeling, be it painful, neutral, one’s

own or others’, feelings of all kinds, he knows as ill, deceitful, evanescent. Aware of their
repeated impact and their disappearance, wins he detachment from the feelings, passion-
free. He dwells completely independent (not depending on craving and wrong view),
clinging to nothing in the world.

We may also have either worldly or unworldly feelings such as “Pleasant,

unpleasant, or neutral feelings”. It means feelings that arise in daily life whether we are
standing, walking and so on or in meditation. We may have good concentration or may see
the rising and fading away of things when we meditate. Then we feel happy. We feel so
happy at that time that you just want to get up and tell other people about it. We can hardly
contain or suppress this feeling. Such a feeling may come to meditators especially when they
have reached the stage where they see the rising and fading away of phenomena.

171
S. 18/ 427-57 / 285-95 (STP).
70

In this way, mindful contemplation of feeling on feelings as Vedanānupassanā. It is

meditation to certainly cut the steam of Saµsāravatta (cycle of rebirth) because when there
is not arising of Taœhā (Desire). The streams such as Upādāna (attachment), Bhava (being),
Jāti (birth), Jarā (decay)-Upādāyāsa (grief) are no arising. Further it is safer, if we can stop
the steam of feeling, because when there is arising of Vedanā, there
is arising of Taœhā. So “one who is the teacher of world as he can control Vedanā” is
believed by wise people..

3.3 CittÅnupassanÅ

‘CittÅnupassanÅ’ has two components: CittÅ and anupassanÅ. Citta means

consciousness. AnupassanÅ means observing minutely. Thus CittÅnupassanÅ is the name of
a practice of observating the consciousness minutely, the Contemplation of Mind in the
Mind. An attempt has been made in the previous pages to present a descriptive as well as an
analytical account of the VedanÅ. Now, it seems desirable to present a similar account of
CittÅnupassanÅ. As the VedanÅnupassanÅ is a complete application for controlling the
feeling, similarly CittÅnupassanÅ is also a complete practice for controlling mind.

There are sixteen forms of consciousness which should be observed in sixteen ways.
These are as the words of the Buddha which appears in the MahÅsatipaÊÊhÅna Sutta as
follows:172

“And Bhikkhus, how, does a Bhikkhu dwell contemplating the mind in the
mind? "Bhikkhus, a Bhikkhu in Dhamma-Vinaya, knows 1) SarÅgaµ Cittaµ (the
mind with lust as mind with lust); 2) V≠tarÅgaµ Cittaµ (the mind without lust as
mind without lust); 3) Sadosaµ Cittaµ (the mind with hate as mind with hatred ;
4) V≠tadosaµ Cittaµ (the mind without hatred as mind without hatred); 5)
Samohaµ Cittaµ (the mind with delusion as mind with delusion); 6) V≠tamohaµ
Cittaµ (the mind without delusion as mind without delusion); 7) SaÙkhittaµ
Cittaµ (the constricted mind as constricted mind); 8) Vikkhittaµ Cittaµ (the
scattered mind as scattered mind); 9) Mahaggataµ Cittaµ (the superconscious
[literally, become great] mind as superconscious mind); 10) Amahaggataµ Cittaµ

172
D.II.290.
 71

(the not superconcious mind as not superconcious mind); 11) Sa-uttaraµ Cittaµ
(the surpassable mind as surpassable mind); 12) Anuttaraµ Cittaµ (the
unsurpassable mind as unsurpassable mind); 13) SamÅhitaµ Cittaµ (the
concentrated mind as concentrated mind); 14) AsamÅhitaµ Cittaµ (the
unconcentrated mind as unconcentrated mind); 15) Vimuttaµ Cittaµ (the freed
mind as the freed mind); 16) Avimuttaµ Cittaµ ( the unfreed mind as the unfreed
mind).”

1. SarÅgaµ vÅ Cittaµ (Lustful Mind)

SarÅga Citta: Generally, it means the consciousness associated with attachment, a

type of desire or craving. However, technically, it refers to the eight types of immoral
consciousness rooted in greed (Loha) and found in the sense-sphere. It can produce only
unwholesome actions that are the meaning of Lobha. Lobha-rÅga-taœhÅ – greed, attachment,
sensuous desire headed by Lobha.

The second nature of Lobha is attachment or clinging to sensuous objects or to JhÅna

and JhÅna happiness. This nature of attachment is compared with the sticky nature of
monkey catching glue. This glue is prepared by heating several kinds of sticky gum available
in the forest to form a sticky paste.

The monkey-catcher applies this sticky mass of gum on the trunks of several trees.
When sun-rays fall on the gum, spectra of various colours appear. A monkey, being curious,
touches the gum with one paw which becomes firmly attached to the gum. In struggling to
pull out this paw, the monkey pushes the tree with the other paw and also kicks the tree with
both legs. So both paws and both legs are stuck to the gum. Then the monkey tries to pull
itself out by pushing the tree with its head. So the head is also stuck to the gum. The
monkey-catcher may now come out from his hiding place and catches or kills the monkey
with no trouble. 173

173
Bhikkhu Bodhi, A Comprehensive Manual of Abhidhamma, Kuala Lumpur: A Selangor Buddhist Vipassana
Meditation Society Publication Press, 2004.
72

2. V≠tarÅgaµ vÅ Cittaµ (Mind without Lust)

V≠tarÅga Citta: Generally, it means the consciousness without RÅga i.e. attachment.
However technically, it refers to the consciousness wherein there is no dominance of
‘Greed’. According to the commentator, it (SarÅga-citta) is used in the sense of ‘Lokiya-
citta’. Among these types of the consciousness, the sense of taking the thing of other i.e.
attachment is not present. Hence they are regarded as Consciousness without lust” means the
wholesome opposite of greed and is the cause of renunciation, generosity, charity, and
giving. Now, it should be noted, here that there is no complete absence of attachment among
this type of consciousness. The total elimination of attachment is possible only at the state of
supermundane consciousness.

3. Sadosaµ vÅ Cittaµ (Angry Mind)

Sadosa citta: Literally, it means the consciousness associated with antipathy, hatred,
ill-will etc. Normally, when one encounters with a desirable sense object, clinging or
attachment-Lobha arises, and when one encounters with an undesirable object, anger or
aversion arises. The anger - Dosa destroys oneself first before it destroys others.

According to Abhidhamma, one who retaliates an insult is more foolish than the one
who starts the insult. And Anger produces only unwholesome actions.174 A practitioner of
AnupassanÅ minutely observed becomes aware of the consciousness whenever any one of
them arises. It means when there arises particular type of consciousness associated with
Dosa (hatred), he being conscious and aware of it, minutely observes as it arises and
functions.

4. V≠tadosaµ vÅ Cittaµ (Mind without Anger)

V≠tadosa-citta: Generally, it means the consciousness dissociated with antipathy, ill-

will or consciousness without hatred” means the wholesome opposite of hate or anger and is
the cause of loving-kindness, friendliness, and good-will. In the process practicing
mindfulness, the practitioner completely awakes of the situation wherein there is the arising

174
Dr. Mehm Tin Mon, The Essence of Buddha Abhidhamm, Myanmar: Mya Mon Yadanar Press 1995, pp.
26,27.
 73

of any type of such consciousness. He becomes conscious and minutely observes its arising,
functioning and living impact on mind.

5. Samohaµ vÅ Cittaµ (Deluded Mind)

Samoha-citta: Generally, consciousness with delusion means the two kinds of

consciousness accompanied by doubt and agitation. However as delusion arises in all
unwholesome consciousness, the remaining unwholesome consciousnesses are also
applicable here. As Moha veils our mental eyes and shields us from seeing the true nature of
things, we cannot see the extremely-rapid and incessant arising and dissolving of NÅma and
Râpa and the consequent four characteristics - Anicca (impermanence), Dukkha (suffering),
Anatta (non-self) and Asubha (unpleasant).

When we cannot see the true nature of things, we get confused and take the opposite
characteristics to be true. So we see things as Nicca (permanent), Sukha (pleasant), Atta (self
or person) and Subha (beautiful) On account of this wrong vision of Moha, a chain of
undesirable consequences including sufferings and miseries arise one after another.

6. V≠tamohaµ vÅ Cittaµ (Mind without Delusion)

V≠tamoha-citta: Generally, it is a type of consciousness which is dissociated with

‘Moha’ i.e. delusion. This consciousness without delusion” means mundane wholesome and
indeterminate consciousness. Coming to this point, it should be noted that these are not the
types of consciousness wherein there is the total elimination of delusion. In the process of
practice of SatipaÊÊhÅna, one should make awareness on any type of such consciousness and
realize in one’s mind only ‘thinking’ ‘thinking’. He becomes conscious and makes minute
observation on its arising and falling, functioning and disappearing, externally and
internally. For him such process is only stream of consciousness which is going on and
going away. It is not ‘me’ or ‘mine’ which can be clinged in this process.

7. SaÙkhittaµ vÅ Cittaµ (Contracted Mind)

SaÙkhitta Citta: The word ‘SaÙkhittaµ’ refers to the shrunken state of consciousness
associated with sloth and torpor. Sloth and torpor are the immoral psychic factors which are
rooted in Moha (Mohamâlakacitta). Some scholars define this term as “contracted state of
74

mind”. Sloth (Th≠na) and Torpor (Middha) are immoral psychic factors. They are called
“N≠varaœadhamma” or “hindrance” of moral and mental development. Hindrance is of five
types; namely- 1) sensual desire (KÅmacchanda), 2) Ill-will (ByÅpÅda), 3) Sloth and torpor
(Th≠na-Middha), 4) distraction and remorse (Uddhaccakukkucca), and 5) doubt (VicikicchÅ).

Generally, Sloth and torpor appear in mind while one is in practice of meditation and
mindfulness. It is a symbol of laziness. In the process of practice of SatipaÊÊhÅna, the
practitioner should make balance between Indriyas and Balas (controlling faculties and
powers), particularly between energy and meditation. Sloth and torpor arise when there is
imbalance between energy faculty and meditation faculty in the practice of SatipaÊÊhÅna.

8. Vikkhittaµ Cittaµ (Scattered Mind)

Vikkhitta Citta: The word “Vikkhittaµ” refers to distracted state of mind. It is just
like polluting water in the jar or dust-wind in the air. It is difficult to control this type of
consciousness. It is one of the “N≠varaœadhamma” which is the hindrance of practice of
SatipaÊÊhÅna. The commentator has pointed out this kind of consciousness as Uddhacca-
agitation or distraction which is rooted in Moha (Mohamâlakacitta).

In the process of practice of SatipaÊÊhÅna, it is said that; “when the practitioner

practices mindfulness without making balance between faith and wisdom (SaddhÅ and
PaññÅ) the agitation or distraction (Uddhacca) arises”. Well controlled on the balance of two
faculties (Faith and wisdom), one practices without agitation of mind. In this way, the
practitioner clearly understands such a kind of consciousness and makes it calm by the
practice of SatipaÊÊhÅna on mind. The controlled mind is conducive to happiness.175

9. Mahaggataµ vÅ Cittaµ (Great Mind)

Mahaggata Citta: it refers to the state of consciousness which has become great,
enlarged and extensive. It means material-sphere (RâpÅvacaracitta) and immaterial-sphere
consciousness (ArâpÅvacaracitta). By the ability to suppress the defilements and by the
abundance of fruition and by the great length or extent of the series of its particular courses
of cognition there is a state of consciousness becoming great. The state of consciousness

175
Dh., Verse 33,35.
 75

becoming great is the mind that has reached the ground of the sensuous-ethereal and the
purely ethereal planes of existence. As there is nothing in the cosmos greater than the
sensuous-ethereal and the purely ethereal the commentator explained the consciousness
become great by reference to these two highest planes of existence.

In the practical process of SatipaÊÊhÅna, when such consciousness arises, the

practitioner should clearly understand one by one. In the time of JhÅnacitta, it may not be
the chance of mindfulness but at the moment of before or after absorption-consciousness. It
is most beneficial application of mindfulness to clearly see the all component things as they
are; nature of arising and falling of all phenomena. By this way, it leads to the higher stage
of insight meditation up to MaggañÅœa and PhalañÅœa in Buddhism.

10. Amahaggataµ vÅ Cittaµ (Narrow Mind)

Amahaggata Citta: Literary speaking, ‘Amahaggata’ means “has not become great”.
‘Citta’ is ‘consciousnesses’. Amahaggatacitta refers to a state of consciousness that has not
become great. The state of consciousness with some other mental state superior to it, refers
to the consciousness that has not reached the highest possible planes of attainment in cosmic
existence or the consciousness that can become more fine; and the state of consciousness
with no other mental state superior to it is that which has got to the highest planes of cosmic
existence or that which has reached the acme of fineness of mundane states of mind.

In the process of SatipaÊÊhÅna practice, such consciousness should be the subject of

observation with wisely reflection’ when the practitioner minutely gets aware of the arising
and disappearing of consciousness both internally and externally or both of internally and
externally. The three characteristics of all types of consciousness; impairment, suffering and
no eternal existence in it become clearly visible, it leads to non-clinging in anything. That is
the way of purification of mind.

11. Sauttaraµ vÅ Cittaµ (Surpassable Mind)

Sauttara Citta: ‘Sa’ means ‘with’ or ‘together’. ‘Uttara’ means “a bound

superior”
The consciousness which is not the most superior one but the are superior to it. In
general classification, there are two groups of the consciousness Lokiya Citta and Lokuttara
Citta. Accordingly to KÅmÅvacara Citta, RâpÅvacara Citta and ArâpÅvacara Citta come
76

under the category of Lokiya Cittas, whereas, the eight types of supramundane
consciousness are called Lokuttara Citta.

In MahÅstipaÊÊhÅna Sutta, there is the enumeration of the Sa-uttaracitta in

the process of CittÅnupassanÅ. It has been commented upon by Buddhaghosa. He explaineds
the Sauttaracitta as KÅmÅvacaracitta by stating-“Sauttaranti KÅmÅ-vacaraµ”.

Here, there is a variation from DhammasaÙgaœ≠. It appears that in those days there
was a tradition which maintained it. It was taken in the sense that the ordinarily
consciousnesses are not the superior ones and that there are some superior to them also.
Perhaps, in this sense, of the lowest consciousness, Buddhaghosa has maintained both in
SumaÙgalavilÅsiœ≠ as well as in Papañcasâdan≠ that Sauttaracitta is the KÅmÅvacaracitta.176
Here, according to Buddhaghosa all KÅmÅvacaracittas are included whatever of them arises.
One should be aware of that and understand clearly such and such KÅmÅvacaracittas have
arisen. Thus, he remains mindful on that.

12. Anuttaraµ vÅ Cittaµ (Unsurpassable Mind)

Anuttara Citta: In the process of CittÅnupassanÅ, it has been advised to remain

mindful towards the consciousnesses which are Anuttaras. What they may be? Here ‘A’
means ‘not’, ‘Uttara’ means ‘beyond’. ‘Citta’ means ‘consciousness’. Thus, anuttaracitta
means such consciousness, beyond which there is no consciousness. Buddhaghosa has
explained Anuttaracitta as RâpÅvacara and ArâpÅvacara (Anuttaranti RâpÅvacarañca
ArâpÅvacarañca). Here it may be stated that RâpÅvacara Citta in comparison to
ArâpÅvacaracitta is Sauttara. It means RâpÅvacaracitta is Sauttaracitta and
ArâpÅvacaracitta is the Anuttaracitta. However both the RâpÅvacara and ArâpÅvacaracittas
are, here, included as Anuttaracitta. The practitioner of Mindfulness remains aware and
mindful whenever there is the arising of the any Sauttara Citta.

176
Vism. XIII. 12.
 77

13. SamÅhitaµ vÅ Cittaµ (Concentrated Mind)

SamÅhita Citta: The word ‘SamÅhita’ means quieted, concentrated, calm, peaceful,
etc. Citta means consciousness. Therefore SamÅhitacitta refers to the quieted state of
consciousness or the mind which is concentrated, calm and peaceful. The Buddha says that,
“one whose mind is well-concentrated, comprehend all things as they are”. (SusamÅhito
YathÅbhâtaµ PajÅnÅti). Explaining the SamÅhita Citta,

Buddhaghosa speaks about the UpacÅrasamÅdhi and AppanÅsamÅdhi. To make it

more comprehensive, it may be stated that three kinds of SamÅdhi are stated; namely-
Parikamma SamÅdhi, UpacÅra SamÅdhi and AppanÅ SamÅdhi. There are differences among
them-and they should be understood in their real perspectives. In the present context of
practicing mindfulness, there is arising of SamÅhitacitta which means the consciousness or
any type of consciousness related to RâpasamÅdhi and ArâpasamÅdhi. The practitioner
remains mindful and aware of arising of such consciousness.

14. AsamÅhitaµ vā Cittaµ (Unconcentrated Mind)

AsamÅhita Citta: In the word ‘AsamÅhita’, ‘A’ is a prefix denoting the negative
sense. SamÅhita means concentrated. Therefore ‘AsamÅhita Citta’ means no concentration at
all. This term is used just in opposition to the SamÅhita Citta. It has already been mentioned,
the type of consciousness coming within the fold of SamÅhitacitta where there is
concentration of mind. On the contrary in the present context, it denotes the types of
consciousness which has no concentration at all. They may be KÅmÅvacaracitta both
Akusala and Kusala. Buddhaghosa, while commenting on the term says that it refers to the
type of consciousness where there is neither UpacÅrasamÅdhi nor AppanÅsamÅdhi. Here, we
should again note that the practitioner remains mindful of the arising of unconcentrated
consciousness. Generally speaking, one favors to keep awareness on concentrated
consciousness with attachment. In another way one expresses the hesitation to
unconcentrated consciousness. However, in the process of practice of mindfulness,
practitioners are advised to remain aware, watchful and mindful towards unconcentrated
mind as well as towards concentrated mind. It is in this way the process of CittÅnupassanÅ
goes on.
78

15. Vimuttaµ vā Cittaµ (Liberated Mind)

Vimutta Citta: The consciousness which is freed or which has achieved a state of
freedom is called “Vimuttacitta”. This is a general meaning. It is has some specific meaning
too. That specific meaning is TadaÙgavimutti and Vikkhambhanavimutti. Vimutti is freedom.
There is variation of synonyms of Vimutti such as PahÅna (abandonment), Viveka
(seclusion), VirÅga (detachment), Vossagga (relinquishing), Vimutti as well as PahÅna.177
Buddhaghosa refers to Vimutta Citta in CittÅnupassanÅ as only first two types of
consciousness which are mundane freedom. A practitioner of SatipaÊÊhÅna should be aware
on such consciousness watchfully and mindfully whenever such consciousness arises. He
comprehends clearly with mindfulness associated with non-clinging. This is the way of
purification.

16. Avimuttaµ vÅ Cittaµ (Unliberated Mind)

Avimutta Citta: A type of consciousness which is not freed is called Avimuttcitta. It

refers to the consciousness which is still with pollution. Buddhaghosa commenting upon this
type of consciousness makes a statement that it is freed with two kinds of freedom:
TadaÙgavimutti and Vikkhambhanavimutti-(UbhayasamÅdhivimutti). Further he says that
there is no attainment of Samucchedavimutti, PaÊipassaddhivimutti and Nissaraœavimutti. It
means this consciousness has no freedom at all. It is under the development of pollution.
Therefore, it is broadly called Avimuttacitta.

These states178 of consciousness have been defined and explained in the commentary
texts as mentioned.

Whether it is which kind of Citta such as mind with lust as mind with lust, mind
without lust as mind without lust… freed mind as freed mind; unfreed mind as unfreed
mind. The practitioner knows the nature of all minds as it really is.

177
Kh. 31/24/28 (MTP).
178
More detailed study may be had from, Phra Sudh≠varañāœa (Narong Cherdsungnoen), A Study of Sati
(Mindfulness) In Buddhism: Theory and Practice in Thai Tradition, Delhi: Thesis Submitted to the University of Delhi for
the award of the Degree of Docter of Philosophy, DU. Press, 1993, pp.79 -100.; More in Appendix C, Chart No. 2: These
states of consciousness have been defined and Explained in the commentary texts.
 79

So, mind is observed inside and outside. Mind inside (Ajjhattaµ) is a mind
experiencing something within the framework of the body. Mind is taken as outside when
it experiences an object from outside: when it feels a sound coming into contact with the
ear, a shape with the eye, a smell with the nose, a taste with the tongue, something tangible
with the body, or a thought of something outside.

However the whole process is still within the frame work of the body. Mind itself
always remains inside the body, even when its object is outside. Then arising and passing
is experienced and the stage of ‘Atthi cittan’ti is reached: it is just Viññāœa, just mind, not
‘I’ or ‘my’ mind. The awareness gets established in this. Then there is mere wisdom or
understanding, mere observation. There is nothing to support or to grasp.179

3.4 DhammÅnupassanÅ

The Buddha says: ‘And, how, O Bhikkhus,’ in order to expound the fivefold of
DhammÅnupassanÅ [contemplation of mental objects], after explaining the Arousing of
Mindfulness of the sixteenfold contemplation of consciousness. ‘DhammÅnupassanÅ’
consists of two terms, namely. ‘Dhamma’ and ‘Anupassana.’ The term ‘Dhamma’ is multi-
significant term and can be analysised as “DhÅret≠’ti Dhammo”, AnupassanÅ is as lasted
clear. So it is used in a number of senses in different contexts.

According to Phra Depved≠ (Prayudh Payutto) the meaning of ‘Dhamma’ is classified

into 11 groups as: 1) The Dhamma or Dharma, the Doctrine, the teachings (of the Buddha);
2) The Norm, the Law, nature; 3) The Truth, ultimate Reality; 4) The Supramundane, esp.
Nibbāna; 5) Righteousness, virtue, morality, good conduct, right behavior; 6) Tradition,
practice, principle, rule, duty; 7) Justice, impartiality; 8) Thing, phenomenon; 9) A
cognizable object, mind-object, idea; 10) Mental state, mental factor, mental activities; 11)
Condition, cause, causal antecedent.180

For BuddhadÅsa Bhikkhu, the ‘Dhamma’ of life has four meanings:

1). Nature itself;

179
S.N. Goenka, Discourses on SatipaÊÊhāna Sutta, Op.Cit.,pp.57-58.
180
Phra Brahmguœābharaœa (P.A. Payutto), Dictionary of Buddhism, Bangkok : MTP., Press, 1989, p. 382.
80

2). The law of nature;

3). The duty that must be performed according to that law of nature;
4). The fruits or benefits that arise from the performance of that duty.181

Coming to the point, a simple question appears as to “why did the Buddha expound
only five Dhammas in course of describing the DhamÅnupassanÅ?” A simple answer to this
question may be that the heart of the practice is included in these five Dhammas. Only
fivefold Dhamma has covered all mental objects, so the Buddha has expressed only five
Dhammas in DhammÅnupassanÅ. These techniques can be illustrated by the following
table:182

In the context of MahÅsatipaÊÊhÅna Sutta, it is evident that the word “Dhammas” is

indicative of the N≠varaœas (hindrances), Khandhas (group of aggregates), Äyatanas (bases
or doors), BojjhaÙgas (factors of enlightenment) and Ariyasaccas (Noble Truths).183 Let us
study the five Dhammas in detail according to the sources available in PÅli original texts as
well as their commentaries on the Application of Mindfulness revealed by the Buddha.

3.4.1 N≠varaœas (The Hindrance)

Hindrances of mind are those factors which prevent it from making progress or not to
allow it to good deeds and bring mind to sadness. N≠varaœas are enemy or hindrance directly
of mindfulness. Mindfulness can only cut stream of hindrances to bring of mind to good
deeds and prevent mind from evil and bring to it happiness. In this context, KhuddakanikÅya
states thus:

“ ‘The currents in the world that flow, Ajita,’

Said the Blessed one,
“ ‘Are stemmed by means of mindfulness, streamed
“ ‘Restraint of currents, I proclaim,

181
BuddhadÅsa Bhikkhu, Mindfulness with Breathing, Bangkok: Parp Pim, Ltd., Press, 1988,p.4.
182
Appendix C, Chart No.3: these techniques can be illustrated in the table.
183
More detailed study may be had from, Phra Sudh≠varañāœa (Narong Cherdsungnoen), A Study of Sati
(Mindfulness) In Buddhism: Theory and Practice in Thai Tradition,Phra Sudh≠varañāœa, Op. Cit., pp.101-166.
 81

“ ‘By understanding they are dammed’ ” 184

Therefore, Sati is Dhammāvudha (weapon of Dhamma) to stop stream of hindrances

because they are negative factors to meditation. They hinder or obstruct the gaining of
concentration or do not allow the mind to develop one-pointedness. It is in this sense that
N≠varaœa is called ‘hindrance’. In SÅmaññaphala Sutta, the Buddha had explained the
hindrance with the help of five similes; namely: as debt, disease, a prison, slavery, lost on a
desert road, as these situations hinder and make the man bewilder, similarly the hindrances
make the mind bewilder, to understand the above statement, firstly, we need to be familiar
with the five hindrances which are as follows: 185

1. KÅmacchanda: sensual desire.

2. ByÅpÅda: ill-will.
3. Th≠na-Middha: sloth and torpor.
4. Uddhaccakukkucca: flurry and worry.
5. VicikicchÅ: doubt, mistrust.

(I). KÅmachanda: The world ‘KÅma’ refers to ‘sensual desire’. ‘Chanda’ means
‘desire’. Therefore, KÅmacchanda is sensual desire. What does this sensual desire mean? We
have six senses; namely: eyes, ears, nose, tongue, body and mind. There are six respective
objects, namely- visible object, audible object, odorous object, sapid object, tangible object,
ideational-object. These sense-organs like to have an agreeable object with it. Meaning the
eye likes to see the visible object which is pleasant, agreeable. The ears like to hear an
audible object which is agreeable. Similar is the case with the other senses. Thus each sense
likes to enjoy the pleasure of each object. Such liking is called KÅmacchanda.

(II) ByÅpÅda: It means ill-will, hatred, enmity, or sense of retaliation etc. This is the
name of a desire to harm others. It does not perform its function with respect to the present
movement but it functions with and in all dimensions of time. It functions with the past,
present and future in the following ways: he had harmed me in the past; he is harming me in

184
‘YÅni sotÅni lokasmiµ AjitÅ’ti (BhagavÅ) Sati tesaµ nivÅraœaµ.
SotÅnaµ saµvaraµ brâmi, paññÅyete pidiyyare’ti. .Kh.25, p 530.; Also vide in Ñānamoli,
Bhikkhu, (tr). The Path of Purification. Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society Press, 1997.
185
A. 3. p.62.(PTS);T.W. Rhys Davids, Dialogues of the Buddha, London, PTS., 1997.
82

the present; he may harm me in the future; or he had harmed my near and dear one in the
past; he is harming my near and dear ones in the present, he may harm my dear and near
ones in the future; or he had helped my enemy in the past, he is helping my enemy in the
present, he may help my enemy in the future. In this way, these are the dimensions of the
functioning of ByÅpÅda in the three units of time.

(III) Th≠na-Middha : Th≠na-Middha is generally translated as sloth and torpor. If we

go deeper, we find that the word has been explained well in DhammasaÙœ≠ as Th≠na is a
laziness connected with consciousness. The Middha is laziness connected with psychic
factor (Cittassa anusaho th≠naµ; cetasikÅnaµ akammaññatÅ middhaµ).

(IV) Uddhacca-kukkucca: The term Uddhacca-kukkucca appears in combination.

They are generally translated as flurry and worry or restlessness and worry. It becomes
clearer when we analyse its literal meaning. ‘Uddhacca’ means bewilderment of
consciousness or wandering of consciousness. Kukkucca is brooding over what has been
done and what has not been done. It is explained as ‘KatÅkatamusocanaµ.’ The former
makes the mind bewilder, the latter makes the mind to brute this way. These two terms are
coined together and function as a hindrance of mind.

(V) VicikicchÅ: The term ‘VicikicchÅ’ generally is translated as ‘doubt.’ ‘Vi’ is a

prefix which has been used to bring in a negative sense. ‘CikicchÅ’ means reflect,
determination, decision, etc. It denotes a state of mind where there is no decision at all. The
problem being or finding the problem, it moves from one angle to another. Therefore, it is
translated as “Anekantagaho-getting off many aspects and not determining anyone”.

In MahÅsatipaÊÊhÅna Sutta, the technique of the observation of N≠varaœa is advised

by the Buddha one by one as follows:

“Bhikkhus, how does a Bhikkhu dwell contemplating the Dhammas in the

Dhammas of the five hindrances? “Here, Bhikkhus, when sensedesire is present
in him, the Bhikkhu knows, ‘There is sense desire in me’; or when sensedesire is
absent in him, he knows, ‘There is no sensedesire in me’. He also knows the
reason why the arising of the nonarisen sensedesire comes to be; he also knows
the reason why the abandoning of arisen sensedesire comes to be; and he also
 83

knows the reason why the non-arising in the future of the abandoned sense-desire
comes to be…ill-will… sloth and torpor… restlessness and remorse… doubt.”

So, also in case of remaining hindrances, sensual desire is replaced by another

hindrance one by one. The formulas or principles concerning with N≠varaœa in DhammÅ-
nupassanÅ may be stated as below:

1. Knowledge of the present phenomena of N≠varaœa as to whether it is present or not.

2. Knowledge of the origin of such hindrances.
3. Knowledge of the abandonment of them.
4. Knowledge on how to make their abandonment permanent.

Contemplation on N≠varaœa (hindrances)

A man can be pure or impure depending on the purity and impurity of his
consciousness. In the purity of consciousness, the major obstacle is called N≠varaœa. A brief
description of each of them is being given here.

(I) Contemplation on KÅmacchanda.

According to MahÅsatipaÊÊhÅna Sutta; the practitioner, in case of sensual desire,

should practice in the following ways:

1. One should know or observe minutely the present phenomena of sensual desire as
to whether it is present or not (Santaµ vÅ asantaµ vā).
2. One should look at or observe minutely the arising of unarisen sensual desire. It is
said in Saµyutta that AyonisomanasikÅra or unwise attention in Subhanimitta (the alluring
feature of things) is the cause for arising of sensual desire.186
3. One should know clearly the method of abandonment of it. According to ÄhÅra
Sutta in Saµyutta, YonisomanasikÅra or wise attention to the repulsive feature of things is
the way to abandonment of sensual desire.
4. One should know how to make avoidance of abandoned sensual desire
permanently in the future. Initially, in the beginning, the practitioners are advised to practice

186
S.V. 101-102.
84

six Dhammas as the way of absolute abandonment in the future. These are the six steps that
are conducive to the abandonment of sensual desire:

(a) Holding firmly in the repulsive feature of things.

(b) Developing meditation on repulsive objects.
(c) Guarding the sense doors.
(d) Moderation in eating.
(e) Association with good friends.
(f) Suitable conversation.

Finally at the end, the practitioners should try to attain Arahattamagga which is the
absolute abandonment of sensual desire.

(II) Contemplation on ByÅpÅda (ill-will)

In the process of practice of AnupassanÅ on ill-will, the practitioner is advised to

follow the following principles which are available in MahÅsatipaÊÊhÅna Sutta and its
commentary as follows:

Firstly, one should understand clearly the present situation of ill-will in oneself
whether it is present or not.

Secondly, one should observe minutely the cause of arising of ill-will. Unwise
attention to the repulsive feature of things is the cause of arising of ill-will.

Thirdly, one should comprehend minutely on the avoidance of arisen ill-will. Wise
attention on objects with MettÅcetovimutti or freedom of mind from hatred by developing
loving-kindness is the way of abandonment of arisen ill-will.

Fourthly, one should know how to make that abandonment of ill-will permanent in
the future. These are the six things that are conducive to the abandonment of ill-will;

a. Holding strongly to meditation on loving-kindness.

b. Developing mind with loving-kindness.
c. Wisely considering the action which has been performed by oneself voluntarily.
d. Wise attention as a common nature.
 85

e. Association with good friends.

f. Suitable conversation.
Lastly, mental growth should be made up to AnÅgÅm≠-magga or non-returner.

(III) Contemplation on Th≠na-middha (Sloth and Torpor).

In the process of practice of AnupassanÅ on sloth and torpor, the following principles
are applied.
1. The practitioner should know clearly on the present phenomena of sloth and torpor
whether it is present or not in oneself.

2. The practitioner should know the cause of arising of Th≠na-middha. Unwise

attention to the following Dhammas; Boredom, Lassitude, Languid of body, Lethargy after
meal, Dullness of mind (L≠natta) is the cause of arising of sloth and torpor.

3. The practitioner should know clearly on how to abandon the arisen sloth and
torpor. It is said that YonisomanasikÅra or wise attention to the following Kusala Dhammas:
ÄrambhadhÅtu (element of inceptive energy); NikkammadhÅtu (element of exertion) and
ParakkamdhÅtu (element of progressive endeavor) results in the abandonment of arisen sloth
and torpor.

4. The practitioner should make the abandonment permanent in the future. Initially,
in the beginning, these six things should be known and developed by him. They are (1)
seeing the reason of sloth and torpor in terms of eating too much or gluttony, (2) changing of
postures completely, (3) reflection on the perception of light, (4) staying in the open-air, (5)
systematic and helpful companionship with good, and (6) having a healthy conversation that
assists in dispelling sloth and torpor. Finally, the process of practice which can be abandoned
completely from Th≠na-middha, is Arahanta-magga, in the sense that it cannot arise again in
the future.

(IV) Contemplation on Uddhacca-kukkucca (flurry and worry)

To understand the fact clearly about flurry and worry, one should carefully observe
the following principles:
86

Firstly, one should observe minutely the present phenomena of Uddhacca-kukkucca

(flurry and worry) as to whether it is present or not in oneself.

Secondly, one should understand about the origin of flurry and worry. It is said that
AyonisomanasikÅra or unwise attention in non-calming of mind is the origin or arising of
flurry and worry.

Thirdly, one should see clearly to the abandonment of flurry and worry.
YonisomanasikÅra or wise reflection on calming of mind is the abandonment of flurry and
worry.

Fourthly, the following Dhammas should be developed in oneself: being well taught,
questioning, understanding of disciplinary rules, and association with the elders who have
more experience, association with good friends, engaging in healthy conversation and so on.

Lastly, the absolute abandonment of flurry and worry will come about in the future
by attainment of AnÅgÅmi-magga for worry and Arahatta-magga for flurry.

(V) Contemplation on Vicikicchā (Doubt)

In the process of SatipaÊÊhÅna practice, one should observe minutely on doubt in the
following manner:

(1) One should know clearly the present phenomena of doubt as to whether it is
present or not in oneself.
(2) One should understand the cause of arising of doubt. It is said that
AyonisomanasikÅra or unwise attention in Dhammas is the cause of arising of doubt.

(3) One should know clearly the abandonment of doubt which has arisen from
YonisomanasikÅra or wise attention to moral things and immoral things such as things
blameful and blameless, things to be practiced and not to be practiced, things of low and
high value, things of dark and fair, comparable to bad and good, done intensely.

(4) One should develop these six Dhammas for supporting of the abandonment of
doubt. They are: a) being well taught, b) questioning; c) understanding of the training rules,
 87

d) strong inclination toward the triple Gem, e) association with good friends, and f) suitable
Dhamma conversation.

Lastly, the attainment of SotÅpatti-magga leads to the permanent abandonment of

doubt in future. Thus is the practice of contemplation on hindrances following the process of
DhammÅnupassanÅ. 187

3.4.2 Pañca UpÅdÅnakkhandhas (Clinging for Five Aggregates)

“Bhikkhus, a Bhikkhu in Dhamma-vinaya, knows, this is material form,

this is the arising and passing away of material form…feeling…perception…
mental formations…consciousness…” has been said by the Buddha in Mahā-
satipaÊÊhāna-sutta.

Right, after the brief description of the N≠varaœas comes immediately the turn of
Pañca-upÅdÅnakkhandhÅs. One should observe them carefully. In this process, the attempt
should be directed in two ways, namely: presenting a brief exposition of the five aggregates
and examining clearly the difference between the Pañca Khandhas and PañcupÅdÅna-
kkhandhÅs.

In this context, one should understand clearly that there is a clear difference between
the two. When the five-aggregates are associated with the UpÅdÅna, they are called
PañcaupÅdÅnakkhandhas. ‘UpÅdÅna’ means a strong desire. It is defined as, “Balavati
TaœhÅ UpÅdÅnaµ”. It is rendered that when mental pollutions like clinging, grasping, etc.
arise with the five aggregates; it makes them polluted and in this way initiates the process of
repeated existence.

These are just like the village inhabited by thieves (CoragÅma). The village itself is
not polluted but it gets polluted because of the existence of thieves. After sometime when
the thieves are killed the village becomes without the thieves. Then, it is, of course called
‘CoragÅma)’ but not with thieves. Similarly when the five aggregates are associated with

187
More detailed study may be had from, Phra Sudh≠varañāœa (Narong Cherdsungnoen), A Study of Sati
(Mindfulness) In Buddhism: Theory and Practice in Thai Tradition, Op.Cit., pp.104 -111.
88

UpÅdÅna, they are polluted and when they are freed from them, they remain without
pollution only as PañcakkhandhÅ.

Here arises a question, as to what are then RâpakkhandhÅ, VedanÅkkhandhÅ,

SaññÅkhandhÅ, SaÙkhÅrakkhandhÅ and ViññÅœakkhandÅ? Each of them has a definite
concept as well as a definite technical sense attached to it. They are of varieties and taking
together those varieties, they are called Khandhas. Here, a brief description of each of the
five aggregates is undertaken.

(I) RâpakkhandhÅ (Material Aggregate)

First of all, we should know; “what is the Râpa?” A question has been raised in the
DhammasaÙgaœ≠ that asks, “What is that which is named as all matters, all material
qualities? (Tattha Katamaµ Sabbaµ Râpan’ti). The answer is that there are four
MahÅbhâtÅs and the RâpÅs generated by that (CattÅro ca mahÅbhâtÅ catunnaµ ca
mahÅbhâtÅnaµ upÅdÅya râpaµ.). Here, it has been clearly shown that Râpa is at least
twenty three in number. The four MahÅbhâtas have the twenty-three types of UpÅdÅyarâpa
or the Râpa generated by them. Here, the heap of these twenty-seven types of material
quality is called Râpakkhandha or the material aggregate.

In the later Abhidhammic tradition the number of UpÅdÅyarâpa is twenty four.

Here, one additional type of material quality has been included and that is the Hadayavatthu-
(heart-base). With this, the total number of material quality becomes twenty-eight. This
group or the heap of these material qualities is Râpakkhandha. It has been captured by the
expression like: “Râpakkhandho’ti RâparÅsi RâpakoÊÊhÅso.”

Râpa has been analyzed by putting it into several divisions; namely-two types, eleven
types and twenty-eight types. It is studied as consisting of two types by putting it in two
divisions like MahÅbhâtarâpa and UpÅdÅyarâpa.188

Here, in presenting a brief exposition of the Râpa, it seems desirable to write on the
way under which it comes under the process of VipassanÅ. Generally, the text presents the

188
Appendix B, as the part 3: Râpas.
 89

analysis of arising and disappearance of material aggregate and maintains thereby the
impermanent nature of reality or universal flux.

The PaÊisambhidÅmagga has taken up these problems and described them in the
form of question and answer. It may be seen as below:

“What is the arising of material quality?”

The answer runs as:
“With the arising of ignorance (AvijjÅ)…..,
With the arising of craving (TaœhÅ)……,
With the arising of action (Kamma)……,
With the arising of nutriment (ĀhÅra).

There is the arising of material quality. He who sees the characteristic of generation
sees the rise of material aggregate. What is the disappearance of material quality? The
answer goes likes this “with the cessation of ignorance-craving-action-nutriment, there is the
cessation of material quality. He, who sees the characteristic of change, sees the
disappearance of the material aggregate. Thus are the arising and disappearance of
Râpakkhandha the material aggregate.

(II) VedanÅkkhandha (The Feeling –Aggregate)

Here, the feeling as we treat in aggregate, is obviously not one but it is always in
“many”. In VibhaÙga, it has been described with the help of question and answer. First of
all, the question is raised as, “What is feeling-aggregate? The answer runs as “whatever
feeling is there, past, future, present, internal or external, gross or subtle bad or good, distant
or near, all of them taken together as a whole is called the feeling-aggregate.”

It has been also answered with reference to the six senses; namely: the feeling
originated by the contact of the eye with visible object (CakkhusamphassajÅvedanÅ), the
feeling originated by the contact of the ear with audible object (SotasamphassajÅvedanÅ),
the feeling originated by the contact of the nose with the odorsable object (GhÅna-
samphassajÅvedanÅ), the feeling originated by the contact of the tongue with the sapid
object (JivhÅsamphassajÅvedanÅ), the feeling originated by the contact of the body with
tangible object (KÅyasamphassajÅvedanÅ) and the feeling originated due to the contact of
90

the mind with the mental objects (ManosamphassajÅvedanÅ).189 Thus, from this angle, there
are six types of the feeling.

It is in this way the process of cessation of feeling should also be understood. The
practitioner in the way of practicing DhammÅnupassanÅ observes feeling as an aggregate
and thereafter the process of its arising as well as its disappearing. 190

(III) SaññÅkkhandha (Perception – Aggregate)

In the word ‘SaññÅkkhandha (perception-aggregate)’, the term “SaññÅ” is generally

translated as perception, knowing or understanding. However, it is the proper understanding
of the object in its form and colour whenever an object appears in the range of sense-organ.
It may be blue, black, red or white, etc. This may be known as the domain of SaññÅ. It does
not go beyond it. It is in this sense SaññÅ is called perception. Again, it is called
SaññÅkkhandha which means the heap of perception, group of perception or everything
about perception. It does not indicate that SaññÅ is only one but it has many forms.

Apparently, it has been noticed that there are six types of SaññÅ with respect to six
types of object. These are the perception of visible objects (RâpasaññÅ), audible objects
(SaddasaññÅ), odour (GandhasaññÅ), taste (RasasaññÅ), tangible object (PhoÊÊhabbasaññÅ),
and ideas (DhammasaññÅ). They may be stated with reference to the past, present, future,
etc., and in this way, the number of SaññÅ gets multiplied. Taking them together, it is called
SaññÅkkhandha or the group of perception or knowing the aggregates in this sense.

First of all, SaññÅ should be understood properly. SaññÅ has been expressed in many
pages in Canonical Texts as well as the commentaries. D≠ghanikÅya has studied the ten
SaññÅs191 by putting them in new forms.

189
S.III.243.
190
More detail in this chapter as 3.2 VedanÅnupassanÅ.
191
D.III. 291; A.V.109. These SaññÅs: 1. AniccasaññÅ (contemplation on impermanency) 2. AnattasaññÅ
(contemplation on impersonality) 3. AsubhsaññÅ (contemplation on foulness) 4. Äd≠navasaññÅ (contemplation on the
disadvantage of the body) 5. PahÅnasaññÅ (contemplation on the abandonment) 6. VirÅgasaññÅ (contemplation on
detachment) 7. NirodhasaññÅ (contemplation on cessation) 8. Sabbaloke AnabhiratasaññÅ (contemplation on the non-
delightfulness of the whole world) 9. SabbasaÙkhÅresu AniÊÊhasaññÅ (contemplation on the non-pleasantness of the whole
world) 10. ÄnÅpÅnasati (mindfulness of in and out breathing).
 91

Visuddhimagga has tried to explain it from ethical point of view, explaining it as

KusalasaññÅ, AkusalasaññÅ, and AbyÅkatasaññÅ. In this context, one should understand that
SaññÅ, here, is a Cetasika classified as Sabbacitta-sÅdhÅraœa Cetasika. All the psychic-
factors are available with all types of consciousness. Therefore, when they are available with
moral consciousness, it is a moral perception. When it is available with immoral
consciousness, it is called an immoral perception and when it is available with indeterminate
type of consciousness (VipÅkacitta or AbyÅkatacitta) it is called an indeterminate perception.

Thus, it is seen that the perception has been examined from different angles of reason
in various contexts in texts. However, we need not go into detail about its variety. Here it
should be indicated as how SaññÅ-khandha has been treated in the process of
DhammÅnupassanÅ as well as in PaÊisambhidÅmagga. It is stated that the practitioner
observes minutely the appearance and disappearance of SaññÅkkhandha in the following
ways. There is a process of its arising. It is said that, “with the arising of ignorance, desire,
action, and contact, there is the arising of perception. Again, the YocÅvacara minutely
observes how that SaññÅ comes into being. He further observes the disappearance of
perception too. It is said that with the gradual disappearances of ignorance, desire, action and
contact, there is also disappearance of perception. When carefully observed its state, he
remains aware of the fact of each disappearance of perception. In this way, the practice of
DhammÅnupassanÅ in SaññÅkkhandha continues.

(IV) SaÙkhÅrakkhandha (The formation-Aggregate)

The term ‘SaÙkhÅra’ is a multi-dimensional term. It has different senses of meaning

in different contexts. Here, it has been used in a definite sense and in that sense it connotes
group which comprises fifty psychic-factors. The two psychical factors namely: VedanÅ and
SaññÅ are not included in this group as they have been represented separately in
VedanÅkkhandha and SaññÅkkhandha. For this reason, it is called a group of SaÙkhÅras or
mental-aggregate.

VibhaÙga has classified it under eleven heads as past, future, present, internal,
external, gross, subtle, bad, good, distant and near. These together collectively and briefly,
thus, are called the formation aggregate.
92

AbhidhammatthasaÙgaha taking up later on Abhidhamma, explains it in teams of

fifty two psychic factors (Cetasika) in this way: A). The 13 General Mental Factors; B). The
14 Immoral Mental Factors; C). The 25 Moral Mental Factors.192

To a practitioner, there is the process of observing it as it is and also observing of the

process of arising and disappearing of the SaÙkhÅrakkhandha.

It has been said in PaÊisambhidÅ-magga that, with the arising of ignorance…

desire…action…contact, there is the arising of the formation aggregate. In the process of
disappearing, it is also said that, with the cessation of ignorance-with the cessation of desire-
with the cessation of action-with the cessation of contact, there is the disappearance of
SaÙkhÅrakkhandha. It is in this way, SaÙkhÅrakkhandha has been understood clearly
through the process of AnupassanÅ on the formation aggregate.

(V) ViññÅœakkhandha (Consciousness Aggregate)

A simple question is raised, here, that; “what is the ViññÅœakkhandha? The answer is
that a combination of all consciousness, a heap of consciousness which belongs to four
spheres; KÅmÅvacara, RâpÅvacara, ArâpÅvacara and Lokuttara is called Consciousness
Aggregate.

General division of consciousness has been made in VibhaÙga and Visuddhimagga,

etc., into two types, three types, four types, etc. There are two types of consciousness;
namely - Lokiyacitta and Lokuttaracitta (mundane and supermundane). The consciousness is
divided into three types as Kusala Citta (moral consciousness), Akusala Citta (immoral
consciousness) and AbyÅkata Citta (indeterminate consciousness). There are four types of
consciousness with reference to 121 Bhâmis (sphere).193

The consciousness is classified into six types; namely - CakkhuviññÅœa (eye –

consciousness), SotaviññÅœa (ear-consciousness), GhÅnaviññÅœa (nose-consciousness),
J≠vhÅviññÅœa (tongue-consciousness), KÅyaviññÅœa (body-consciousness) and ManoviññÅœa
(mind-consciousness).

192
Appendix B, as the part 2. Cetasika (mental factors.
193
Vism. XIV. 82-124; Appendix B, as 1.Citta.
 93

There are eleven types of consciousness as described in VibhaÙga that; “whatever

consciousness are past, future or present, internal or external, gross or subtle, bad or good,
distant or near; (taking) these together collectively and briefly, this is called the Aggregate of
consciousness.”

All types of these consciousnesses have been explained in detail in VibhaÙga as an

analysis of five aggregates and also in Khandhaniddesa of Visuddhimagga. The Buddha had
clearly explained the characteristics of five aggregates with the help of simile as follows:
“Râpakkhandha is similar to a ball of foam, VedanÅkkhandha is like a bubble blown;
SaññÅkkhandha is as a mirage; SaÙkhÅrakkhandha is just like a plantain trunk and
ViññÅœakhandha is similar to a Phantom. 194

In the process of DhammÅnupassanÅ, the practitioner should carefully observe the

real nature of consciousness as well as the arising and disappearing of the consciousness. It
has been said in PaÊisambhidÅmagga that, the arising and disappearing of consciousness
depend upon the origination and the cessation of condition. With the arising of
ignorance…with the arising of desire…with the arising of action…with the arising of mind
and matter; there is the arising of consciousness. In the way of cessation, with the cessation
of ignorance…with the cessation of desire… with the cessation of action… with the
cessation of mind and matter, there is the disappearing of consciousness.”

This is the process of arising and disappearing of the consciousness-aggregate.

It is in this way, the practitioner understands clearly these aggregates as

impermanent, suffering and non-self. The clinging cannot come to be in the process of
consciousness. Then, there is not the origin of suffering. It helps in the development of the
purification of mind. 195

194
S.III. 141-142 (PTS)
195
More detailed study may be had from, Phra Sudh≠varañāœa (Narong Cherdsungnoen), A Study of Sati
(Mindfulness) In Buddhism: Theory and Practice in Thai Tradition, Op.Cit., pp.112 -123.
94

3.4.3 Äyatanas (the Bases) 196

A brief description of the five aggregates has been made in the last chapter. Now it
comes the turn of the contemplating on Äyatana in the process of DhammÅnupassanÅ. The
term ‘Äyatana’ literary means ‘base’. The base which leads to conjunction between internal
and external faculties (AjjhattikabÅhira) is called Äyatana,197 that there are twelve bases
namely: eye base, ear base, nose base, tongue base, body base, mind base, visible base,
audible base, odorous base, sapid base, tangible base and ideational base. The Buddha had
expressed contemplation on sense-bases in MahÅsatipaÊÊhÅnasutta as follows: And further,
Bhikkhus, a Bhikkhu lives contemplating the six internal and six external sense bases as
mental objects.

‘How, Bhikkhus, does a Bhikkhu live contemplating the six internal and six
external sense-bases, and mental objects?’ ‘Bhikkhus, a Bhikkhu in Dhamma-
vinaya knows the eye and visible objects and the fetter that arises dependent on
both. He knows how the non-arisen fetter arises; he knows how the arisen fetter
disappears; and he knows how the non-arising in the future of the abandoned fetter
come to be.’;…the ears and audible objects….nose and odorous objects…tongue
and sapid objects….body and tangible objects….mind and ideational objects…

‘…..in this way, Bhikkhus, a Bhikkhu lives contemplating the six internal
and six external sense-bases as mental objects.’198

From this statement of the Buddha, it is important to understand the following

points:

1. Understanding of the nature of twelve sense-bases both internal and external.

2. Observation on the contact between internal and external sense-bases.
3. Contemplation on the arising of fetters depending on the result of contact of sense
bases.
4. Abandonment of the arisen fetters.

196
Appendix C, at the Chart No. 5: Äyatanas (six doors)].
197
Vbh.A. 145-150 (MTP): Ayanatto ayanaµ tananato ayatassa ca nayanato Äyatanan’ti veditabbaµ.
198
D.II. 302; DB.II.336 (PTS-1989)
 95

5. How to maintain the abandonment of the arisen permanently in the future.

First of all, it should be known to the definition of twelve bases called internal and
external senses-bases that there is clear analysis of them, like this:

Internal bases (Ajjhattika): Cakkhu or eye is relished (Cakkhat≠’ti Cakkhu), the

meaning is that it enjoys a visible object and turns it to account. Sota or ear is to hear
(SuœÅt≠’ti Sotaµ). GhÅna or Nose is to smell (GhÅyat≠’ti ghÅnaµ). JivhÅ or tongue is to
evoke life (J≠vitamavhÅyat≠’ti JivhÅ). KÅya or body is the origin (Aya) of vile (Kucchita), it
states subject to cankers or it is origin being the place of arising of loathsome (KucchitÅnaµ
Sāsava-dhammÅnaµ Ayo’ti KÅyo). Mano or mind is as measure (Manat≠’ti Mano).199 This
mind is accompanied with all contact of all bases, so mind base is by the way of manifold
division, thus it is called mind base.200

External bases (Bahiddhā): The visible object is as it makes visible, thus it is a

visible object (RâpÅyat≠’ti Râpaµ); the meaning is that it proclaims the appearance of
various colours in the mind of seer. Visible object and base are called visible base. The
audible base is as; “it is emitted, thus it is sound (Saddat≠’ti Saddo), the meaning is that it is
uttered.201 Audible object and base are called Audible base. The odorous base is as; “it is
smelt, thus it is odour (GandhÅyat≠’ti Gandho), the meaning is that it betrays its own
physical bases,” the odorous object and base are called odorous base. 202

The sapid base which is there, is meaning like this; “Living beings taste it, this is its
flavour (Rasanti taµ sattÅ’ti Raso), the meaning is that they enjoy it,” the sapid and base are
called sapid base. The tangible base or PhoÊÊhabba is defined as it is touched, thus it
is a tangible thing (Phassiyat≠’ti Phasso), the tangible things and base are called tangible
base.203

199
Vism.XV.3.
200
VibhaÙga 35/161/82 (MTP).
201
Vism. XV.3.
202
Vism. VX.3.
203
Vism. XV.3.
96

The ideational base that is the aggregate of feeling, aggregate of perception,

aggregate of mental formation and that invisible non-impinged material quality included in
the ideational base; the unconditioned element.204

And the aggregate of feeling, the aggregate of perception, the aggregate of mental
formation, are described as similar as mind base. The difference is only on the point of
invisible non-impinged matter and unconditioned element.

Further, the invisible non-impinged matter included in ideational base which is said
that the controlling faculty of femininity, controlling faculty of masculinity; the nutrient
factor of food. This is called invisible non-impinged matter included in ideational base.

And the unconditioned element which is said that the destruction of lust; the
destruction of hatred; the destruction of dullness. This is called the unconditioned element.205
This is called ideational base because Dhammas cause their own characteristic to be borne,
thus they are ideational objects (Attano lakkhaœaµ DhÅret≠’ti DhammÅ).206

This is the general nature of the bases. For the second stage of contemplating on the
bases, Lord Buddha advises the practitioner to observe the arising of consciousness because
of contact of internal bases with external bases; viz., eye and visible object, ear and audible
object, nose and odorous object, tongue and sapid object, body and tangible object, mind and
ideational object.

The clear illustration of the process of arising of consciousness because of the contact
of internal bases and external bases can be found in the words of the Enlightened one in
MahÅtaœhakkhaya Sutta as follows:

“It is because, Bhikkhus, and appropriate condition arises that

consciousness is known by this or that name: if consciousness arises because of eye
and visible objects, it is known as eye-consciousness: if consciousness arises
because of ear and audible objects, it is known as ear consciousness; if
consciousness arises because of nose and odorous object, it is known as nose-

204
VibhaÙga 35/167/84-85 (MTP).
205
This is the definition of NibbÅna in VibhaÙga: 35/167/94 (MTP).
206
Vism. VX.3.
 97

consciousness; if consciousness arises because of tongue and tastes, it is known as

tongue consciousness; if consciousness arises because of body and tangible object,
it is known as body consciousness; if consciousness arises because of mind and
ideational objects, it is known as mind consciousness.

Bhikkhus, as a fire burns because of this and that appropriate condition, by

this and that it is known: if a fire burns because of sticks, it is known as a stick-fire;
and if fire burns because of chips, it is known as a chip-fire and if a fire burns
because of grass, it is known as a grass-fire; and if a fire burns because of chaff, it
is known as a chaff-fire; and if a fire burns because of rubbish, it is known as a
rubbish fire.”207

It is by this way, the practitioner can observe clearly on the contact between internal
and external bases. This contact is one condition of arising of consciousness. Whether
consciousness is immoral or moral; depends upon the arising of the fetters or abandonment
of them. The process of arising and abandonment of fetters should be focus of study in the
practice of DhammÅnupassanÅ on the bases.

Literally speaking, ‘fetter’ is a translation of the word ‘Saµyojana’. This term

sometimes is defined as bond, attachment, tendency etc. in technical sense. It is the bond of
human passion which binds man to repeated existence. The removal of fetter is obtained by
entrance into the Noble path; SotÅpattimagga (path of stream-enterer), SakadÅgÅmi-magga
(One returner), AnÅgÅmimagga (the path of non-returner) and Arahattamagga (the path of
Arahanta).

There are ten fetters as described in SuttantapiÊaka. They are classified into two
groups; namely: Pañca OrambhÅgiyasaµyojanas (five lower fetters), and Pañca Uddham-
bhÅgiya-saµyojanas (five higher fetters). They are as follows:

The 5 lower fetters: 1. SakkÅyadiÊÊhi (false view of individuality), 2. VicikicchÅ

(doubt), 3. S≠labbattaparÅmÅsa (adherence to rites and rituals), 4. KÅmarÅga (sensual lust),
and 5. PaÊigha (repulsion, aversion, ill-will). The 5 higher fetters are: 6. RâparÅga

207
M.I. 259.
98

(attachment to the realm of form), 7. ArâparÅga (attachment for formless realm), 8. MÅna
(conceit or pride), 9. Uddhacca (restlessness), and 10. AvijjÅ (ignorance).

But in Abhidhammic text, there are some different points. The fetters are classified in
Abhidhammic text as follows: 1. KÅmarÅga (sensual lust); 2. PaÊigha (repulsion); 3. MÅna
(conceit or pride); 4. DiÊÊhi (false views); 5. VicikicchÅ (doubt); 6. S≠labbataparÅmÅsa
(adherence to rites and rituals); 7. BhavarÅga (greed for existence); 8. IssÅ (envy); 9.
Macchariya (meanness, stinginess, or avarice); 10. AvijjÅ (ignorance)

In several texts, fetters are called Anusaya (latent tendency) such as KÅma-
rÅgÅnusaya, PaÊighÅnusaya, DiÊÊhÅnusaya, VicikicchÅnusaya, MÅnÅnusaya, BhavarÅgÅ-
nusaya and AvijjÅnusaya. In brief, the Buddha has expressed the tendencies having only
three types; namely - RÅgÅnusaya (lust tendency), PaÊighÅnusaya (repulsion tendency) and
AvijjÅnusaya (ignorance tendency). All fetters and latent tendencies are included in these
three types of Anusaya (tendency). This means that KÅmarÅga, BhavarÅga, Macchariya are
included in RÅgÅnusaya (tendency of lust). MÅna and IssÅ are included in PaÊighÅnusaya
(tendency of repulsion). DiÊÊhi, VicikicchÅ and S≠labbataparÅmÅsa are included in
AvijjÅnusaya (tendency of ignorance).

The process of arising of consciousness, association of internal and external bases,

the appearance of feeling and fetters or tendencies and the origin of suffering has been
described in several discourses of Majjhima NikÅya particularly on the chapter of six bases
(Sa¿Åyatana-vagga).208

The systematic explanation of six internal sense bases, six external sense bases, six
classes of consciousness, six classes of feeling and six classes of craving has been given in
Chachakka Sutta of Mijjhima NikÅya. The passages run as follows:

“It is in reference to the sense base of eye, ear, nose, tongue, body and mind. When it
is said, ‘six internal sense bases are to be understood’, it is said in reference to this.

208
M.III. 358-302.
 99

It is in reference to the sense base of visible objects, audible objects, odorous

objects, sapid objects, tangible objects, and ideational objects. When it is said, ‘Six external
sense bases are to be understood, it is said in reference to this.

It is in reference to the eye-consciousness that arises because of eye and visible

objects; ear consciousness…ear and audible objects; the nose consciousness…nose and
odorous objects; the tongue consciousness…tongue and sapid objects; the body
consciousness…body and tangible objects; the mind consciousness…mind and ideational
objects. When it is said, ‘six classes of consciousness are to be understood’, it is said in
reference to this.

It is in reference to the eye-consciousness that arises because of eye and visible

objects-the meeting of three is sensory contact. The ear consciousness…ear and audible-
objects-; the nose-consciousness…nose and odorous objects-; the tongue-consciousness
…tongue and sapid object-; the body consciousness…body and tangible object-; the mind
consciousness-mind and ideational objects-. When it is said, ‘six classes of sensory contact
are to be understood’, it is said in reference to this.” 209

“It is in reference to the eye consciousness that arises because of eye and visible
objects the meeting of the three is sensory contact; conditioned by sensory contact;
conditioned by sensory contact is feeling; the ear consciousness that arises because of ear
and audible objects…the nose consciousness that arises because of nose and odorous
objects….the tongue consciousness that arises because of tongue and sapid objects….the
body consciousness that arises because of body and tangible objects,…the mind
consciousness that arises because of mind and ideational objects-the meeting of the three is
sensory contact; conditioned by sensory contact is feeling. When it is said ‘six classes of
feeling are to be understood,’ it is said in reference to this.”210

“It is in reference to the eye consciousness that arises because of eye and visible
objects- the meeting of the three is sensory contact; conditioned by sensory contact;
conditioned by sensory contact is feeling; conditioned by feeling is craving; the ear
consciousness that arises because of ear and audible objects…the nose consciousness that

209
M.III. 281.
210
M.III.281-282.
100

arises because of nose and odorous objects….the tongue consciousness that arises because of
tongue and sapid objects….the body consciousness that arises because of body and tangible
objects,…the mind consciousness that arises because of mind and ideational objects-the
meeting of the three is sensory contact; conditioned by sensory contact is feeling,
conditioned by feeling is craving; When it is said ‘six classes of craving are to be
understood,’ it is said in reference to this.”211

It is a valuable thing that the Buddha has described in Chachakkasutta by reference

to two paths, namely; SakkÅyasamudayagÅmin≠paÊipadÅ (the path leading to the origin of the
false view of individuality) and SakkÅyanirodhagÅmin≠paÊipadÅ (the path leading to the
cessation of the false view of individuality). 212

One says with regards to internal sense bases, external sense bases, mental
consciousness, contact on mind, feeling or craving as: “This is mine, this am I, this is
myself.” This is the path leading to the cessation of SakkÅyadiÊÊhi.

And, one says with regards to internal sense bases, external sense bases, mental
consciousness, contact on mind, feeling or craving as: “This is not mine, this am not I, and
this is not my self.” This is the path leading to the origin of SakkÅyadiÊÊhi.

According to ÄdittapariyÅya Sutta, each of twelve bases is burning. With what is it

burning? The Lord Buddha said, “It is burning with the fire of passion, with the fire of
hatred, with the fire of illusion; it is burning because of birth, aging, dying, because of grief,
sorrow, suffering, lamentation and despair.”213

The destruction of passion, hatred and illusion is the way of cessation of burning.
The impossibility and possibility of end-maker of suffering are also said in Chachakka Sutta
with reference to the process of arising of tendency and getting rid of tendency. There are
three tendencies in this discourse; namely a tendency to attachment (RÅgÅnusaya), a
tendency to repulsion (PaÊighÅnusaya) and a tendency to ignorance (AvijjÅnusaya).

211
M.III. 282.
212
M.III.284-285.
213
Vin. MahÅvagga. 21.
 101

The words of the Buddha run by this way: “He, being contacted by a pleasant feeling,
delights, rejoices and persists in cleaving to it; a tendency to attachment is latent in him.
Being contacted by an unpleasant feeling, he grieves, mourns, laments, beats his breast and
falls into illusion; a tendency to repulsion is latent in him. Being contacted by a feeling that
is neither unpleasant nor pleasant, he does not comprehend the origin nor cessation nor
satisfaction nor the peril of that feeling or the escape from it as it really is; a tendency to
ignorance is latent in him. That he, Bhikkhus, not getting rid of tendency to attachment to a
pleasant feeling, and not driving out the tendency to repulsion for an unpleasant feeling, not
rooting out the tendency to ignorance concerning a feeling that is neither unpleasant nor
pleasant, not getting rid of ignorance, not making knowledge arise, should here and now be
an end-maker of suffering-this situation does not exist.”214

So also in the case of ear and audible objects, nose and odorous objects, tongue and
sapid objects, body and tangible objects, mind and ideational objects. But in the opposite
way, the practitioner- - “being contacted by a pleasant feeling, does not delight, rejoice or
persist in cleaving to it; a tendency to attachment is not latent in him. Being contacted by an
unpleasant feeling, he does not grieve, mourn, lament, beat his breast or fall into illusion; a
tendency to repulsion is not latent in him. Being contacted on by a feeling that is neither
unpleasant nor pleasant, he comprehends the origin and the cessation and the satisfaction and
the peril of that feeling and the escape as it really is, a tendency to ignorance is not latent in
him. That, Bhikkhus, by getting rid of any tendency to attachment to a pleasant feeling, by
driving out any tendency to repulsion for an unpleasant feeling, by rooting out any tendency
to ignorance concerning a feeling that is neither unpleasant nor pleasant by getting rid of
ignorance, by making knowledge arise, should here and now be an end-maker of suffering-
this situation exist.”215

In PuœœovÅda sutta, the Buddha has given and exhortation in brief to the Venerable
Puœœa in the following words:

“There are, Puœœa, visible object cognizable by the eye, agreeable,

pleasant, linked, enticing, connected with sensual pleasures, alluring. If a Bhikkhu

214
M.III.285.
215
M.III. 286.
102

delights in these, welcomes them and persists in clinging to them, then, because he
delights in them, welcomes them, and persists in clinging to them, delight arises in
him. I say, Puœœa, that from the arising of delight, is the arising of suffering.216

“There are, Puœœa, audible object cognizable by the ear-odorous object

cognizable by the nose-sapid object cognizable by the tongue-tangible object
cognizable by the body-ideational object cognizable by mind-. I say, Puœœa, that
from the arising of delight is arising of suffering.

This is the process of arising of fetter (delight, lust) concerned with the
sense bases. Again, the Buddha had given further exhortation about the process of
cessation, disappearing or abandonment of fetters (delight etc.) as following:

“And there are, Puœœa, visible objects cognizable by eye-audible objects

cognizable by the ear-odorous objects cognizable by nose-sapid objects cognizable
by tongue-tangible objects cognizable by body-ideational objects cognizable by
mind, agreeable, pleasant, linked, connected with sensual pleasures, alluring. If a
month does not delight in these, does not welcome them or persist in cleaving to
them, then, because he does not delight in them. Welcome them or persist in
clearing to them, the delight is ceased in him. I say, Puœœa, that from the ceasing of
delight (fetter) is the cessation of suffering. 217

It is by this way, the practitioner observes minutely on the bases, on the

consciousness, on the contact, on the feeling, on the process of arising of fetters or
tendencies and the getting rid of them according to the path leading to the cessation of
SakkÅyadiÊÊhi. He becomes the end-maker of suffering. That is attainment of the Noble Path
which is known as SotÅpanna (stream-enterer), SakadÅgÅm≠ (one-returner), AnÅgÅm≠ (non-
returner), and Arahatta (Arahanta-ship).

All fetters which are abandoned temporarily will be abandoned permanently in the
future. It is said that SakkÅyadiÊÊhi, VicikicchÅ and S≠labbataparÅmÅsa are perfectly
abandoned by SotÅpattimagga. Gross fetters of KÅmarÅga and PaÊigha are abandoned by

216
M.III.267.
217
M.III.267-268.
 103

SakadÅgÅmimagga. Subtle fetters of KÅmarÅga and PaÊigha are absolutely abandoned by

AnÅgÅmimagga. Another five fetters: RâparÅga, ArâparÅga, MÅna, Uddhacca, and AvijjÅ
are perfectly abandoned by Arahant-ship or Arahattamagga.218

This is the process of contemplating on internal and external bases in

DhammÅnupassanÅ of SatipaÊÊhÅna expounded by the Buddha.

3.4.4 BojjhaÙgas (Factors of Enlightenment)

Among the Dhammas which the Buddha has advised the followers to contemplate on
N≠varaœas are the things to be minimized, Pañcakkhandhas are the things to be understood
but not cling. Äyatanas are to be understood and the fetters which arise from base-contact-
feeling and should be abandoned.

Again N≠varaœa is only immoral. Pañcakkhandha and Äyatana are moral, immoral
and neither moral nor immoral. However, now it comes to the practice of
DhammÅnupassanÅ on BojjhaÙgas or the factors of Enlightenment, which are only moral.
Therefore they should be developed in the fulfillment of practice. What is BojjhaÙga? How
many factors of Enlightenment are there? What is the way of practice in SatipaÊÊhÅna Sutta?
There are the points of discussion according to sources available in canonical texts and
commentaries.

A. The Nature and classification of BojjhaÙga

The term ‘BojjhaÙga’ is composed of two components ‘Bojjha and aÙga’.

Bojjha literary means ‘Enlightenment’. AÙga is the ‘factor’. Thus, it may be
translated as ‘the factor of enlightenment’. BojjhaÙga is one of the
Bodhipakkhiyadhamma (the things belonging to Enlightenment). The factor of
enlightenment is classified into seven factors. They are Sati (mindfulness),
Dhammavicaya (truth-investigation), Ätāp≠ (energy), P≠ti (zest), Passaddhi
(calmness), SamÅdhi (concentration), and UpekkhÅ (equanimity).

218
More detailed study may be has from, Phra Sudh≠varañāœa (Narong Cherdsungnoen), A Study of Sati
(Mindfulness) In Buddhism: Theory and Practice in Thai Tradition, Op.Cit., pp.124 -140.
104

To the question, ‘What is the way of practice in the seven Factors of

Enlightenment?’, it is proclaimed clearly by the Buddha in MahÅsatipaÊÊhÅna-sutta as
follows:

“Bhikkhus in Dhamma-vinaya, if mindfulness, factor of enlightenment, is

present in himself, a Bhikkhu knows that it is present. If mindfulness factor of
enlightenment, is absent in himself, he knows that it is absent. And he knows how
the unarisen mindfulness, factor of enlightenment, comes to arise and he knows
how the complete development of mindfulness, factor of enlightenment comes
about. If the truth investigation, factor of enlightenment, present in himself, if
energy, factor of enlightenment is present is hiself…if zest, factor of
enlightenment is present in himself…..

If calmness, factor of enlightenment, is present in himself….if

concentration, factor of enlightenment is present in hiself…..if equanimity factor
of enlightenment present in himself, a Bhikkhu knows that it is present. If
equanimity, factor of enlightenment is absent in himself, he knows that it is absent.
And he knows how the unarisen equanimity, factor of enlightenment comes to
arise, and he knows how the complete development of equanimity, factor of
enlightenment comes about.”219

From the following statements, it can be laid down that the principle of AnupassanÅ
on the factors of enlightenment for the practitioner goes like this.

1. One should understand clearly the real phenomena of the factor of enlightenment
whether it is present or not in oneself.
2. One should know obviously the arising of the factor of enlightenment which is not
arisen.
3. One should comprehend how to develop the arisen factors of enlightenment to be
complete fulfillment.

This is the process of practice which needs brief description on seven factors of
enlightenment one after the other.

219
D.II. 320.
 105

(1) SatisambojjhaÙga (Sati as a factor of enlightenment)

This term is composed of Sati, saµ,bojjha and aÙga. Sati is mindfulness. Saµ is a
prefix, which refers to completion. ‘Bojjha’ is regarded in the sense of ‘Enlightened being.’
AÙga is ‘factor’. Thus, binding together, it refers to mindfulness as a factor of enlightenment.
In the commentary of MahÅsatipaÊÊhÅna Sutta, the term ‘SambojjhaÙga’ has been explained
as; the harmony of seven Dhammas, viz. mindfulness etc., is called ‘Sambodhi’. Human
being awakens from sleep of defilements or realizes the truths by this harmony. Thus factor
of person and harmony of seven things are called SambojjhaÙga.220 Sati as a factor of
enlightenment is called SatisambojjhaÙga.

Sati has the characteristic of not wobbling, its function is not to forget, it is
manifested as the guarding; its approximate cause is strong perception or four foundations of
mindfulness. It is regarded as the pillar which is firmly founded and as the door-keeper
221
because it guards the eye-door, etc.

In the process of practice one should observe clearly on the real phenomena of
mindfulness-factor of enlightenment whether it is present or not in oneself. If it is present,
one should develop it. If it is not present, one should make it come to be.

In the second stage, the practitioner should know the process of arising of
SatisambojjhaÙga. According to ÄhÅra Sutta in MahÅvagga of Saµyutta NikÅya, it is said;
“wise attention which is done continuously one of the things which are the foundations of
mindfulness is the food (cause) of arising of mindfulness, factor of enlightenment and it is
222
conducive for increment, expansion and complete development.”

There are, however four things which help the practitioner to develop mindfulness,
factor of enlightenment. They are: 223

1. Mindfulness with clear comprehension;

220
DA.II 401 (MTP): SÅ dhammasÅmagg≠ Sambodhi.
221
Vism. XIV.141: ApilÅpanalakkhanÅ, AsammosanarasÅ, ArakkhapaccupaÊÊhÅnÅ, SatipaÊÊhÅna-padaÊÊhÅnÅ.
222
S.V.102;
223
DA.II.401 (MTP). 1. Satimā and Sampajano; 2 MuÊÊhasatissa asevanā 3.Samāhitassa sevanā and 4.
Iriyāpathesu tadadhimuttatā.
106

2. Avoiding of persons with confused mind;

3. Association with persons who keep mindfulness ready for application; and
4. Inclination towards mindfulness in all postures of body.

By these things, the practitioner becomes able to attain the complete fulfillment of
enlightenment and finally the stage of an Arahanta.

This is the way of practice of SatisambojjhaÙga as factor of enlightenment in

DhammÅnupassanÅ.

(2) DhammavicayasambojjhaÙga (Investigation as factor of Enlightenment)

The term is composed of Dhamma, vicaya, saµ, bojjha, and aÙga. Dhamma is truth.
Vicaya is defined as ‘investigation’. SambojjhaÙga as already discussed, refers to the factor
of enlightenment. Therefore its meaning can be understood as the truth-investigation-factor
of enlightenment. In the deep sense, it is searching, investigating, research or finding out the
reason of everything with wisdom.

The question may be put like this: “what is the arising of Dhammavicaya-
sambojjhaÙga?” The Buddha answers this question in ÄhÅrasutta (SaµyuttanikÅya) as
follows:

“There are, Bhikkhus, things good and bad, things blameworthy and things
not blameworthy, things gross and things subtle, things that are constituent parts of
darkness and light. Wise attention thereto, if made much of, is the food for arising
of the truth-investigation-factor of enlightenment, if not yet arisen; for its
cultivation and fulfillment, if already arisen.”224

In the commentary of MahÅsatipaÊÊhÅna Sutta, it has been said that; “the following
seven things are conducive for arising of truth-investigation factor of enlightenment;
namely:225

224
S.V. 102-103.
225
1. Paripucchakatā; 2. Vatthuvisadakiriyatā; 3. IndriyasamattapaÊipādanā; 4. Duppaññapuggala-parivajjanā;
5. Paññavantapuggalasevanā; 6. Gambh≠rañāœacariya-paccavekkhaœā; 7. Tadadhimuttatā.
 107

1. Enquiring about the aggregates and so forth,

2. Purification of the basis, namely - the clearing of body, clothes, and so forth.
3. Equality of the controlling faculties particularly between faith and wisdom, energy
and meditation. But only mindfulness is needful in every step of practice for controlling the
pollution of mind and supporting the purification of mind (just as salt is needful in all kinds
of soup and intelligent minister is need in all royal affairs).
4. Avoiding the ignorant persons,
5. Association with the wise ones,
6. Reflecting on the profound difference of the hard to perceive processes of the
aggregates, elements, sense bases and so forth,
7. The inclining (sloping, bending) towards the development of truth-investigation
factor of enlightenment.226

It is by this way, arising of the truth-investigation factor of enlightenment comes to

be. The arisen truth-investigation will be complete development by attainment of
Arahattamagga or the Path of Arahanta (a man who is Perfected One).

This is in the process of practice of DhammÅnupassanÅ concerning the truth-

investigation-factor of enlightenment.

(3) ViriyasambojjhaÙga (Energy as a factor of Enlightenment)

This word is composed of Viriy and sambojjhaÙga. ‘Viriya’ is energy or effort.

BojjhaÙga is a factor of enlightenment. Therefore, it refers to the moral psychic factor of
mind; the energy factor of enlightenment. In the Commentary of MahāsatipaÊÊhÅna Sutta, it
is said that eleven things lead to the arising of ViriyasambojjhaÙga. They are:227

1. Reflection on the fearfulness of states of woe;

2. Seeing of benefit of energy;

226
DA.II. 402-403 (MTP).
227
1. Apāyādibhayapaccavekkhaœatā; 2. Viriyāyattalokiyalokuttaravisesādhigamānisaµsadassitā;
3. Buddhapaccekabuddhamahāsāvakagamana-kus≠tāgamanav≠thipaccavekkhaœatā; 4. Dāyakamahabbala-
piœdhāpacāyanatā; 5. ...Satthumahattapaccavekkhaœatā; 6. Dāyajjmahattapaccavekkhaœatā; 7....Th≠namiddha-vinodanatā;
8. Kus≠tapuggalaparivajjanaµ; 9. Äraddhaviriyapuggalasevanatā; 10. Sammappadhāna-paccavekkhaœatā and 11.
Tadadhimuttatā.
108

3. Reflection on the path to be trodden by diligent persons, and not by lazy men;
4. Honoring alms which are given by the people because of faith in the energy of
Bhikkhus;
5. Reflection on the greatness of the heritage-that is the heritage of Dhamma
(DhammadÅyÅda);
6. Reflection on the greatness of the Master;
7. Reflection on the greatness of race;
8. Reflection on the greatness of fellowship in the holy life;
9. Avoiding of lazy folk;
10. Association with folk who have begun to exert; and
11. Inclination toward the development of energy-factor of enlightenment.

It is in this way, the non-arisen energy arises and arisen energy increases. One can
overcome suffering by the way of energy as the Buddha says in SagÅthavagga of Saµyutta
NikÅya; ‘Viriyena dukkhamacceti’ a person overcomes suffering by energy. So the energy
factor of enlightenment plays an important role in motivation of practice for enlightenment.

(4) P≠tisambojjhaÙga (Zest or Joy as a factor of Enlightenment)

The term ‘P≠tisambojjhaÙga’ is composed of P≠ti and SambojjhaÙga. P≠ti literally

means zest, joy, rapture, interest, etc. SambojjhaÙga is the factor of enlightenment. So, it
refers to the joyfulness of mind. This zest is a factor of enlightenment; therefore it is called
P≠tisambojjhaÙga. In VibhaÙga it is said; “the zest that is not worldly.” That means this type
of zest is spiritual joy, it is not material joy.

P≠ti is divided into five types; namely:

1. KhuddakÅ p≠ti (minor zest). It is small in number but it can make the hairs on the
body to stand and tear-drop to fall from the eye.
2. KhaœikÅ p≠ti (the zest which appears momentarily): It is just like the thunderbolt in
the sky and is therefore called momentary joy
3. OkkantikÅ p≠ti (showering zest): It appears in the mind just like the floods or the
waves of the sea which are coming to attack the seashore from time to time.
 109

4. UbbegÅ p≠ti (uplifting joy): This type of zest helps the practitioner to express
joyful words (UdÅna) and to uplift the body into the air.
5. PharaœÅ p≠ti (zest of suffusing or pervading rapture). The whole body is calm by
this zest. This zest is associated with meditation. 228

What is the food of arising of the zest factor of enlightenment? It is answered in the
ÄhÅra Sutta, (Saµyutta NikÅya): “There are, Bhikkhus, things based on the factor of
enlightenment that is zest. Wise attention thereto, if made much of, is the food for the arising
of the zest factor of enlightenment.229

Again, eleven things lead to the arising of the zest, factor of enlightenment.
They are:230

1. The Buddha’s recollection: it is the recollection of virtue or goodness of the

Buddha as: “thus indeed is he, the Blessed One, holy, fully self-enlightened, perfect in
knowledge and conduct, well-gone, knower of the worlds, the incomparable leader of men
to be trained, the teacher of gods and men, awakened one, the Blessed One.”

2. Dhamma’s recollection: It is the recollection of the virtue of Dhamma or the

teaching of the Buddha as: “well-proclaimed is the Dhamma by the Blessed One, to be seen
for oneself, timeless of giving the uses to the practitioner, inviting to come and see, worthy
to realizing, directly experienceable by the wise,”

3. SaÙgha’s recollection or the noble orders collection: It is the recollection of the

virtue of noble disciples as: “of good conduct is the community of noble disciples of the
Blessed one, the upright conduct…, or right conduct…; of dutiful conduct is the community
of noble disciples of the Blessed One, namely- the four pairs of men, the eight types of
individuals. This community of the noble disciples of the Blessed One is worthy of gifts,
worthy of hospitality, worthy of offerings, worthy of reverential salutation, the incomparable
field of merit or virtue for the world.”

228
Vism. IV.94.
229
S.V. 103.
230
1. Buddhānussati; 2. Dhammānussati; 3. SaÙghānussati; 4. S≠lānussati; 5. Cāgānussati; 6. Devatānussati; 7.
UpasamÅnussati; 8. Lâkhapuggalaparivajjanatā; 9. Siniddhapuggalasevanatā; 10. Pasādan≠yasuttantapaccavekkhaœatā;
11. Tadadhimuttatā.
110

4. Recollection of virtue of morality. Joy also arises for laymen or Bhikkhus who
think of the purity of their morality.
5. Recollection of liberality in giving alms, etc., to the Bhikkhus or the other.
6. Recollection of the virtues of the deities or things which make men to be gods.
7. Recollection of the calmness of NibbÅna.
8. Avoiding of unrefined ones.
9. Association with refined ones.
10. Reflection on the discourses inspiring confidence; and
11. Inclination towards joy in all postures of sitting and the like.

It is by this way, the zest arises. The completion of development of the zest factor of
Enlightenments through the path of Arahatta-magga.

(5) PassaddhisambojjhaÙga (Calmness as a factor of Enlightenment)

This term is composed of Passaddhi and SambojjhaÙga. Passaddhi literally means

calmness. It refers to the calmness of psychic factors (KÅyapassaddhi) and calmness of mind
(Cittapassaddhi). SambojjhaÙga is the factor of enlightenment. Therefore it refers to the
moral psychic factor concerned with calmness. This calmness is the factor of enlightenment,
thus it is called PassaddhisambojjhaÙga.

What is the arising of calmness factor of enlightenment? It has been said in

Saµyutta: “There is, Bhikkhus, calmness of the body and calmness of mind. Wise attention
thereto, if made much of, is the food for the arising of the calmness, factor of
enlightenment.”231

It has been described in the commentary of MahÅsatipaÊÊhÅna Sutta as: “seven things
lead to the arising of calmness factor of enlightenment”. They are as under: 232

1. Resorting to fine food;

2. Comfortable weather;

231
S.V.103.
232
DA.II. 408 (MTP). 1. Paœ≠tabhojanasevanatā; 2. Utusukhasevanatā; 3. Iriyāpathasukhasevanatā;
4. Majjhattappayogatā; 5. Sāraddhakāyapuggalaparivajjanatā; 6. Passaddhakāyapuggalasevanatā;
7. Tadadhimuttatā. S.V.103.
 111

3. Comfortable postures;
4. Judgment according to the Middle way;
5. Avoidance of the people who are physically restless;
6. Association with the people who are physically calm; and
7. Inclination towards the development of calmness, factor of enlightenment.

It is by this way; the practitioner understands clearly on the arising of calmness factor
of enlightenment and develops the calmness in the state of fulfillment by trying to follow the
noble path of Arahanta (Arahattamagga).

(6) SamÅdhisambojjhaÙga (Concentration as a factor of Enlightenment)

The word ‘SamÅdhisambojjhaÙga’ is composed of “SamÅdhi and SambojjhaÙga”.

Literary meaning of “SamÅdhi” is one-pointedness of moral consciousness (Kusalassa
CittassekaggatÅ).233 In general sense it means “concentration or meditation”. SambojjhaÙga
comes from “Saµ, bojjha and aÙga.” The commentator has defined it as the factor of being
who is awakened by insight of complete enlightenment.234 Therefore, this refers to the
concentration factor of Enlightenment, and thus called SamÅdhisambojjhaÙga.

Moreover, in the Commentary of MahÅsatipaÊÊhÅna Sutta, the practitioner is advised

to practice eleven things which lead to the arising of concentration factor of enlightenment.
They are: 235
1. Purification of the basis,
2. Equal practice of controlling faculties particularly between faith and wisdom,
energy and concentration no less and no more. Only mindfulness is needed in every affair of
practice without limitation,
3. Skill in identifying the sign of the object of meditation,

233
Vism. III.2.
234
DA. II. 400 (MTP): BojjhaÙgesâ’ti: Bujjhanakasattassa aÙgesu…SÅdhammasÅmagg≠ sambodhi. Tassa
sambodhissa, tassa vÅ sambodhiyaÙgan’ti-SambojjhaÙgaµ.
235
DA.II.409 (MTP). 1. Vatthuvisadatā; 2. Nimittakusalatā; 3. IndriyasamattapaÊipādanatā;
4. Samaye cittassa niggahaœatā; 5. Samaye cittassa paggahaœatā; 6. Nirassādassa cittassa sampahaµsanatā; 7.
Sammāpavattassa ajjhapekkhaœatā; 8. Asamāhitapuggalaparivajjanatā; 9. Samāhitapuggalasevanatā;
10. Jhānavimokkhapaccavekkhaœatā; 11. Tadadhimuttatā
112

4. Inciting of the mind on occasion of shrunken mind with truth-investigation, energy

and zest,
5. Restraining of the mind on occasion of agitated mind with practice of calmness,
concentration and equanimity,
6. Gladdening of the mind on occasion of dissatisfied mind by recollecting the
qualities of Triple Gem,
7. Guarding of the mind without interfering on occasion of right practice, it is just
like the state of a character that looks on uninterfering when the horses are going well,
8. Avoiding of people whose mind is not concentrated,
9. Association with people, whose mind is concentrated,
10. Reflection on the absorption and the emancipation, and
11. Inclination towards the development of concentration-factor of enlighten-ment.

It is by this way, the practitioner of SatipaÊÊhÅna on SamÅdhisambojjhaÙga

comprehends clearly on the present situation of this factor as it is or it is not. He also
understands clearly on the process of arising and how to make it more developed until
complete fulfillment with attainment of the Noble Path of Arahanta (Arahantamagga) is
achieved. This is the contemplating on the concentration factor of enlightenment in
DhammÅnupassanÅ.

(7) UpekkhÅsambojjhaÙga (Equanimity as a factor of Enlightenment)

The term ‘UpekkhÅsambojjhaÙga’ is composed of “UpekkhÅ and SamgojjhaÙga”.

“UpekkhÅ” is equanimity or maintaining well-balance between happiness and suffering;
pleasant and unpleasant feelings: In case of feeling, it is called indifferent feeling or neither
pleasant and nor unpleasant. In the factor of absorption (JhÅna), it is called JhÅnupekkha
(equanimity in the factor of absorption). In the insight Meditation or VipassanÅ, it is called
the equanimity in beings and formations etc. SambojjhaÙga is composed of Saµ, bojjha and
aÙga. Saµ is a prefix which have the positive meaning of ‘complete’. ‘Bojjha’ is
‘enlightened one’. ‘AÙga’ is a factor. Thus, combination of all the term meaning together,
becomes the equanimity factor of enlightenment.
 113

According to the Commentary of MahÅsatipaÊÊhÅna Sutta, five things lead to the

arising of the equanimity factor of enlightenment; namely:236

1. A detached attitude towards beings. It is brought about by reflection on beings as

processors of their own deeds and by reflection in the highest sense as; “really no living
being exists to whom can then you be attached;”
2. Detached attitude towards things by reflection on ownerlessness and
temporariness;
3. Avoiding of persons who are selfish with regard to living beings and things;
4. Company of persons who are neutral on indifferent with regard to living beings
and things;
5. Inclination for developing the equanimity factor of enlightenment which is
inclining, sloping and bending of the mind towards equanimity is all postures of standing
and so forth.

It is by this way, the practitioner comprehends clearly on the arising of equanimity as

a factor of enlightenment. UpekkhÅ is a necessary factor for attainment of enlightenment.
The life of Venerable Änanda is a clear example of the practice of Arahantamagga. He had
tried to practice SatipaÊÊhÅna with the great energy but his mind was not in equanimity.
When he sat down and laid his body to take rest, his mind was full of equanimity-factor of
enlightenment. Then he suddenly attained the Arahanta-ship.

This is the process of practice with regard to the seven factors of enlightenment
which have been expounded by the Buddha in the chapter on DhammÅnupassanÅ.

B. The External-Internal Factor of Arising of Seven Factors of Enlightenment.

It is important to note here that the most important factors of arising of the seven
factors of enlightenment are KalyÅœamittatÅ and YonisomanasikÅra.

KalyÅœamittatÅ is friendship with what is lovely and is known as an external factor.

YonisomanasikÅra is the wise attention or systematic attention which in called as internal

236
1. Sattamajjhattatā; 2. SaÙkhāramajjhattatā; 3. SaÙkhārakelāyanapuggalaparivajjanatā;
4. SattasaÙkhāramajjhattapuggalasevanatā; 5. Tadadhimuttatā.
114

factor.237 These two factors are – comparable with the dawn of the day as can be seen from
the words of the Buddha in Suriyâpama Sutta that; “just as, Bhikkhus, the dawn is the
forerunner, the harbinger of the sun’s arising even so friendship with what is lovely –
systematic attention is the forerunner the harbinger of arising of the seven factors of
enlightenment in the Bhikkhus.”238

In the opposite way, the factors of disappearance of seven factors of BojjhaÙgas are
unwise attention (AyonisomanasikÅra) and association with a bad friend (PÅpamitta).

3.4.5 Catusaccas (The Four Noble Truths)

The Four Noble Truths can be found in D≠ghanikÅya, (Sutta No.22) Saccasaµyutta
SaµyuttanikÅya (S.No.V), SaccavibhaÙga in VibhaÙga of AbhidhammapiÊaka and
Saccaniddesa of Visuddhimagga. 239 The Noble Truths are classified into four types; namely
– the Noble Truth of suffering, the Noble Truth of the cause of suffering, the Noble Truth of
the cessation of suffering, and the Noble Truth of the path leading to the cessation of
suffering.

An attempt has been made earlier to describe the series of Dhammas; hindrances,
five aggregates, six senses-bases, and seven factors of enlightenment. Now it seem proper to
come to the last and the most important thing in Buddhism in general and the practice of
DhammÅnupassanÅ of SatipaÊÊhÅna in particular. That is to say “The four Noble Truths.” As
proclaimed by the Buddha, the Four Noble Truths are the essence or the basic teaching of the
Buddhas in the past, in the future and in the present time. They were taught again and again
by the Buddha to his disciples to know clearly, to practice continuously for the attainment of
extinction of suffering. It can be illustrated by the following stories in the life of the Buddha:

What the Buddha has told Disciples? Just as leaves in his hand once the Exalted One
was staying in Siµsapa forest in Kosamb≠. He took a few leaves in his hand and asked his

237
S.V. 100-101.
238
S.V. 76-77.
239
S.V. 434. ImÅni kho, Bhikkhave, CattÅni ariyasaccÅni ariyasaccaµ: pativijjhanti, tasmÅ ariyasaccanti
vuccanti.
 115

disciples: ‘What do you think, O Bhikkhus? What is more? These few leaves in my hand or
the leaves in the forest over here?

‘Sir, very few are the leaves in the hand of the Blessed One, but indeed, the leaves in
the Siµsapa forest over here are very much more in number.’

“Even so, Bhikkhus, of what I have known I have told you only a little, what I have
not told you is very much more. And why have I not told you? Because that is not useful. It
is not fundamentally connected with the spiritual holy life, is not conducive to aversion,
detachment, cessation, tranquility, deep penetration, full realization or NibbÅna. That is why
I have not told you those things”.240

It is again clearly illustrated by the Buddha in his dialogue with MÅluÙkaputta that
“Suppose, MÅluÙkaputta, a man is wounded by a poisoned arrow and his friends and
relatives bring him to a surgeon. Suppose the man should then say: “I will not let this arrow
be taken out until I know who shot me; whether he is a ksatriya or a BrÅhmaœa or a Vai±ya
or a ։dra, what his name and family may be; whether he is tall, short, or of medium stature;
whether his complexion is black, brown or golden; from which village, town or city he
comes. I will let this arrow be taken out until I know the kind of bow with which I was shot;
the kind of bowstring used; the type of arrow; what sort of feather was used on the arrow and
with what kind of material the point of the arrow was made.

MÅluÙkyaputta, that man would die without knowing any of these things. Even so,
MÅluÙkyaputta, if anyone says: ‘I will not follow the holy life under the blessed one until he
answers these questions such as whether the universe is eternal or not, etc., he would die
with these questions unanswered by me.’

The Blessed One then comes to conclude with the Four Noble Truths in explaining
thus; “Then, what, MÅluÙkyaputta, have I explained? I have explained suffering, the arising
of suffering, the cessation of suffering and the way leading to the cessation of suffering.
Why, MÅluÙkyaputta, have I explained them? Because it is useful, fundamental, connected

240
S.V. 437.
116

with the spiritual life, conducive to aversion, detachment, cessation, tranquility, deep
penetration, full realization, NibbÅna. Therefore, I have explained them.”241

Let us now study the Four Noble Truths which the Buddha told his disciples to think,
understand, make effort on them with themselves and talk, discuss with and tell others.

A. Definition of Ariyasacca

The word ‘Ariyasacca’ consists of two terms ‘Ariya and sacca’ ‘Ariya’ means
‘noble’. And ‘Sacca’ means ‘truth.’ In Visuddhimagga, Buddhaghosa has given a clear
definition of ‘Ariyasacca as follows:

It is called ‘Ariyasacca’ because the Noble Beings such as the Buddha etc., penetrate
these truths. This definition in the words of the Buddha in Saµyutta is as thus, “these, O
Bhikkhus, Four Noble Truths; namely – suffering, the cause of suffering, the cessation of
suffering, the path leading to the cessation of suffering. O Bhikkhus, the Noble Beings
penetrate these Four Noble Truths.242 So, it is called ‘Ariyasacca’ – truths penetrated by the
Noble Beings.

Again, it is called Ariyasacca because these Four Noble Truths are able to help man
to attain Noblehood with the realization of them as can be seen from the words of the
Buddha in Saµyutta as; “O Bhikkhus, TathÅgata is called Exalted One, Enlightened One,
Noble One because of realization of these Four Noble Truths as they are”. 243

Therefore, in brief, it is called ‘Ariyasacca’ as these truths are objects of realization.

It is the Noble truth of the Buddha, the treasure of Noble Beings.

B. Explanation of the Noble Truths from the Lips of the Buddha

In MahÅsatipaÊÊhÅna Sutta and SaccavibhaÙga of VibhaÙga text, the Buddha had

given explanation of each of Four noble Truths in detail for a clear understanding.

241
Vism. XVI. 562-591.
242
S.V. 436.
243
S.V. 436.
 117

Herein, bodily and mentally painful feelings are called “painfulness of suffering”
(Dukkhadukkhaµ) because of their individual essence, their name and their painfulness.
(Bodily and Mental) pleasant feelings are called suffering in change (VipariœÅma-dukkhaµ)
because they are a cause for the arising of pain when they change (M.II. 303). Equanimous
feeling and the remaining formation of the three spheres are called suffering due to
formations (SaÙkhÅradukkhaµ) because they are oppressed by rise and fall. 244

In Dhammacakkappavattanasutta, the Buddha had pointed out that knowledge and

insight of these Four Noble Truths by twelvefold circle made him to be Enlightened One.
That is to say – there arise in him vision, insight, understanding, wisdom and light that;
“suffering is Noble Truth, suffering is to be understood and suffering has been understood by
him (Pariññeyyadhamma). The cause of suffering is the Noble Truth, it is to be put away
and it has been put away (PahÅtabbadhamma). The cessation of suffering is Noble Truth, it
should be realized and it has been realized (SacchikÅtabbadhamma). And the path leading to
the cessation of suffering is Noble truth. It should be cultivated and it has been cultivated
(BhÅvetabbadhamma).”245

C. The Simile of the four Noble Truths

The practitioner should comprehend clearly the Four Noble Truths by the simile as
described in Visuddhimagga that the Noble Truth of suffering should be regarded as a
burden, the Noble Truth of the cause of suffering as the taking up of the burden, the Noble
Truth of the cessation of suffering as the putting down of the burden, the Noble Truth of the
Path leading to the cessation of suffering as the means to putting down the burden.

D. The Process of SatipaÊÊhÅna - Practice

In the process of SatipaÊÊhÅna practice, the practitioner should develop insight.

According to MahāsatipaÊÊhāna Sutta, the way of DhammÅnupassanÅ is as under: 246

244
D.III.216.
245
Vism. XVI. 33.
246
D.II. Sutta No.22; M.I.428-432.
118

“And again, Bhikkhus, a Bhikkhu dwells contemplating the Dhammas in

the Dhammas of the Four Noble Truths. And, Bhikkhus, how does a Bhikkhu
dwell contemplating the Dhammas in the Dhammas of the Four Noble Truths?

“Bhikkhus, a Bhikkhu knows, according to reality, this is suffering'; he

knows, according to reality, ‘This is the origin of suffering’; he knows, according
to reality, ‘this is the cessation of suffering’; he knows, according to reality, ‘this
is the path leading to the cessation of suffering.’

Concerning with the above reason, practitioners are ought to know Ariyasaccāni (the
four Noble Truths): 1. Dukkhaµ (the suffering); 2. Dukkhasamudayo (the origin of suf-
fering); 3. Dukkhanirodho (the cessation of suffering); 4. Dukkhanirodha-gāmin≠-paÊipadā
(the path leading to the cessation of suffering). Out of these, the first has already been
explained in the Chapter I, as [1.2 Looking at Problems without Mindfulness].

Coming to the second Dukkhasamudayo Ariyasaccaµ (the Noble Truth of origin of

suffering) has been said by the Buddha, thus:

“And, Bhikkhus, what is the Noble Truth of the origin of Suffering? It is

that craving which gives rise to further rebirth and, bound up with pleasure and
lust, finds ever afresh delight, now here, now there-to wit, Kāmataœhā (the
sensual craving), Bhavataœhā (the craving for existence), and Vibhavataœhā (the
craving for non-existence), and, Bhikkhus, where does this craving, when arising,
arise, and when settling, settle? Whatever in the world is a delightful thing, a
pleasurable thing, therein this craving, when arising, arises and, when settling,
settles.

“What in the world is a delightful thing, a pleasurable thing? “Cakkhu

(Eye), Sota (Ear), Ghāœa (Nose), Jivhā (Tongue), Kāya (Body), and Mano (Mind)
in the world are a delightful thing, a pleasurable thing; therein this craving, when
arising, arises and, when settling, settles. Râpa (Visual), Sadda (Sounds),
Gandha (Smells), Rasa (Tastes), PhoÊÊhabba (Tangible objects) and
Dhammārammaœa (Mental Objects; Cakkhuviññāœa (Eye-consciousness),
Sotaviññāœa (Ear-consciousness), Ghāœaviññāœa (Nose-consciousness),
 119

Jivhāviññāœa (Tongue-consciousness), Kāyaviññāœa (Body-consciousness), and

Manoviññāœa (Mind-consciousness); Cakkhusamphassa (Eye-contact),
Sotasamphassa (Ear-contact), Ghāœasamphassa (Nose-contact), Jivhāsamphassa
(Tongue-contact), Kāyasamphassa (Body-contact) and Manosamphassa (Mind-
contact); Cakkhusamphassajāvedanā (Feeling born of eye-contact)…
Manosamphassajāvedanā (mind-contact); Râpasaññā (Perception of visual
forms)…Dhammārammaœasaññā (Perception of mental objects); Râpasañcetanā
(Volition concerning visual forms)…Dhammārammaœacetanā (Volition
concerning mental objects); Râpataœhā (Craving for visual forms)…Dhammā-
rammaœataœhā (Craving for mental objects); Râpavitakka (The thought for visual
forms)…Dhammārammaœavitakka (The thought for mental objects); Râpavicāra
(The discursive thought for visual forms)…Dhammārammaœavicāra (The
discursive thought for mental objects) in the world are a delightful thing, a plea-
surable thing; therein this craving, when arising, arises and, when settling,
settles.” “This, Bhikkhus, is the Noble Truth of the Origin of Suffering”.

The third Dukkhanirodho Ariyasaccaµ (the Noble Truth of cessation of suffering)

has said by the Buddha as such:

“And, Bhikkhus, what is the Noble Truth of the Cessation of Suffering? It

is the total extinction by removing, forsaking and discarding of, freedom from and
non-attachment to that same craving. And, Bhikkhus, where is this craving, when
being abandoned, abandoned and when does this craving, when ceasing, cease?
Whatever in the world is a delightful thing, a pleasurable thing, therein this
craving, when being abandoned, is abandoned and, when ceasing, ceases.

“What in the world is a delightful thing, a pleasurable thing? “Eye…Mind

in the world is a delightful thing, a pleasurable thing; therein this craving, when
being abandoned, is abandoned, and, when ceasing, ceases. Visual
forms…Dhammārammaœas…Eye-consciousness…Mind consciousness…Eye-
contact … Mind-contact…The feeling born of eye-contact…mind-contact…The
perception of visual forms… The perception of Dhammārammaœas…The volition
concerning visual forms… The volition concerning Dhammārammaœas…The
120

craving for visual … The craving Dhammārammaœas…The thought for visual

forms … The thought for Dhammārammaœas… The discursive thought for visual
… The discursive thought Dhammārammaœas in the world are a delightful thing,
a pleasurable thing, therein this craving, when being abandoned, is abandoned
and, when ceasing, ceases.” “This, Bhikkhus, is the Noble Truth of the Cessation
of Suffering.”

The fourth Dukkhanirodha-gāmin≠-paÊipadā (the path leading to the cessation of

suffering) has already been explained in the Chapter I, as [1.4 The Way of Mind-
Development].

Coming to above reason, practitioners abide contemplating mind-object in mind-

objects in respect of the Four Noble Truths as they really are. And then he abides
contemplating mind-object in mind-objects internally, contemplating mind-objects in mind-
objects externally, contemplating mind-objects in mind-objects both internally and
externally. Again he abides contemplating arising phenomena in mind-objects, he abides
contemplating falling phenomena in mind-objects, and he abides contemplating both arising
and falling phenomena in mind-objects. Or else, is mindful of the truth that ‘there are mind-
objects, is present just to the extent-necessary for knowledge and awareness. And he abides
detached, not grasping at anything in the world.

In Visuddhimagga, the practitioner is advised to understand the Four Noble Truths as

void (SuññatÅ). The statement runs as follows: “In ultimate sense, all the truths should be
understood as void because of the absence of (1) any experiencer (2) any doer, (3) anyone
who is extinguished, and (4) any goer. Hence this is said:

‘For there is suffering, but none who suffer;

‘Doing exists although there is no doer;
‘Extinction is but no extinguished person;
‘Although there is path, there is no goer’.247

247
Vism.XVI. 90. Dukkhameva hoti, na koci dukkhito, kÅrako na kiriyÅva vijjati, Atthi nibbuti, na nibbuto pumÅ,
Maggamatthi gamako na vijjat≠ti.
 121

It is said in the commentary of MahÅsatipaÊÊhÅna Sutta that mindfulness which

examines on the Four Noble Truths is of truth of suffering. The prescription which brings
about that mindfulness is the truth of origination. The non-occurrences of both are the truth
of cessation. The Noble Path which understands suffering, abandons origination, and
objectifies cessation is the truth of the path. This is another relation between mindfulness and
the Four Noble Truths because they are the only way to the purification of beings for the
realization of NibbÅna.

3.5 Summary

The Foundations of Mindfulness, in short, are four; namely: contemplation of the

body, feelings, mind, and mind-objects, either with regard to one’s own person, or to other
persons, or to both, one beholds how the body, feelings, mind, and mind-objects arise;
beholds how it passes away; beholds the arising and passing away of the body, feelings,
mind, and mind-objects, what remains in the end is body, feelings, mind and mind-objects.
there are no living being, no individual, no woman, no man, no self, and nothing that belongs
to a self; neither a person.

And then practitioner dwells contemplating the body, feelings, mind or mind-objects
internally, externally or both internally and externally. He dwells contemplating the
origination, dissolution or both the origination and dissolution factors in the body, feelings,
mind or mind-objects. Or his mindfulness is established as “There is the body, feelings,
mind or mind-objects only” to the extent necessary for knowledge and mindfulness. He
dwells completely independent (not depending on craving and wrong view), clinging to
nothing in the world.

Nor anything belonging to a person. This clear awareness is present in him, to the
extent necessary for knowledge and mindfulness, and he lives independent, unattached to
anything in the world. Thus does he dwells in contemplation of the body, feelings, mind, and
mind-objects (Dhammas) that in MahÅsatipaÊÊhÅna Sutta, there are twenty one subjects of
meditation. 248

248
Appendix C, at the Chart No.4: Twenty one Objects of SatipaÊÊhÅna.
122

In fact, the SatipaÊÊhāna is interesting and amazing Bhavanā (meditation). It is

Satibhāvanā as the four in one because all parts whether Kāya, Vedanā, Citta and Dhammas
will be condition to concern one another every moment. It is just different focus of meditator
but all are the factor of each other. For instance, when we are mindful to focus the
contemplating in Kāya on Kāyas and know as they really are. at that time we can know how
to kāya really is, such as it is cool and calm, because of that we can observe how to Vedanā
really is, such as it is pleasant unpleasant or it has equanimity, at the same time we can focus
how to mind really is, such as it is lust mind, greed mind or delusion of mind; and then we
can contemplate how to the condition of things is, such as it is Noble Truth whether body,
feelings and mind are arising, existing and passing away which are as Ti-lakkhaœa called
Anicca (impermanence) Dukkha (suffering) and Anatta (non-self). These are concluded in
SatipaÊÊhāna. Therefore it should be cultivated or developed increasingly in these times.

……………………………………
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CHAPTER IV:
DEVELOPMENT OF SATIPAÂÂHÄNA
AS SAMATHA AND VIPASSANÄ IN DAILY LIFE

This chapter deals with the process and methodology how to develop SatipaÊÊhāna as
Samatha (Calm meditation), and Vipassanā (Insight meditation),249 in daily Life.
SatipaÊÊhāna’s method is indeed well developed by itself. The question arises here ‘Why do
we need to again develop SatipaÊÊhāna as Samatha and Vipassanā?’. It indicates to the
development and application of SatipaÊÊhāna in our life. It carries some meaning even if we
do not practice it all the time. That is not at all, but when we have mindfulness again, we
must develop it again and again, as it is Samatha and Vipassanā that will bring to us a lasting
freedom from all problems of suffering whether problem inside and outside. If asked how
long does human undergo with the problems of suffering? It can be answered that the human
is born with problems like the mushroom when it has born from the earth, has just been
attracted by the earth a bit. Here the problems of human suffering can be depicted at the
three levels: 1) mental suffering that is origin of all problems is life’s problems, 2) Social
problems, and 3) Environmental problems.

First of all, the Life’s problems, the most profound of which is ‘suffering’ in the
human mind. Even its crudest form, namely stress or mental unrest [that is said in the
Chapter I], is quite a pressing problem for the modern human. Secondly, from oneself
outwards, in a wider circle, are social problems or sufferings caused by wrongful
relationships, which have resulted in violence and mutual infliction of harm. Thirdly, it is the
outermost surrounding man and society represents environmental problems, in particular
ecological problems, which are now posing the most serious threat to the survival of
humanity. 250

249
Kāyānupassanā and Vedanānupassanā is suitable for Samathayānika persons but Cittānupassanā and
Dhammānupassanā are suitable for Vipassanāyānika persons, DA.2. p. 600, (STP). And Vipassanā can be contemplated as
Pariññā: full understanding: 1) Ñāta-pariññā: full knowledge as the known, 2) T≠raœa-pariññā: full knowledge as
investigatiog, 3) Pahāna-pariññā: full knowledge as abandoning, Nd1. 29/62/60.
250
Phra Brahmaguœābharaœa (P.A. Payutto), The Pāli Canon What a Buddhist must Know, Bangkok:
Buddhadhamma-Foundation Press, 2547 B.E., pp.30-31.
124

Although human civilization has made great progress over the last several millennia
till the so-called present age of globalization, the human race is by no means free or removed
from the problems of suffering, infliction of harm, distress and war. Modern man has
undoubtedly progressed to a certain stage, which can be regarded as the zenith of human
civilization; it is at this very point that civilization has presented the human race with
problems of suffering from all fronts: life’s problems and social problems, to be
compounded
and complemented
by environmental problems. It is quite evident that
while such civilization at its zenith, can handle all sorts of problem to humans, it can never
lead them out of the suffering triggered by these problems. 251

So far as environmental problems are concerned; it has been acknowledged that such
problems have stemmed from the misguided view that humans are distinct from nature. The
hostile attitude towards nature has led to their striving to conquer it and act upon it to serve
human interests alone. To solve these problems, the human race needs a fresh mentality as a
basis.

In this regard, SatipaÊÊhāna as Samatha and Vipassanā is very important method as a

system of teachings quite specialized in ridding life’s ultimate problem of mental suffering.
With one’s own wisdom, one can eventually attain the objective truth of nature, and
completely eradicate the germ of mental distress, the mind being thus released once and for
all from suffering, becoming relieved and radiant that it has human beings been highest
quality to then know how to conduct their lives and carry out activities to help steer the
system of relations of all phenomena towards a direction of greater harmony and mutual
support, thereby leading humanity to attain a world of happiness, free from any infliction
of harm. 252

4.1 Significance of SatipaÊÊhāna as Samatha and VipassanÅ

According to ‘Buddhist Meditation I’, (2551 B.E), it has stated the four SatipaÊÊhÅnas
that there are Twenty one Objects of SatipaÊÊhÅna, all of them, IriyÅpatha-pabba (Postures),
Sampajañña-pabba (Clear comprehension), otherwise and DhÅtu-manasikÅra-pabba

251
Ibid.,p.29.
252
Ibid. pp. 30-31; and [the example in Appendix A, as the Part 2: She has mindfulness to overcome Sorrow and
Lamentation].
 125

(Analysis of Four Elements), and VedanÅnupassanÅ, CittÅnupassanÅ, DhammÅnupassanÅ

are as VipassanÅ, moreover eleven objects are Samatha and Vipassanā yoked together. 253

Actually all objects of Bhāvanā (meditation) in the Buddhist way can be concluded
in the both of Samatha and Vipassanā always. It is just a different point to contemplate. It
can not be practiced separately. It is the same way of meditation of Sati and Sampajañña. If
we compare the connection or co-relation between SatipaÊÊhāna and Samatha and
Vipassanā, it is known that Sati and Samatha are of the same faction whereas Sampajañña
are from the section of Vipassanā.

SatipaÊÊhāna is indeed a system of meditation-technique which turns every action

into a meditative action providing profound spiritual experience. Meditation practice
constitutes the heart of Buddhism. There are two distinct types of Buddhist meditation. One
is known as Samatha and the other Vipassanā.

Samatha meditations were quite known even before the advent of the Buddha. On the
other hand, Vipassanā is the Buddha’s specific discovery as a part of His supreme
Enlightenment. It is unique to Buddhism. Each SatipaÊÊhāna meditative technique, based
upon cultivation of mindfulness, concentration and insight effectively combines both
Samatha and Vipassanā methods. In other words, SatipaÊÊhāna methods are nothing but
practical applications of both Samatha and Vipasssanā. 254

Therefore, the development of SatipaÊÊhāna as Samatha-VipassanÅ meditation is by

itself a very popular method of Dhamma-practice and is highly praised and revered from
early Buddhism to so far. It is incorporates both Samatha (calm) and Vipassanā (insight)
cultivation. The wayfarer may choose either to develop Samatha to the attainment of
absorption before developing Vipassanā based on the Four SatipaÊÊhānas as a way of
reaching his goal; or he may develop SatipaÊÊhāna-Vipassanā from the beginning to reach
the initial level of SamÅdhi which is the minimum level and sufficient for his purposes. And

253
Phramaha Subhawichya Pabhassaro (ed), Buddhist Meditation I, (Thai Version)., Bangkok:
Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University Press, 2551 B.E., P.98.
254
Acharya Buddharakkhita, The Great Discourse on the Foundations of Mindfulness (MahÅsatipaÊÊhÅna Suttaµ,
PÅli Text and Translation), Bangalore: Buddha Vachana Trust, Maha Bodhi Society, Press 1998, pp.i-iv.
126

here it should be understood shortly to two kinds of mental exercises or mental development:
1) Samatha-kammaÊÊhÅnÅ and 2) VipassanÅ- kammaÊÊhÅnÅ.255

4.1.1 Method of Samatha-kammaÊÊhÅnÅ (Calm Meditation)

The term ‘Samatha’ means tranquility or peacefulness of mind. ‘Samatha-

kammaÊÊhāna’ means practice for the tranquility of mind or mental development based on
tranquility. It is SamÅdhi-bhÅvanÅ for attainment of one pointed-ness (EkaggatÅ) for
peacefulness, calmness and happiness of mind. There are many well-known types of
Samattha Meditation, the Visuddhimagga contains a standard list of 40 objects of meditation
(KammaÊÊhÅna). They are: 256

Kasiœas (Ten Devices):257 1. Earth, 2. Water, 3. Fire, 4. Air, 5. Blue, 6. Yellow, 7.

Red, 8. White, 9. Light, and 10. Space. Asubhas (Ten repulsive things):258 11. Swollen
Corpse, 12. Bluish Corpse, 13. Festering Corpse, 14. Cut up Corpse, 15. Gnawed Corpse,
16. Scattered Corpse, 17. Hacked and Scattered Corpse, 18. Bloody Corpse, 19. Worm-eaten
Corpse, 20. Skeleton Corpse.

Anussatis (Ten Recollections): 21. The Buddha, 22. The Dhamma, 23. The SaÙgha,
24. Morality, 25. Liberality, 26. Devas, 27. Death, 28. What belongs to the Body, 29.
Respiration, and 30. Peace.259 Brahma-vihÅra (Four sublimes of mind): 31. Friendliness,
32. Compassion, 33. Sympathetic joy, 34. Equanimity. 260 ArâpajjhÅnas: 35. ÄkÅsÅnañcÅ-
yatana, 36. ViññÅœañcÅyatana, 37. ÄkiñcaññÅyatana, 38. NevasaññÅnÅsaññÅyatana. One

255
The word ‘Kamma’ literally means action or practice, and the word ‘Âhāna’ means a base or foundation. The
word ‘KammaÊÊhāna’ therefore means the base of action or the cause of development.
256
The forty methods of Samatha (calming Meditation) and method of VipassanÅ (Insight Meditation) have been
explained in detail in the Visuddhimagga by Buddhaghosa (chapters 3-13 concerning Samatha; chapters 14-23. concerning
Vipassanā ).
257
Kasiœas: 1.PaÊhav≠, 2.Äpo, 3.Tejo, 4.VÅyo, 5.N≠la, 6.P≠ta, 7.Lohita, 8.OdÅta, 9. Äloka, and 10. ÄkÅsa.
258
Asubhas: 11. UddhumÅtaka, 12. Vin≠laka, 13. Vipubbaka, 14. Vichiddaka, 15. VikkhÅyitaka,
16. Vikkhittaka, 17. Hatavikkhittaka, 18. Lohitaka, 19. Pu¿uvaka, 20. AÊÊhika.
259
Anussatis: 21.BuddhÅnussati, 22.DhammÅnussati, 23.SaÙghÅnussati, 24.S≠lÅnussati, 25.CÅgÅnussati, 26.
DevatÅnussati, 27. MaraœÅnussati, 28. KÅyagatÅsati, 29. ÄnÅpÅnasati and 30. UpasamÅnussati.
260
Brahma-vihÅras :31. MettÅ, 32. KaruœÅ, 33. MuditÅ, 34. UpekkhÅ, A.III.226, Dhs.262, Vism.320.
 127

perception: 39. ÄhÅre-paÊikâla-saññÅ (Perception of the disgusting aspects of food).261 One

analysis: 40. Catu-dhÅtu-vavaÊÊhÅna (Analysis into the four elements).262

- Six temperaments and their Suitable KammaÊÊhÅna263

There are six types of temperaments (Carita):

1. RÅga-carita: A person who is full of lust, who is infatuated with beauty;
2. Dosa-carita: A person who harbors hatred and is impatient and hotheaded;
3. Moha-carita: A person who is deluded, forgetful, and ‘foggy’;
4. SaddhÅ-carita: A person who is full of confidence in others and is too gullible and
impressionable;
5. Buddhi-ñÅœa-carita: A person who has a good deal of wisdom, is accomplished,
and likes to examine causes and effects;
6. Vitakka-carita-A person who likes to think, who tends to speculate and worry. 264

Among the forty subjects of meditation: Asubha-KÅyagatÅsati-kammaÊÊhÅna is a

comfortable subject for one who is of lustful temperament (RÅgacarita). BrahmavihÅra-
kammaÊÊhÅna and Kasiœa-kammaÊÊhÅna are suitable subjects for one who is of hateful
temperament (Dosacarita). ĀnÅpÅnassati or breathing is suitable to one who is of
Mohacarita (deluded temperament). The Buddha-Dhamma-SaÙgha-S≠la-CÅga-Deva-
anussati (first six Anussatis) is suitable for one who is of the SaddhÅcarita (faithful
temperament). The MaraœÅnussati, UpasamÅnussati, ĀhÅre-paÊikâlasaññÅ and CatudhÅtu
VavatthÅna are suitable subjects for one who is of the Buddhicarita (intelligent
temperament). Mindfulness on breathing, devices, etc., is suitable for one who is of the
Vitakkacarita (speculative temperament).

Generally speaking, the Samatha or Samādhis called “absorption” are divided into
two major sections that are then further divided into four, totaling into eight as follow:

261
39. ÄhÅre-paÊikâla-saññÅ.
262
40. Catu-dhÅtu-vavaÊÊhÅna.
263
More detailed study may be had from, Phra Sudh≠varañāœa (Narong Cherdsungnoen), A Study of Sati
(Mindfulness) in Buddhism: Theory and Practice in Thai Tradition, Op.Cit., pp.214 -216.
264
Vism.101.
128

Four Râpa-jhÅnas- The Four Absorptions of the Material Sphere: 265

1. PaÊhama-jhÅna or First absorption: Consisting of the following five elements:

Vitakka (initial application of thought), VicÅra (sustained application of thought), joy (P≠ti),
Sukha (happiness), and EkaggatÅ (one-pointedness);
2. Dutiya-jhÅna or Second absorption: Consisting of the following three elements:
P≠ti (joy), Sukha (happiness), and EkaggatÅ (one pointedness);
3. Tatiya-jhÅna or Third absorption: Consisting of the following two elements: Sukha
(happiness) and EkaggatÅ (one-pointedness);
4. Catuttha-jhÅna or Fourth absorption: Consisting of the following two elements:
UpekkhÅ (equanimity) and EkaggatÅ (one-pointedness).

They differ in the sense-objects and have different goals and means. To explain the
difference: Samatha-kammaÊÊhāna266 is based on conceptualized objects, or objects which
are created, such as ‘Kasiœa’. The practice of Samatha-kammaÊÊhāna is the means to pacify
the mind, and the method depends essentially on the ‘Nimitta’ (sign) so as to intensify
concentration beginning from ‘Parikamma nimitta’ (preparatory sign) to ‘Uggaha nimitta’
(acquired sign) and the ‘Patibhāga nimitta’ (conceptualized sign). When the Jhāna-factors
Vitakka, Vicāra, Pīti, Sukha, Ekaggatā (examining, adjusting, zest, bliss, and one-
pointedness) arise and are fully developed, then the first absorption is attained (Pathama-
jhāna).

265
M.I.40. ( in Abhidhammanaya, it has been divided four absorptions to become five absorptions by adding
Vicāra into Dutiyajjhāna that has Vicāra, P≠ti, Sukha and Ekaggatā. And then having counted Dutiyajjhāna of the four
absorptions to be Tatiyajjhāna, Tatiya- to be Catuttha- and Catuttha- to be Pañcamajjhāna). The stages of five absorptions:
1. PaÊhama-jhÅna: Vitakka, VicÅra, P≠ti, Sukha, and EkaggatÅ; 2. Dutiya-jhÅna: Vicāra, P≠ti, Sukha, and EkaggatÅ; 3.
Tutiya-jhÅna : P≠ti, Sukha, and EkaggatÅ; 4. Catuttha-jhÅna: Sukha and EkaggatÅ; 5. Pañcamaa-jhÅna: UpekkhÅ and
EkaggatÅ.
266
Vism. 144. (Further, There are three levels of SamÅdhi: KhaœikasamÅdhi (momentary concentration) and
UpÅcÅrasamÅdhi (access concentration) that is level to VipassanÅ-bhÅvanÅ, finally AppanÅsamÅdhi (attainment
concentration) that means the level of high purpose called JhÅna of SamÅdhi).
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And Four Arâpa-jhÅnas: the Four Absorptions of the Formless Sphere267

1. ÄkÅsÅnañcÅyatana (Station of endless space), 2. ViññÅœañcÅyatana, (Station of

unlimited consciousness), 3. ÄkiñcaññÅ-yatana (Station of nothing whatsoever),
4. NevasaññÅnÅsaññÅyatana (Station of neither perception nor non-perception).

However, Samatha-kammaÊÊhÅnas cannot uproot the defilements [Kilesa]

completely. The way to experience freedom from the defilements is to practice VipassanÅ
Meditation. But there is notice here how to the commentary mentioned the two JhÅnas:

1) ĀrammaœâpanijjhÅna (Object-scrutinizing JhÅna): It means to focus on the eight

SamÅpattis (attainment) called four Râpa-jhÅnas and four Arâpa-jhÅnas;

2) LakkhaœâpanijjhÅna (Characteristic-examining-JhÅna): It means to focus to

VipassanÅ as Aniccalakkhaœa, Dukkhalakkhaœa and Anattalakkhaœa, Magga as
VipassanÅlakkhaœa and Phala as focusing to SuññatāsamÅdhi (concentration on void
or egolessness), AnimittasamÅdhi (concentration on the signless or unmark) and
AppaœihitasamÅdhi (concentration on the desireless or free from longing) and as
seeing the truth of NibbÅna.268

Therefore, the main point of Samatha means realization of the Four Supermundane
Paths that is possible only through the moment of deep VipassanÅ (Insight) into Ti-lakkhaœa.
This Insight, again, is attainable only during associated concentration, not during Attainment
Concentration. 269

267
D.III.224.; S.IV.227.
268
A.III.219;AA.II.41; PsA.281.
269
Nyanatiloka MahÅthera, The Word of the Buddha., Op.Cit., pp.178-181.
130

4.1.2 Method of VipassanÅ-KammaÊÊhÅnÅ (Insight Meditation)270

The term ‘Vi-’ means superb, clear, and divers; ‘Passanā’ means seeing, direct
perception and right view of reality. Practically, it is necessary for meditator to have pure
precepts and the mind being free from mental hindrances through the practice of
concentration.

What are the characteristics of Insight? To realize the real nature of compounded
things as impermanent, suffering and non-self as they really are, are the characteistics of
insight. Apart from realizing the real nature of compounds as mentioned above, others are
not insight at all.

What is the essence of Insight? The essence of insight is dispelling the darkness of
ignorance in compounds as permanent, happy and self; realizing that they are impermanent,
unhappy and non-self and impure or ugly. 271

What is manifestation of Insight? Its manifestation is realizing the compounds as

impermanent, suffering and non-self; getting rid of the darkness of delusion which conceals
the full knowledge (Paññā); being not deluded in the compounded things as permanent,
happy self and beauty.

What is the proximate cause of Insight? Concentration is its proximate cause.

Morality and concentration are the basis of Insight. It is because of concentration that insight
can be developed and exist. Without concentration, it is impossible for a meditator to
practice insight because concentration is the cause of insight.

So it should not be believed at all in a person who has impure precepts and distracted
mind, claiming that he has achieved any stage of his insight development. Because the pure

270
It means the seven purities: 1.purity of morality that it means 4 purities of morality 2.purity of mind that means
4 Jhānas and 4 Arâpajhānas; 3.purity of understanding that means Dukkhasacca; 4.purity of transcending doubts that is
Dukkhasamudayasacca; 5.purity of the knowledge and vision regarding path and not-path that is Maggasacca; 6.purity of
the knowledge and vision of the way of progress that means 9 Vipassanāñāœas 7.purity of knowledge and vision that means
4 Ariyamaggas.
271
These mean 3 Vipalāsas (perversions): Saññā-citta-diÊÊhi-vipalāsas as 4 characteristics: 1. perception,
consciousness, and vision in impermanence as permanence; 2. in suffering as happiness; 3. in non-self as self; and 4. in
ugliness as beauty. [AÙguttaranikāya. 21/49/67 (STP)].
 131

moral conduct is the cause of concentration; concentration is the cause f insight, 272 insight is
the cause of the Noble Paths, and the Noble Paths are the cause of the Noble Fruits. The
nature of Dhamma thus appears, not in any other way. So the meditator of Insight Meditation
should know the characteristics, essence, manifestation and proximate cause of insight as
described above. 273 So ‘VipassanākammaÊÊhāna’274 is the practice of the correct view of
reality or mental development for clear knowledge to see the truth of all realities as Ti-
lakkhaœa (Three Characteristics).

-The Ti-lakkhaœa (Three Characteristics)275

It has been expressed in PÅli as: Sabbe saÙkhÅrÅ aniccÅ; Sabbe saÙkhÅrÅ dukkhÅ;
Sabbe dhammÅ anattÅ.276 The word “SaÙkhÅrÅ (formations) comprises here of all things that
are conditioned or ‘formed’ (SaÙkhata-dhamma), i.e. all possible physical and mental
constituents of existence. The word ‘Dhamma’, however, has a still wider application and is
all-embracing, as it comprises also the so-called Unconditioned (unformed, AsaÙkhata), i.e.
NibbÅna.

For this reason, it would be wrong to say that all Dhammas are impermanent and
subject to change, for the NibbÅna-dhamma is permanent and free from change. And for the
same reason, it is correct to say that not only all the SaÙkhÅras (SaÙkhata-dhamma), but that
all the Dhammas (including the AsaÙkhata-dhamma) lack an Ego (AnattÅ).277Here there are
six divisions of Vipassanā (insight) as follows:

1. Aniccaµ-impermanence;
2. Aniccalakkhaœaµ-the fundamental characteristics of impermanence.
3. Dukkhaµ-suffering.

272
A.V.I; Vism.XIV.7. [SamÅhito yathÅbhâtaµ pajÅnÅ’ti= concentrated one sees the things as they really are].
273
Somdet Phra Vanarat (Buddhasiri), Insight Meditation. (tr.) by Ven. Phra Dhamma-visuddhikavi (Pichitr
Âhitavaœœo), MBU. Press, 2004,pp.7-9.
274
The ten chapters of the Visuddhimagga starting from the fourteen chapter (Cuddasamo Niddeso) to the twenty-
third chapter (Tev≠satimo Niddeso), are devoted to PaññÅ or VipassanÅ (insight meditation).
275
Dh.277-279.
276
Kvu. p.506.
277
A. III. 134
132

4. Dukkhalakkhaœaµ-the fundamental characteristics of suffering.

5. Anattā-non-self.
6. Anattalakkhaœaµ-the fundamental characteristics of non-self.

Of these, all compounds, both animate organisms and inanimate objects in the
universe or name and form, are divided by the Buddha and his disciples in Khandha
(aggregates), Äyatana (spheres), Dhātu (elements), etc which are the grounds of insight;
these all are designated in Buddhist doctrine as Aniccaµ (impermanent) because they appear
(rising), and then disappear (ceasing), and in those which exist they undergo change.

The state of Uppāda (rising), Vaya (ceasing) and Aññathatta (undergoing change) is
Aniccalakkhaœa. all compounds, including name and form which are impermanent, are
Dukkha (suffering) because they are subject to rising, ceasing and to change under the
influence of the fire of suffering, that is, decay or old age, sickness and death that always
oppress, crush and burn the name and form.

The state of rising, ceasing and undergoing change under the influence of the fire of
suffering as mentioned above is Dukkhalakkhaœa. all compounds and non-compound
(Nirvāœa) are non-self (Anattā) because they are null, void, empty, ownerless and
masterless. The state of being null, void, empty, ownerless and masterless is Anattalakkhaœa.

The meditator of Insight Meditation should know the six divisions of Insight as
mentioned abobe. The meditator who is endowed with the purity of morallity and the puity
of mind as thus explained is said to be proper in his insight development; he can indeed
achieve his insight practice.278

Further, we should develop insight meditation by the SatipaÊÊhÅna-practice that it

will perfectly by itself led to VipassanÅ-bhÅvanÅ.279 It means that the contemplating on the
body, feeling, mind and Dhammas or Râpa (body) and NÅma (mind) by insight meditation

278
Somdet Phra Vanarat (Buddhasiri), Insight Meditatio, Op.Cit, pp.9-12.
279
Vism. 633. In VipassanÅ-meditation, there will be ten Vipassanâpakilesas or Dhammmuddhaccas that are got
by who has taruœa-vipassanÅ or young VipassanÅ. There are : 1) ObhÅsa-illumination; 2) ÑÅœa-knowledge; 3) P≠ti-rapture;
4) Passaddhi-tranquillity; 5) Sukha-bliss; 6) Adhimokkha-determination; 7) PaggÅha-exertion; 8) UpaÊÊhÅna-established
mindfulness; 9) UpekkhÅ-equanimity; 10) Nikanti-delight.
 133

as Tilakkhaœa or six divisions. We will be able to attain the final purposes, i.e. Nibbāna (the
unconditioned state).

4.1.3 Difference between Samatha and VipassanÅ

Samatha literally means tranquility. The Samatha meditations are meant to calm
down the mind leading to various stages of ecstatic absorption known as Jhānas or
Samādhis. By developing these Samādhis one can acquire varieties of psychic abilities and
supernormal powers which need not be necessarily spiritual.

Vipassanā literally means insight which penetrates into the reality of mental and
physical phenomena. Vipassanā meditations are meant to develop intuitive wisdom leading
to transformation of the consciousness from the mundane to the super-mundane state and
thereby bring about spiritual liberation or enlightenment.280

Both are explained by the Buddha in the AÙguttara NikÅya as follows:

“Bhikkhus, these two conditions have part in knowledge (VijjÅbhÅgiya-

dhamma). What two? Calm-meditation and Insight - meditation. If cultivated,
which profit does calm-meditation attain? The mind is cultivated. What profit
results from a cultivated mind? All lust is abandoned. Bhikkhus, if insight
meditation be cultivated, what profit does it attain? Vision is cultivated. If vision
is cultivated what profit does it attain? All ignorance is abandoned. A mind
polluted by lust is not set free, nor can vision polluted by the ignorance be
cultivated. Indeed, Bhikkhus, this ceasing of lust is mental salvations; this
ceasing of ignorance is the salvation by wisdom”.281

It may be known more clearly by the chart of short purposes of Samatha and
VipassanÅ as follows:282

280
Venerable Acharya Buddharakkhita, The Great Discourse on the Foundations of Mindfulness, Op.Cit., pp.i-iv.
281
A.I. 60.
282
Appendix C, at the Chart No. 6: The Main Difference between Samatha and VipassanÅ;
also vide in, Charuwan Phungtian, Dhamma in Advanced English Learning English through VipassanÅ, Bangkok:
Mahchulalongkornrajvidyalaya University Press, 2008, P.4.
134

BuddhadÅsa opines that when we say “Samatha and VipassanÅ for the nuclear age,”
we ought to realize the significance of joining the words Samatha (tranquility) and
VipassanÅ (insight) together. Samatha-vipassanÅ is one thing, not two separate things. If
they had been two things, we would have to do two things and that would be too slow. When
tranquility and insight are united as one thing, there is only a single thing to do. Both
Samatha and VipassanÅ are developed at one and the same time. That saves time a precious
commodity in this nuclear age. When we look at something, we endeavor to see how it truly
is. We see nothing but the flow of IdappaccayatÅ. That is concocting and being concocted. It
flows continuously according to impermanence and the fact that once conditions have
formed they force the arising of new things and more new things. We can say that SamÅdhi
(concentration) is added to PaññÅ (wisdom). SamÅdhi is the mind steadfastly focusing on the
object; PaññÅ is seeing what the thing is about, what characteristics it has, and what its truth
is. 283

Further, it is the same point of concentration but the object is different. It means four
Râpajjhānas and Arâpajjhānas. Even they are Lokiyajjhāna (mundane), but can become the
Lokuttarajjhāna (supermundane). It depends on the Meditator who can deeply contemplate
the objects of Lokiyajjhāna as Vipassanā. They will be Lokuttarajjhāna.

For instance, the Buddha practised eight Jhānas before his enlightenment, the eighth
Jhāna and last being Nevasaññānāsaññāyatana. In this Jhāna, Saññā cannot be said either to
exist or not exist. Although it has become so feeble, it does still exist, so the Buddha did not
yet call himself a liberated person. Using Vipassanā he developed the Lokuttarajjhānas,
leading to Nibbāna, and introduced the “ninth Jhāna,” which he called Saññā-vedayita-
nirodha:284 where Saññā and Vedanā stop. As long as Saññā functions, however feebly, it
will produce a reaction, a SaÙkhāra. Saññā must be eradicated totally to experience the stage
of Viññāœa as Viññāœa. 285 Now the only factor left is: Viññāœa. In what has been seen, it is
just seen and in hearing is the same way to contemplate it. So the objects of Jhāna have been

283
www.buddhadasa.com/naturaltruth/samatha1. (Accessed on July 21,2012).
284
This Jhāna can be practiced by Anāgām≠ or Arahanta skilled in the eight Jhānas before hand but some
Äcariyas say that it can be practiced as Vipassanājhāna by all of Ariyapuggalas (Noble Persons).
285
Goenka, S.N., Discourses on SatipaÊÊhāna Sutta. Op.Cit., pp.58-59.
 135

contemplated as Vipassanā, after that, they become the object of Lokuttarajhāna that is
Jhāna of the Noble persons.

4.2 SatipaÊÊhÅna as Samatha and Vipassanā by Natural Method

One who has practiced Samatha, is indeed developing mindfulness and one who has
practiced Vipassanā, is developing Sampajañña. Both Bhāvanās have never been separated
to practice it. It is interesting or amazing meditation as the four in one. 286This means unity of
Samatha and Vipassanā inside the SatipaÊÊhāna. Theoretically speaking, it is a separated
way to study or recall “There are four kinds of foundation of mindfulness” but practically
speaking, it is the only way as the unity or harmony of Dhammas (conditions)287 that is
needed in all period.

Therefore, with the reference to the statement of the Buddha in Alagaddâpamasutta:

“Formerly I, Bhikkhus, as well as now lay down simply suffering and the extinction of
suffering (Dukkha & Dukkhanirodha)”,288 BuddhadÅsa pointes out Dhamma as the secret of
life and how to develop life beyond suffering. Dhamma as the secret or the truth of life can
be considered as nature itself, the law of nature. On the contrary Dhamma as the way and
goal is considered as the duty of right performance of that duty.

When we talk about developing life, we can distinguish four aspects of it. The first
aspect is to prevent things from arising that are dangerous to life. The second is to get rid of
and destroy any dangerous things that have already arisen in life. The third is to produce
things which are useful and beneficial for life. The fourth is to maintain and preserve those
things so that they grow further.

Altogether we have the four aspects of developing life: preventing new dangers,
getting rid of old dangers, creating desirable things, and maintaining and increasing the
beneficial things. These make up what we call “developing life.”

286
It is like that we can practice one thing but gain four things or [shooting once but getting four birds].
287
Unity of them that means MaggasamaÙg≠ or DhammasamaÙg≠ (harmony of Dhamma-way) that has moral,
concentration and wisdom by itself.
288
M.I. 140.
136

Developing life is our duty. In order to fulfill our duty, we must have in our
possession four very important Dhammas, i.e., essentials of SatipaÊÊhÅna; four Dhamma-
tools. These four tools of Dhammas are: 1) Sati (reflective awareness or mindfulness), 2)
Sampajañña (wisdom-in-action or ready comprehension), 3) PaññÅ (wisdom or knowledge),
4) SamÅdhi (concentration). These four tools indeed enable us to develop life. 289

In this case, SatipaÊÊhāna is Samatha and Vipassanā by itself. It cannot be separated

in the way of practice. Ajahn Chah states that some people who have insight and are strong
in wisdom but do not have much SamÅdhi, can attain peace through the use of wisdom,
through contemplation, seeing the truth of things, and solving problems that way.

Other people have only little wisdom but their SamÅdhi is very strong. They can
enter into very deep SamÅdhi quickly, but not having much wisdom, they cannot catch their
defilements. They do not know them. They cannot solve their probable except the
development of Mindfulness in peaceful mind. However, regardless of whichever approach,
we must do away with wrong thinking, leaving only Right View. We must get rid of
confusion, leaving only peace. Either way we end up at the same place. There are two sides
of practice but these two things: calm and insight, go together. We cannot do away with
either of them. They must go together.”290

In this case, how do Samatha and Vipassanā be supporters to each other? First of all,
Vipassanā (Insight) as the Nature Method that has let us practice in daily life to taste of
Nibbāna. Indeed, the Buddha defined Nibbāna as simply that condition of freedom from
bondage, torment and suffering which results from seeing the true nature of the worldly
condition and all things, and so being able to give up all clinging to them. It is essential,
then, that we recognize the very great value of insight into the true nature of things and
endeavor to cultivate this insight by one means or the other. Using one method, we simply
encourage it to come about of its own accord, naturally, by developing, day and night, the
joy that results from mental purity, until the qualities we have described gradually come
about. The other method consists in developing mental power by following an organized

289
Buddhadasa, Mindfulness with Breathing, Bangkok: The Dhamma Study and Practice Group Press, 1989,
pp.3-5.
290
Ajahn Chah, A Taste of Freedom, Op.Cit., pp. 9-16.
 137

system of concentration and insight practice. This latter technique is appropriate for people
with a certain kind of disposition, who may make rapid progress with it if conditions are
right.

However, we can practice the development of insight by the nature method in all
circumstances and at all times just by making our own way of daily living so pure and honest
that there arise in succession spiritual joy (P≠ti and Pāmojja), calm (Passaddhi), insight into
the true nature of things (Yathābhâtañaœadassana), disenchantment (Nibbedā), withdrawal
(Virāga), escape (Vimutti), purification from defilements (Visuddhi), and coolness (Santi), so
that we come to get a taste of freedom from suffering (Nibbāna)- steadily, naturally, day by
day, month by month, year by year, gradually approaching closer and closer to Nibbāna.

Briefly, natural concentration and insight, which enable a person to attain the Path
and the Fruit, consist in verifying all the day and every day the truth of statement that
nothing is worth getting or being. Anyone who wishes to get this result, must strive to purify
himself and to develop exemplary personal qualities, so that he can find perpetual spiritual
joy in work and leisure.

That very joy induces clarity and freshness, mental calm and stillness, and serves,
naturally and automatically, to give the mind ability to think and introspect. With the insight
that nothing is worth getting or being constantly present, mind loses all desire for the things
it once used to grasp at and cling to. It is able to break free from the things it used to regard
as ‘me’ and ‘mine,’ and all blind craving for things ceases. Suffering, which no longer has
anywhere to lodge, dwindles right away, and the job of eliminating suffering is done. This is
the reward, and it can be gained by anyone of ours. 291

In above reason, SatipaÊÊhÅna can imply to Samatha and VipassanÅ, whether being
natural method or technical method. Practically, it can imply to Ti-sikkhÅ: S≠la (morality);
SamÅdhi (concentration) and PaññÅ (wisdom). Because of that, S≠la (morality) will be basic
of Sati (mindfulness) or Samatha (calmness) and then Sati will be basic of Sampajañña
(clear comphehension) or Samatha will be basic of Vipassanā (insight).

291
www.buddhanet.net/budasa10.htm (Accessed on July 21, 2012).
138

The conditions of Dhamma are as harmony by nature. For instance, naturally S≠la
means the regularity of body and mind that is like the earth where are trig of anything.
Samādhi or Samatha is like the person’s power, if he has not power a bit, even he is a wise
person and stands on the good earth, he cannot do anything. And Paññā is like the sharp
sword of person even he has sharp sword and he has the power but stands on bad earth, it
will be difficult for him to do well anything that he wants.

So he has to have harmony of three things: wisdom, sharp sword and stands on the
good earth, he can do well what he wants. In Dhamma way it has also to be unity or
harmony of Dhamma whether the factors of Dhammas, such as Sati or Sampajañña as body,
feeling, mind and mind-objects, and Samatha or Vipassanā that all have to come together.
Further, if our practicing or contemplating comes to harmonize Dhamma. It will become to a
AkÅlika (timeless) Dhamma that has solved all of problem of human beings whether physical
or mental in all age.

Thus, it is a much needed solution in age of globalization but has to be practiced in

the right manner. In the age of globalization, there are many problems called Dukkha
whether bodily, mental that concerns at different levels, the individual, the society, the world
and so on. These problems are very difficult to see and understand which cankers problem
that lay hidden deep inside the heart of human life. Thus it becomes difficult to find out
whether we are on the right track or not and thus if the solution that we adopt are indeed
effective or not. Thus, it depends on us to give time to practice.

For clear understanding of SatipaÊÊhāna as Samatha and Vipassanā in need,

ĀnÅpÅnasati is however as one simple of the best suitable technique to develop our life in
modern time or globalization. Because of that, the Buddhist tradition says: ‘Mindfulness of
breath takes the first place among the various subjects of meditation (KammaÊÊhÅna), to all
Buddhas, Pacceka-Buddhas, and holy disciples it has been the basis of their attainment of
the Goal, and of their well-being here and now’. 292

292
Vism.II. p.55 (MBU); Nyanaponika MahÅthera, The Heart of Buddhist Meditation, Op.Cit.,p.62.
 139

4.3 Application of Änāpānasati as Samatha and VipassanÅ to be Balance of Life

4.3.1 Significance of ÄnÅpÅnasati

The first step of SatipaÊÊhÅna-meditation is ĀnÅpÅnassati, i.e., Mindfulness of

Breathing which is very effective in quieting bodily and mental unrest or irritation, for
ordinary as well as for higher purposes. ÄnÅpÅnasati is the practice in the form of the sixteen
exercises which must have become an essential Buddhist teaching in the very early days, it is
the main subject of the ÄnÅpÅna Saµyutta of the Saµyutta NikÅya and the ÄnÅpÅnasati
Sutta of the Majjhima NikÅya and also occurs in other parts of the NikÅyas and even in the
Vinaya.293

ÄnÅpÅnasati is the best Technique for developing life beyond Dukkha.

BuddhadÅsa accepts that there are many different kinds of mental development or
VipassanÅ. One of them, ÄnÅpÅnasatibhÅvanÅ is to take one truth or reality of the nature and
then observe, investigate and scrutinize it within the mind with every inhalation and every
exhalation. Thus, mindfulness of breathing allows the practitioner to contemplate any
important natural truth while breathing in and breathing out. It must be worked continuously
with every in and out breath within the mind. 294

‘ÄnÅpÅnasati’ means to recollect with awareness (Sati) anything at all while

breathing in and breathing out. General recollecting such as thinking about home, family,
country, relatives etc., but this is not what we need to do here. What we require is to recollect
Dhamma, that is, the natural truths which will free the mind from the suffering.295 So,
ÄnÅpÅnasati is the most useful in the spiritual life. There are many interesting reasons of
ĀnÅpānasati such as:296

1. This is the Buddha’s SamÅdhi bhÅvanÅ as ÄnÅpÅnasati. He practiced it from his

childhood till the time of enlightenment. It is not confined to any style of a particular school.

293
M. I. 425. Vin. III. 70-71.
294
Buddhadasa, Mindfulness with Breathing, Op.Cit., P.7.
295
Ibid, P.8.
296
BuddhadÅsa, ÄnÅpÅnasati BhÅvanÅ (Thai Version), DhammadÅna Foudation Press, 1980, p.55.
140

It is not the system of Ajahn this, Master that, Guru this or Teacher that like we are so caught
up in now a days.

2. ÄnÅpÅnasati is a simple method without sound or physical action…With

ÄnÅpÅnasati, one is peaceful in every posture. It helps one’s mind in becoming a
concentrated mind.297

3. Mindfulness Technique with Breathing involves two kinds of meditation called

Calming Meditation (Samatha) and Insight Meditation (VipassanÅ). It leads to the
fulfillment of mental salvations by Samatha and wisdom-salvation by VipassanÅ.298

ÄnÅpÅnasatibhÅvanÅ begins with the right understanding and right living in

Dhamma, physical preparation, suitable time, suitable teacher, sitting in suitable postures
with cool and concentrated eye. Mindfulness of breathing is very important in our daily life.
We do breathe in and out in a natural way, without getting conscious or aware of this action.
It is so mechanical. That usually we do not feel even. However, when we begin and practice
on Änāpānasati, here it means the development of this natural breathing to become the
breathing of mindfulness. It will be a mindful breathing with the help of the power of mind.

Therefore, it is said ‘our breath is like our best friend’. It is necessary that we practice
mindful breathing as we possibly can do so. We become adapt to the extent that following
our breath becomes our second nature. In order to be able to sustain a continuous and
unbroken awareness of each in-breathing and ex-breathing, we have to first know what it is
like to be completely mindful of one breath. Start with being aware of the beginning, the
middle part, and the end of the in-breath.

Then be aware of the beginning, the middle part, and the end of the our-breath.
Notice our full attention on the breath while our mind is calm and devoid of any thoughts. If
we can perfectly maintain our awareness of the in-breath and our-breath for the first time, it
is not difficult to continue on to the second, third or fourth breath, or for many minutes until
we can sustain it for a lengthy period of time. Thus, we can sustain our awareness of the in-
and out-breath continuously. We remain neutral regardless of what we see, here, smell, or

297
BuddhadÅsa, Handbook of Study and Practice in ÄnÅpÅnasati, Bangkok: Atammayo Press, 2530 B.A, pp. 8-9.
298
Ibid, pp.7-8.
 141

come to experience. Stay with our breath. Sustain serenity which reflects the good health of
the mind or Citta.

Further, AjÅha ChÅh Subhaddo had given the advice that “one should understand the
Eightfold Path as morality, concentration and wisdom. The path comes together as simply
this. Our practice is to make this path arise within us”. Sitting in meditation, we should think
that we are sitting alone until the mind lets go all externals, concentrating solely on the
breath. If the mind is confused and will not concentrate on the breath on the breath, the best
way would be to take a full, deep breath, as deep as you can, and then let it all out till there is
non left. Do this three times and then re-establish your attention. The mind will become
calm”. External impressions will not reach the mind. Sati will be firmly established. As the
mind becomes more refined, so does the breath. Feelings will become finger and finger, the
body and mind will be light. Our attention is solely on the inner. We see in-breath and out-
breath clearly, we see all impressions clearly. We will see the coming together of morality,
concentration and wisdom. This is the path in harmony. 299

4.3.2 How to Practice ÄnÅpÅnasati

The Buddha says that a Bhikkhu within this training (Dhamma-vinaya) having gone
into the forest, to the base of a tree or to an empty dwelling, having sat cross-legged with his
body erect, securely maintains mindfulness (Sati). Ever mindful that Bhikkhu breathes in,
ever mindful he breathes out. Therefore one selects the proper place either in the forest or
under the root of a tree or at a secluded place that is suitable for meditation.

The first is the ‘forest,’ meaning any kind of forest that offers the bliss of seclusion.
Since the place must be secluded, it should preferably be a forest where nobody lives, away
from the sounds and noises of people living in the villages, towns or cities.

The second place mentioned in the Sutta is “the root of a tree.” The root of any tree is
a suitable place for meditation, but it should be in a quiet a place as a forest. The third place
is just ‘a secluded place.’ It may be in a city or a village, but has to be secluded. With regard
to these places, seclusion is the most important condition. Therefore, any place that offers
seclusion is a suitable place for meditation.

299
Ajahn Chah, A Taste of Freedom, Op.Cit., p.16.
142

Here Visuddhimagga-Ê≠kā has interesting information on the time and temperaments

regarding the places for meditation. It says: ‘In the hot season the forest is favorable, in the
cold season the root of a tree, in the rainy season an empty place. For one of hot
temperament the roots of a tree, for one of covet temperament an empty place.’300

After this, the Yog≠ sits down cross-legged, keeps his upper body erect and directs
his mindfulness to the object of his meditation”. With these words, the Buddha shows how
one should prepare himself for meditation, and what posture one should select. He mentions
the traditional posture of sitting ‘cross legged (Padmāsana)’ People in the East are
accustomed to sit on the floor, so sitting cross-legged comes naturally to them. They have no
difficulty in sitting in this posture. It is a very good posture for meditation and a peaceful
one, neither conducive to idleness nor to agitation.

-Forms of Sitting Cross-Legged:301

There are three kinds of form of sitting cross-legged. The first one is the ‘full-lotus
posture (Vajirāsana)’ which is the most difficult to maintain. One sits placing the right foot
on the left thigh and the left foot on the right thigh. This is the full position. When we have
no practice, we cannot sit in this posture for a long time. When our legs are intertwined, we
feel pain after we have sat in this posture for a few minutes.

The second posture is the ‘half-lotus posture (Vajirānvāsana),’ that is by simply

placing the right foot on the left thigh or the left foot on the right thigh. We can sit longer in
this posture: however, we still feel some kind of pressure and our feet get numb after some
minutes.

The third is the ‘easy posture (Sukhāsana).’ In this posture, we sit with one leg in
front of and not on the other. This posture may be the best for beginners. Since it is the most
comfortable one, beginners are able to sit in this posture for a longer period of time, without
much discomfort. Some people find it very painful to sit cross-legged, so painful that it

300
Bhikkhu NyÅœamoli (tr.), The Path of Purification (Visuddhimagga) Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society
Press, 1997. [Chapter. VIII, Note 43, p.158].
301
Phra Sobhaœamahathera (Mahasīsayādaw). MahāsatipaÊÊhāna-sutta, (The Path to Nibbāna), Thai version
translated by PhragandhasÅrÅbhivaµsa, Bangkok : Thairaivankarnpim Press, 2549. p.43.
 143

interferes with their practice of meditation. Such people may sit on a cushion, a chair, or
bench, since some degree of comfort is necessary for practicing meditation. Though there
should not be too much comfort, some is necessary to continue with the practice of
meditation.

4.3.3 The Method of ĀnÅpÅnasati Practice

These terms ‘One keeps his upper body erect,’ mean meditators keep their body
straight when they sit cross-legged. When we sit straight, our spine is also straight. When
our spine is straight, the eighteen vertebrae in the spine are resting one on top of the other.
When we sit straight, our muscles, sinews, skin, and flesh are not twisted, so painful feelings
do not so readily arise as when our muscles and so on, are twisted. Our mind can become
unified in meditation and, instead of collapsing when the pain is increasable; can attend to
the growth of Sati (mindfulness).

When we complete this meditation session, we feel happy and peaceful. Just ‘Let Go’
of all your responsibility and duty, all the pre-occupation which normally obsess the mind.
Have no interest in all the possessions, relatives, and friends. Just leave all those things
behind for now. We are no longer interested in the noise around us. People around us, and
thing around us. Be as if we have no past, no future, nothing to do, no where to go. No need
to result to anything. Breathing naturally and relaxing the body:

Move the attention to the area around the face, behind the eyes, gently relax all the
muscles. Releasing any tension. Try to relax the muscles in the neck and around the
shoulders. Relax the muscles in the chest and the abdomen. Now we are sitting balanced,
relaxed, and breathing naturally. Begin to turn our attention to the natural flow of our breath:

As we can experience our breath, feel it around the tip of the nose. Notice the
touching at the tip of the nose, notice it at the tie of inhalation and exhalation, and need not
to follow the breath, keep on touching only. To help the mind to stay with the breath, we can
count each breath. At the end of inhalation and exhalation in the followings:

One-one, two-two, three-three, four-four, five-five.

One-one, two-two, three-three, four-four, five-five, six-six.
One-one, two-two, three-three, four-four, five-five, six-six, seven-seven.
144

One-one, two-two, three-three, four-four, five-five, six-six…up to eight.

One-one, two-two, three-three, four-four, five-five, six-six…up to nine.
One-one, two-two, three-three, four-four, five-five, six-six…up to ten.

And then, start again (round) at one-one, two-two…up to five, one-one up to six…up
to ten.

Note: Counting should not exceed more than ten to prevent an absence of mind.
Every time the mind moves away from the breath, know it. Stop gently but firmly bring the
attention back to the breath. Just the breath, relax in to the breath. Be at peace with the
breath. Just one breath at a time. Becoming the breath. Feel the joy, peace and happiness
with each breath.302 When we are passively observing just the beautiful breath in the
moment, the perception of ‘in’ (breath) or ‘out’ (breath), or beginning or middle or end of a
breath, should all be allowed to disappear. With this practice we can meditate from 10 to 30
minutes per day, morning or before going to be, or it depends on how to the meditator feels
comfortable to practice by himself.

Coming to this point, we come across a question as what are the four secret things
one ought to contemplate. The answer is: there are the secrets of thing called ‘KÅya (body),’
the secrets of thing called ‘VedanÅ (feeling),’ the secrets of thing called ‘Citta (mind),’ the
secrets of the thing called ‘Dhamma’. The secrets of these four things are to be brought into
the mind and studied there.

BuddhadÅsa has explained the technique of practice of mindfulness with breathing in

four stages: 303

[A]. First Stage : Kāyānupassanā ( body & Breath-body)

[B]. Second Stage : Vedanānupassanā ( Mastering the feelings)
[C]. Third Stage : Cittānupassanā (the subtle mind)
[D]. Fourth Stage : Dhammānupassanā (Realizing the Supreme Dhamma)

302
Quoted in Phramaha Khomsorn Khamkert, Buddhist Approach to Science, Technology and Human Peace (A
study in the light of Bhikkhu P.A. Payutto’s Views), Gorakhpur (U.P.): Department of Philosophy, Deen dayal Upadhaya
Gorakhpur University Press, 2001, pp.150-51.
303
Buddhadasa, Mindfulness with Breathing, Op.Cit., P.8-9.
 145

[A] First Stage: KÅyÅnupassanā (body)

The first step connected with contemplation of the body, is among the practices of
the first SatipaÊÊhÅna in different versions of the SatipaÊÊhÅna Sutta and the KÅyagatÅsati
Sutta.304 This step consists of the following four practices: 305

(1) D≠ghaµ vÅ assasanto: A Bhikkhu, when taking a long in-breath, knows:

‘I am taking a long in-breath’; or, while taking a long out-breath, he knows: ‘1 am
taking a long out-breath.’

(2) Rassaµ vÅ assasanto: When taking a short in-breath, he knows: ‘I am

taking a short in-breath’; or, when taking a short out-breath, he knows: ‘I am
taking a short out-breath.’

(3) SabbakÅyapaÊisaµved≠: He trains thus: ‘I will breathe in perceiving the

whole body’; and also thus: ‘I will breathe out perceiving the whole body.’

(4) Passambhayaµ kÅyasaµkhÅraµ: He trains thus: ‘I will breathe in

calming the bodily formation’; and also thus: ‘I will breathe out calming the bodily
formation.’306

Indeed, at the first stage, (KÅyÅnupassanā) there are four steps; the long breath, the
short breath; experiencing all bodies and calming the breath. He concludes the way of
practice like this: in the first steps of this practice, those concerned with KÅya (body), we
study the breath in a special way. We note every kind of breath that occurs and study what
each is like. Long breaths, short breaths, calm breaths, violent breaths, fast breaths and slow
breaths; we must know them all. Of all the different kinds of breath which arise, know what
nature each one has its characteristics and know its function.

304
M. III 89.
305
S.V. 323; .M.III.83.(Bhikkhu satova assasati sato passati d≠ghaµ vÅ assasanto ‘d≠ghaµ assasÅm≠’ti pajÅnÅti;
d≠ghaµ vÅ passasanto ‘d≠ghaµ passasÅm≠’ti pajÅnÅti,. rassaµ vÅ assasanto ‘rassaµ assasÅm≠’ti pajÅnÅti; rassaµ vÅ
passasanto ‘rassaµ passasÅm≠’ti pajÅnÅti. ‘sabbakÅyapaÊisaµved≠ assasissÅm≠’ti sikkhati; ‘sabbakÅyapaÊisaµved≠
passasissÅm≠’ti sikkhati ‘passambhayaÚµkÅyasaÙkhÅraµ assasissÅm≠’ti sikkhati; ‘passambhayaµ kÅyasaÙkhÅraµ
passasissÅm≠’ti sikkhati).
306
M. I 56.
146

This will allow us to regulate the flesh-body by means of controlling the

breath…Nobody can sit here and directly relax the body, but we discover that we can relax
the flesh-body by making the breath calm, if the breathing is calm, the flesh-body will be
calm. This is how we can control the body indirectly. Further, we know that there is
happiness and joy and other valuable benefits in the calming of breath and flesh bodies”. 307

In the practice of fourth step of the first stage, BuddhadÅsa expresses that we have
various methods or skillful means. We could even call them techniques to use in calming the
breath. The techniques or skillful means are fivefold in number. They are:

1. following the breath,

2. guarding the breath at a certain point,
3. giving rise to an imaginary image at that guarding point,
4. manipulating these images in any ways that we want in order to gain power over
them;
5. selecting one of these images and contemplating over it in the most concentrated
way until the breath becomes truly calm and peaceful.

These are five techniques or tricks; following, guarding, raising a mental image,
playing with different mental images and choosing one image to be a specific object of
SamÅdhi (concentration, collectedness) until there is complete calmness.308 After that, the
beginner finds it easier to develop mindfulness, concentration and spiritual knowledge (Sati,
SamÅdhi and ÑÅœa) which are still weak with a simple and easy exercise. He can observe
every movement ‘rising’ and ‘falling’ 309 of the body while breathing In and Out.

When contemplating over rising and falling, 310 the meditator (Yog≠)311 should keep
his mind on the abdomen. 312 He will then come to know the upward movement (expansion)
of the abdomen on in breathing, and a downward movement (contraction) on out breathing.
A mental note should be made as ‘rising’ for upward movement, and ‘falling’ for downward

307
BuddhadÅsa, Mindfulness with Breathing, Op.Cit., p. 9-10.
308
Ibid, p.40.
309
Mahasi Sayadaw, The SatipaÊÊhÅna VipassanÅ Meditation, Rangoon: Dept. Of Religions Affaires, 1975, p.13.
310
The calling of these terms “rising” “falling” should not be repeated by mouth.
311
The Word ‘Yogi’ was used by Mahasi Sayadaw for the meditator or practiser in training course.
312
Or else, some where, such as abdomen or nose that depends on his convenience to focusing.
 147

movement. The practitioner should not try to change the manner of his natural breathing by
retention of his breath, nor quick breathing nor deep breathing. If he does change the natural
flow of his breathing he will soon tire himself. He must therefore keep to the natural
breathing and proceed with the contemplation of rising and falling. 313

Further, in this context, the beginner can be mindful of the fresh body as the postures:
the walking, standing, sitting, and lying down respectively; as clear comprehension. He
should be mindful of other bodily activities as each of them occurs.

Therefore, the Buddha always tries to make the thing associated with life clear and
clean. Just as a skillful turner, turning long, understands ‘I turn long’ or turning short,
understands ‘I turn short.’ Similarly, a practitioner comprehends the whole process of his
breath. Thus, he lives contemplating the body in the body internally or externally or both
internally and externally. He lives contemplating organization or dissolution or origination
and dissolution - things in the body, or indeed his mindfulness is established with the
thought ‘the body exists, to the extent necessary to just knowledge and remembrance, and he
lives independently and clings to naught in the world.’314

[B] Second Stage: VedanÅnupassanÅ (Mastering the feelings)

The second tetrad in the sixteen exercises of ÄnÅpÅnassati is as follows: 315

(5) P≠tipaÊisaµved≠: He trains thus: ‘I will breathe in perceiving rapture

(P≠ti)’; and also thus: ‘I will breathe out perceiving rapture.’

(6) SukkhapaÊisaµved≠: He trains thus: ‘I will breathe in perceiving

pleasure (Sukha)’; and also thus: ‘I will breathe out perceiving pleasure.’

313
Mahasi Sayadaw, The SatipaÊÊhÅna VipassanÅ Meditation, Op.Cit., p.15.
314
D.II . Sutta 10; Dialogues of the Buddha, Op.Cit., p. 328 (PTS).
315
S.V. 323-24. M.III. 84. (‘p≠tipaÊisaµved≠ assasissÅm≠’ti sikkhati; ‘p≠tipaÊisaµved≠ passasissÅm≠’ti sikkhati;
pajÅnÅti,. ‘sukkhapaÊisaµved≠ assasissÅm≠’ti sikkhati; ‘sukkhapaÊisaµved≠ passasissÅm≠’ti sikkhati;
‘cittasaÙghÅrapaÊisaµved≠ assasissÅm≠’ti sikkhati; ‘cittasaÙghÅapaÊisaµved≠ passasissÅm≠’ti sikkhati ‘passambhayaµ
cittasaÙkhÅraµ assasissÅm≠’ti sikkhati; ‘passambhayaµ cittasaÙkhÅraµ passasissÅm≠’ti sikkhati).
148

(7) CittasaÙkhÅrapaÊisaµved≠: He trains thus: ‘I will breathe in perceiving

the mental formation’; and also thus: ‘I will breathe out perceiving the mental
formation.’

(8) Passambhayaµ cittasaÙkhÅraµ: He trains thus: ‘I will breathe in

calming the mental formation’; and also thus: ‘I will breathe out calming the
mental formation.’

At the second stage (VedanÅnupassanā), the practitioner of VedanÅ (feeling) is

advised to understand, know and control it. BuddhadÅsa confirms that VedanÅ has the
highest power and influence over human beings, over all living things. They all are under the
power of feelings. It is a fact that we and our entire species are being forced by VedanÅ to do
their bidding. When they are pleasant, we try to get more of such feelings. Pleasant feelings
always pull mind in a certain direction and condition, certain kinds of activities.

Dukkha VedanÅ or unpleasant feelings affect mind and influence life in the opposite
direction, but still lead to all kinds of habitual responses. Mind struggles with them and turns
them into problems that cause Dukkha (suffering). Feeling has great power over what we do.
The whole world is under the command of VedanÅ. So we ought to understand the secret of
VedanÅ.316

The second stage consists of studying the factors of P≠ti, happiness soothing mind,
experience the mind-conditioner and calming down of feeling. BuddhadÅsa divides three
main points to notice regarding VedanÅ. First, understand feelings themselves, the things that
cause feeling in mind, which mind feels. Second, know how VedanÅ (feeling) conditions in
Citta (mind). They stir up thoughts, memories, words, and actions, know this mixing of
mind. Third, discover that we can control the mind by-controlling VedanÅ.317

It should be noted that the second stage of mindfulness in Breathing can be

developed following the way of the concentration method (SamÅdhi) or the wisdom method
(PaññÅ or VipassanÅ). If the practitioner drives away P≠ti (joyfulness) and Sukha

316
BuddhadÅsa, Mindfulness with Breathing, Op.Cit., p. 11.
317
Ibid, p. 12.
 149

(happiness), his mind will achieve a higher degree of SamÅdhi; that is EkaggatÅ or one
pointedness of mind.

In another way, if the practitioner realizes the attractive and wickedness of P≠ti and
Sukha, then, he will use the wisdom method to free from both of P≠ti and Sukha. Rapture
should be chased away. Even happiness should not be indulged in. This is the way of
freedom (Nissaraœa).318 Human beings fall under the power of feelings so that they become
slaves to materialism, and get indulged in material pleasure which leads to disagreements,
quarrels, conflicts and eventually war.” So BuddhadÅsa says, “if we can master VedanÅ, we
will be able to master the world.”319

[C] Third Stage: CittÅnupassanÅ (the Subtle Mind )

The third stage of the sixteen exercises of mindfulness of breathing reads:

(9) CittapaÊisaµved≠: He trains thus: ‘I will breathe in perceiving the

mind’; and also thus: ‘I will breathe out perceiving the mind.’

(10) Abhippamodayaµ cittaµ: He trains thus: ‘I will breathe in gladdening

the mind’; and also thus: ‘I will breathe out gladdening the mind.’

(11) SamÅdahaµ cittaµ: He trains thus: ‘I will breathe in concentrating

the mind’; and also thus: ‘I will breathe out concentrating the mind.’

(12) Vimocayaµ cittaµ: He trains thus: ‘1 will breathe in liberating the

Mind’; and also thus: ‘I will breathe out liberating the mind.’320

318
The wise attention with regarding to AssÅda, Äd≠nava and Nissaraœa can be found in MahÅdukkhakhandha
Sutta; M.I. 83-93.
319
BuddhadÅsa, Mindfulness with Breathing, Op. Cit., p. 11.
320
‘CittapaÊisaµved≠ assasissÅm≠’ti sikkhati; ‘cittapaÊisaµved≠ passasissÅm≠’ti sikkhati;. ‘abhippamodayaµ
cittaµ assasissÅm≠’ti sikkhati; ‘abhippamodayaµ cittaµ passasissÅm≠’ti sikkhati; ‘samÅdahaµ cittaµ assasissÅm≠’ti
sikkhati; ‘samÅdahaµ cittaµ passasissÅm≠’ti sikkhati ‘vimocayaµ cittaµ assasissÅm≠’ti sikkhati; ‘vimocayaµ cittaµ
passasissÅm≠’ti sikkhati. (M. III. 84, S.V.324).
150

In the third stage (CittÅnupassanā), there are four steps; knowing all the different
kinds of Citta (mind); being able to make mind glad and content, forcing it to stop and be
still and lastly making it let go of its attachments.

BuddhadÅsa introduces the nature of mind as; “Mind is the director and leader of life.
The mind leads and the body is merely the tool which is being led. If life is to be led upon
the correct path, we must understand the Citta correctly until we are able to control it. Mind
is very subtle, complex and profound. We cannot see it with our eyes, something special is
needed to ‘see’ it, with well-trained Sati and special effort, all of us are capable to studying
Citta and learning its secrets”.321

In practical application, BuddhadÅsa says; “We begin our study of the mind by
observing what kind of thoughts it has, in what ways its thought is improper and in what
ways correct. Are those thoughts defiled or undefiled? Does it think along correct line or
incorrect line, good line or wicked lines? Observe until the Citta is understood through all
the types of thoughts that it can think.

Mind can experience different layers and shades of happiness and joy. It can be
stilled, calmed and concentrated in different ways and to different degrees. Finally the mind
can be liberated from four attachments:322 1. KÅmupÅdÅna (Sexuality); 2. DiÊÊhâpÅdÅna
(Incorrect opinions, beliefs, views and theories); 3. S≠labbatupÅdÅna (Superstitions,
traditional activities and practices); and 4. AttavÅdupÅdÅna (All the things that we attach to
as ‘me’ and ‘mine’).

We make it let go of things with which it has fallen into loving, hating and attaching.
Mind is liberated from all those things. This is our lesson about the secrets of the mind
which we must practice at the third stage of ÄnÅpÅnasatibhÅvanÅ”.323

It is valuable to note here on the most important quality of SamÅdhi or concentrated

mind. From BuddhadÅsa’s experience, the three qualities324of SamÅdhi are stableness

321
BuddhadÅsa, Mindfulness with Breathing, Op.Cit., p. 13.
322
D.III.230.
323
BuddhadÅsa, Mindfulness with Breathing,Op.Cit., p.13-14,75-76.
324
Vism.XII. 14-19.
 151

(SamÅhito), purity (Parisuddho) and activeness (Kammaniyo) functioning as positive quality

which can be used in both formal meditation practice and the necessary activities of life.
Concentration is more than sitting like a lump of rock or a block of wood-stiff, rigid and
dead to the world. The essence of SamÅdhi is that, by practicing it mind is perfectly ready to
perform its duty, namely, to grow in knowledge and understanding from moment to
moment.325

While thus being occupied with this exercise of noting these two movements as
‘rising-falling rising-falling, rising-falling’, there may be occasions when mind wanders
about. Regarding the wandering mind, noting may be done as ‘thinking, thinking’,
‘reflecting, reflecting’, ‘planning, planning’, ‘attending, attending’, ‘knowing, knowing’, or
‘rejoicing, rejoicing’, ‘feeling lazy, feeling lazy’, ‘feeling happy, feeling happy’, or
‘disgusting, disgusting’, etc., as the case may be as per occurrence of each activity. The
contemplation of mental activities and noting them as they occur is called CittÅnupassanÅ. 326

BuddhadÅsa has concluded the third stage of mindfulness with breathing in the
following words: “If there is attachment, there is suffering. When mind is empty of
attachment, it experiences no suffering because there is no foundation for suffering-
Altogether there are four steps which deal exclusively with mind; experiencing the different
states of mind, gladdening mind, concentrating mind and liberating mind. Through them, we
successfully complete our study of mind”.327

In this context the Buddha states in Dhammapada: ‘If the meditator could restrain
this mind which used to go to far-off objects, usually occurs singly, incorporeal, stays in the
cave (the mind-base or heart), he would be freed from the bondage of death’.328

[D] Fourth Stage: DhammÅnupassanÅ (Realizing the Supreme Dhammas)

Below is the fourth tetrad, which is correlated to the fourth SatipaÊÊhÅna, i.e.

325
BuddhadÅsa, Mindfulness with Breathing, Op.Cit., p.72-73.
326
Mahasi Sayadaw, The SatipaÊÊhÅna VipassanÅ Meditation, Op.Cit., p.15-16.
327
BuddhadÅsa, Mindfulness with Breathing, Op.Cit., p.77.
328
Dh. Verse 37; PÅli: DuraÙgamaµ ekacaraµ asariraµ guhÅsayaµ, ye cittaµ saññamessanti mokkhanti
mÅrabandhanÅ.
152

contemplation of Dhammas: 329

(13) AniccÅnupass≠: He trains thus: ‘I will breathe in contemplating

impermanence’; and also thus; ‘I will breathe out contemplating impermanence.’

(14) VirÅgÅnupass≠: He trains thus: ‘I will breathe in contemplating

dispassion’; and also thus, ‘I will breathe out contemplating dispassion.’

(15) NirodhÅnupass≠: He trains thus, ‘I will breathe in contemplating

cessation’; and also thus: ‘I will breathe out contemplating cessation.’

(16) PaÊinissaggÅnupass≠: He trains thus, ‘I will breathe in contemplating

Relinquishment’; and also thus: ‘I will breathe out contemplating relinquishment.’

At the fourth stage (DhammÅnupassanā) of ÄnÅpÅnasati practice, there are four

steps: 1. contemplating of impermanence; 2. dissolving of attachment; 3. quenching of
Dukkha; and 4. throwing it all back.

The first step in the fourth tetrads of ÄnÅpÅnasati is ÄniccÅnupassanā-contemplation

of impermanence. According to BuddhadÅsa’s experience, it is to study the truth, the fact,
which is the supreme secret of nature. With that knowledge, one can live life in the best way.
One ought to study the secret of truth that controls life, the truths of Aniccaµ, Dukkhaµ,
AnattÅ, SuññatÅ and TathatÅ (impermanence, unsatifactoriness, selflessness, voidness, and
suchness).330

BuddhadÅsa gives definition of the above mentioned terms as follows: Aniccaµ:

knowledge that all conditioned things are impermanent and in flux. Dukkha: knowledge that
all conditioned things are inherently unable to satisfy our desires. AnattÅ: knowledge that all
things are not-self, not-soul. SuññatÅ: knowledge that every thing is void of selfhood of ‘I’
and ‘mine’. TathatÅ: knowledge the thusness, the suchness of all things.

329
‘AniccÅnupass≠ assasissÅm≠’ti sikkhati; ‘aniccÅnupass≠ passasissÅm≠’ti sikkhati;. ‘virÅgÅnupass≠ assasissÅm≠’ti
sikkhati; ‘virÅgÅnupass≠ passasissÅm≠’ti sikkhati; ‘nirodhÅnupass≠ assasissÅm≠’ti sikkhati; ‘nirodhÅnupass≠ passasissÅm≠’ti
sikkhati ‘paÊinissaggÅnupass≠ assasissÅm≠’ti sikkhati; ‘paÊinissaggÅnupass≠ passasissÅm≠’ti sikkhati, (M. III 84,; S.V.324).
330
Buddhadasa, Mindfulness with Breathing, Op.Cit., p.14.
 153

Together, these give rise to the one ultimate truth. We must watch these things until
they are fully realized in so that mind never lose its way again. When mind understands this
truth of the reality, it will make no errors and will keep itself on the path of rightness. 331 The
relation of VirÅgÅnupass≠, NirodhÅnupass≠ and PaÊinissaggÅnupass≠ from the point of
practice has been explained by the BuddhadÅsa as, “To see Dhamma sufficiently is the first
step. That is just the first step. Now, we will see that the mind being to let go, begins to
loosen up its attachment. These attachments will dissolve away VirÅga. This will be
experienced until the step where attachment is extinguished; (Nirodha) is reached to. Once
attachment is quenched, the final step is to experience that mind is free, everything is free.

However, the texts use the words ‘throwing back’. The Buddha says that at the end
we throw everything back. The meaning of this is that we have been thieves all through our
lives by taking the things of nature to be ‘I’ and ‘mine’. We have been stupid and we suffer
for it. Now, we have become wise and are able to give things up. We give it all back to
nature and never steal anything ever again. At this last step of practice we realize, “oh! It is
of the natures, not of mine”. Then we can throw everything back to nature.”332

BuddhadÅsa concludes the last step of the fourth tetrad of ÄnÅpÅnasati as, “it ends
with freedom from any and all effects and influence of attachment. The final step of
development of ÄnÅpÅnasati finishes here. To learn the secrets of Dhamma is to know that
nothing should be attached to, and then not attach to anything. All is liberated. The case is
closed. We are finished. If we choose this name, we can call it ‘Emancipation’ or
‘Salvation’. In Buddhism, emancipation means to be free from every type of attachment so
that we may live our lives above the world. Although our bodies are in this world, our minds
are beyond it. Thus, all our problems disappear. This is how to develop life to its fullest
potential using these four stages; method of practice.”333

Finally, the sixteen of all exercises the first three SatipaÊthÅnas are concerned with
the subjective experiences themselves, while the last one involves the objective reflection on
those experiences and contemplation of the ultimate truth on the basis of them. In other

331
Ibid, p.14-15.
332
Ibid, p.15-16.
333
Ibid, p.16.
154

words, the first three SatipaÊÊhÅnas focus on one's personal physical and psychological
conditions, while the last one is contemplating phenomena (DhammÅ), including those
personal conditions, in accordance with the Buddha's teachings (Dhamma).334

In this connection the practice of ĀnÅpÅna-kammaÊÊhÅna (breathing exercises) will

be briefly described. If those who are still householders have no time to perform these
exercises in the day time, they should always practice about one or two hours before going to
bed and about an hour before rising from bed in the morning.

The method of practice is as follows: According to the Buddha's teaching ‘Sato vÅ

assasati, sato vÅ passasati’ (inhale with mindfulness; exhale with mindfulness). During the
period already fixed, one’s mind should be entirely concentrated on inhaling and exhaling
and not be allowed to stray elsewhere, and in order to do so, KÅyika-viriya and Cetasika-
viriya should be exercised. KÅyika viriya means effort to practice for a fixed period every
day without a break. Cetasika-viriya means talking extreme care to concentrate mind on
inhaling and exhaling so that it may not stray elsewhere, and intense application of mind on
inhaling and exhaling, so that sleepiness torpor and languor may not come in. 335

4.4 General Directions for SatipaÊÊhāna Practice 336

SatipaÊÊhÅna is helpful everywhere and in every situation. So, it is useful to develop

it with resolution or self-determination: “I shall be going now the Path as trodden by the
Buddhas and the great Holy Disciples, but as indolent person cannot follow that Path, may
my energy prevail! May I succeed?”337 However, first of all, practitioners have to notice six
things that have said by the Buddha as General Hindrances of SatipaÊÊhÅna practice. “Which
are these six?”. “To be fond of activity; to be fond of talking; to be fond of sleeping; to be
fond of company; lack of sense-control; immoderate eating.” 338

334
Tse-Fu Kuan, Mindfulness in Early Buddhism, Op.Cit., p.80.
335
Mahathera Ledy Sayadaw, The Manuals of Buddhism, Op.Cit., pp.435-436.
336
The practice of Dhamma goes against our habits, the truth goes against our desires, and so there is difficulty in
the practice. Some things which we understand as wrong may be right, while the things we take to be right may be wrong.
Why is this so? Because our mind is in darkness, we do not clearly see the Truth. We do not really know anything and so
are fooled by people’s lies.
337
Nyanaponika, The Heart of Buddhist Meditation, Op. Cit., pp.91-92.
338
AÙguttaranikÅya ChakkanipÅta. 22. p.138.
 155

Though there will be these hindrances, if we have confident in the ultimate purpose
i.e. NibbÅna,339 we can practice with effort and try to keep our senses under control. By
practicing this noble Indriya-saµvara (Control of the Senses), we can feel in our heart an
unblemished happiness.

Preliminaries: Physical and Mental

-Physical preparatory stage:

It consists of postures, clothes, eating, etc., for the beginner of meditation. All of
these should be suitable by nature and be comfortable. In case of clothes, it must be clean
and of soothing color etc., so far as consumption is concerned and controlled. It is helpful in
the Iriyāpatha (poltures) as well.

-Iriyāpatha (Art of Postures)

The term ‘IriyÅpatha’340 or ‘IriyÅpathamanasikÅra’ is one of KÅyÅnupassanÅ-

satipaÊÊhÅnas and it is as basic meditation as ‘VipassanÅ-kammaÊÊhÅna’. 341 So it is especially
interesting on the part of meditates to develop Sati.

-How to Iriyāpatha-practice

The practitioner of SatipaÊÊhÅna VipassanÅ Meditation is indeed advised to train in

general mindfulness from the morning to night; beginning with the first thought and
perception when awakening, and ending with the last thought and perception when falling
asleep. The general mindfulness starts with the Awareness of four postures.

A practitioner, as usual, remains aware towards them. For instance, when he

performs the act of going on, he remains conscious and aware of the situation. It means
while walking, he mindfully knows that he is walking. When he is sitting, he mindfully
knows that he is sitting. While standing, he mindfully knows that he is standing. Similarly,
while performing the act of lying down, he remains conscious and aware about such

339
Appendix B, as the Part 4: NibbÅna.
340
This term literally meants ‘Movement’.
341
Phramaha Subhawichya Pabhassaro (ed), Buddhist Meditation I. Op. Cit., p.98.
156

activities. It means that he remains conscious of lying down and knows that he is performing
the act of lying down. In this way, the practitioner remains conscious of the fourfold physical
activities performed in his day-to-day life. The Buddha is perfectly mindful to the fact that
there is practice of generation of awareness towards fourfold physical activity so that there is
a generation of awareness towards all activities.

In this context, the Buddha says that thus he according to the body, continues to
consider the body either internally or externally or both internally and externally. He keeps
on considering how the body is something that come to be or again he keeps on considering
how the body is something that passes away: or again he keeps on considering the coming to
be with the passing away; or again, conscious that ‘There is the body’, mindfulness hereof
becomes thereby established, far enough for the purposes of knowledge and of self-
collectedness. And, he abides independent grasping after nothing in the world whatever. 342

Thus, the practitioner continues to regard the Râpa-NÅma (body and mind) as
Anicca, Dukkha and AnattÅ every moment. Such generation of awareness is called
‘IriyÅpatha’ which includes the four main postures and so on, such as: Walking, Sitting,
Standing, and Lying.343

-How Should the Postures to be

Slow Motion: During the course of practice, it is most appropriate if a Yog≠ acts
feebly and slowly in all activities just like a sick person who is weak Perhaps the case of a
person suffering from lumbago would be a more fitting example here. The patient must be
cautious and move slowly to avoid pain. In the same manner, a Yog≠ should always try and
keep maintaining slow motion in all the actions with mindfulness, concentration and spiritual
knowledge to catch up.

Be Blind to other objects: A Yogi behaves like a blind person throughout the course
of training. The meditator should not look anywhere; his mind must be intent solely on the
object of contemplation.

342
DB. II. 329.
343
Appendix D, as the chart No.1-4.
 157

According to his observation, female Yog≠s were found to be in perfect form. They
carefully carried out the exercise with all due respect, in accordance with the instruction.
Their manner was very composed. Their steps were light, smooth and slow. Every Yogi
should follow such example.

Be Deaf to the Noise Around: In this practice, it is necessary for a Yogi to behave
like a deaf person also. A deaf person behaves in a composed manner; he does not take heed
of any sound or talk because he never hears them. Similarly, a Yog≠ should conduct himself
in the same manner without taking heed of any unimportant talk nor should he deliberately
listen to any talk or speech. If he happens to hear any sound or talk he should at once make a
note as ‘hearing, hearing’ and return to the usual exercise of noting the breathing as ‘rising,
falling’.

In a standing posture, the practitioner should note ‘standing, standing’, if he happens

to look around, a note should be made as ‘looking looking’, or ‘seeing, seeing’ and on
walking, each step should be noted as ‘right step, left step’ or ‘walking, walking’. In each
step, attention should be fixed on the movement from the mind from the point of lifting the
leg to the point of putting it down.

In case of taking a slow walk, each step may be divided into three sections of lifting,
pushing forward and putting down respectively. In the beginning of the exercise, a note
should be made on two sections at each step as ‘lifting’ by fixing the attention on the upward
movement of the leg from the beginning to the end, and as ‘putting’ on the downward
movement from the beginning to the end. After two or three days, this exercise would
become easy, he should start the exercise by noting as ‘right step, left step’ or ‘walking,
walking’, while walking quickly and by noting as ‘lifting-pushing’ or ‘lifting-pushing-
putting’ while walking slowly.

In course of his walk, he may feel like sitting down. He should make note as
‘wanting, wanting’, if he then happens to look up as ‘looking, seeing’, on going to the place
for sitting as ‘lifting, putting’ on stopping as ‘stopping, stopping’, on training as ‘training
training’ when he feels like sitting as ‘wanting, wanting’.

On sitting, attention should be fixed on the heaviness of body and a note made as
‘sitting, sitting, and sitting’. After having sat down, there would be movement of bringing
158

the hand and legs into position. They should be noted as ‘moving, bending, stretching and so
forth’. If there is noticing to do and if he is sitting quietly, he should revert to the usual
exercise of noticing as ‘rising, falling’.

If in the course of contemplations, he feels painful or tired or hot, he should make

note of them and then revert to the usual exercise by noting ‘rising, falling’.

If he feels sleepy, he should make a note as ‘sleepy, sleepy’ and proceed with noting
of all acts of preparing for lying down and bringing into position the hands and legs as
‘raising, pressing, moving, supporting’, when the body sways as ‘swaying, swaying’; when
the legs stretch as ‘stretching, stretching’ and when the body drops and lies flat as ‘lying,
lying’.

These trifling acts in lying down are also important and they should not be neglected.
There is every possibility of attaining Enlightenment during this short time. On the full
development of concentration and spiritual knowledge, enlightenment is attainable during
the present movement of bending or stretching. In this way Venerable Änanda (Personal
Attendant of the Buddha) attained Arahanta-ship at the very movement of lying down. So,
every care is needed to carry on the practice of contemplation without relaxation and
omission.344

However, if we have intention to become a good Yog≠, the main concern will be
about these physical aspects but more importance will be given to mental attitude or
meditation or on how to contemplate the mind-objects as it really is.

344
Mahasi Sayadaw, The SatipaÊÊhÅna VipassanÅ Meditation, Op. Cit., pp.25-27.
 159

-Mental Preparative: 345

The practitioner should give up worldly thoughts and actions during training and
observe the rules of discipline, such as Āj≠vamaÊÊhakas≠la or ten Kusalakammas: Virtue
having livelihood as eighth for lay peoples, 346 which is mentioned as below:

-Ten Kusalakammas347

In this context, it means right speech, right action and right livelihood or the set of
eight precepts of which pure livelihood is the eighth or they are called 10
Kasalakammapathas. So, we should first of all, understand them as meritorious or
wholesome (Kusala-kamma):348

A. KÅya-kamma (Bodily Action):

1. PÅœÅtipÅtÅ veramaœ≠: To abstain from killing is karmically wholesome or to avoid

the destruction of life and be anxious for the welfare of all lives.
2. AdinnÅdÅnÅ veramaœ≠: To abstain from stealing is karmically wholesome or to
avoid stealing, not violating the right to private property of others.
3. KÅmesumicchÅcÅrÅ veramaœ≠: To abstain from unlawful sexual intercourse is
karmically wholesome or to avoid sexual misconduct, not transgression sex morals.

345
Otherwise, Saµvara-s≠la (five virtues as restraint for all). They are: 1) PÅtimokkha-saµvara: restraint by the
monastic code of discipline; 2) Satisaµvara: restraint by mindfulness; 3) ÑÅœasaµvara: restraint by knowledge; 4)
Khantisaµvara: restraint by patience; 5) Viriyasaµvara: restraint by energy. [Vism.7; VbhA.330] . or we follow the three
ApaœœakapaÊipadā (sure courses): 1. Indriyasaµvara (control of the senses); 2. Bhojane mattaññutā ( moderation in
eating);3. Jāgariyānuyoga ( practice of wakefulness).[A.I. 113].
346
Further, the five precepts for people (D.III.235), those are as Manussadhamma (virtues of man). They are
clear inside the ten wholesomes except fifth number: SurÅmerayamajjapamÅdaÊÊhÅnÅ veramaœ≠: to abstain from intoxicants
causing heedlessness. This S≠la should be part of right view (SammÅdiÊÊhi) that is tenth of Kusalakamma because it can be
put in right mindfulness (SammÅsati) as the four foundations of mindfulness. Indeed, one who abstains from intoxicants
causing heedlessness is mindful or Appamatta.
347
Vism.11. it means “Āj≠vamaÊÊhakas≠la”
348
M.I.287. A.V.266. D.III. 269.
160

B. Vac≠-kamma (Verbal Action):

4. MusÅvÅdÅ veramaœ≠: To abstain from lying is karmically wholesome or to avoid

lying, not knowingly speaking a lie for the sake of any advantage.
5. PisuœÅya vÅcÅya veramaœ≠: To abstain from tale-bearing is karmically wholesome
or to avoid malicious speech.
6. PharusÅya vÅcÅya veramaœ≠: To abstain from harsh language is karmically
wholesome or to avoid harsh language and speak gentle, loving, courteous.
7. SamphappalÅpÅ veramaœ≠: To abstain from frivolous talk is karmically wholesome
or to avoid frivolous talk, to speak at the right time, in accordance with facts.

C. Mano-kamma (Mental Action):

8. AnabhijjhÅ: Absence of covetousness is karmically wholesome or to be without

covetousness.
9. AbyÅpÅda: Absence of ill-will is karmically wholesome or to be free from ill-will,
thinking, ‘oh! that these beings were free from hatred and ill-will.
10. SammÅdiÊÊhi: Right understanding is karmically wholesome or to possess right
view such as that gifts, donations and offerings are not fruitless and that there are results of
wholesome and unwholesome actions.

These ten are called ‘Good Courses of Action’ (Kusala-kamma-patha). The further
question arises as what are the roots of wholesome karma? Absence of greed (Alobha =
unselfishness) is a root of wholesome karma; absence of hatred (Adosa = kindness) is a root
of wholesome karma; absence of delusion (Amoha = wisdom) is a root of wholesome
karma.349

Further, Mental Preparation is accompanied by the Four PÅrisuddhis≠las:350 the four

moralities consisting in purity for Bhikkhus. They are: 1) PÅtimokkhasaµvara-s≠la: restraint
in accordance with the monastic disciplinary code; 2) Indriyasaµvara-s≠la: restraint of the

349
Nyanatiloka MahÅthera, The words of the Buddha, Op. Cit, p.75.
350
Vism.16.
 161

senses; 3) Āj≠vapÅrisuddhi-s≠la: purity of conduct as regards livelihood; 4) Paccaya-

sannissita-s≠la: pure conduct as regards the necessaries of life. 351

These are for recluses whether a monk or a nun and even for lay people who are good
Yogis or practitioners. These also along with a recitation of the Threefold Refuge expresses
confidence in the peerless Teacher and Guide.

-Ti-ratana (Threefold Refuge or Triple Gem)

Ti-ratana (Three Jewels) that is the Buddha, Dhamma, and SaÙgha, is on account of
their matchless purity, and as being to the Buddhists, the most precious objects in the world.
All the Buddhists accept them as the guides of their life and thought. The PÅli formula of
Refuge is still the same as in the Buddha’s time, 352 such as the words to respect or
NamassakÅra: 353

Namo tassa bhagavato arahato sammÅ-sambuddhassa (Three times).

(Homage to the Blessed One, the Perfect One, the Fully Enlightened One).

Buddhaµ saranaµ gacchÅmi

Dutiyampi Dhammaµ saranaµ gacchÅmi.
Tatiyampi SaÙghaµ saranaµ gacchÅmi.

I go for refuge to the Buddha354

The second: I go for refuge to the Dhamma355

351
Especially food or alms-food must be carefully eaten. A practitioner should know which food is suitable or
easily digestible for body.
352
Dh. Verse 25, p. 1.
353
Nyanatiloka MahÅthera, The words of the Buddha, Op.Cit., p.8.
354
The Nine Qualities of the Buddha, thus indeed are that, the Blessed One, far from defilement, fully self-
Enlightened, Perfect in Knowledge and conduct, Well-farer, Knower of the worlds, Incomparable trainer of men to be
tamed, The teacher of Devas and men, The awakened One; One skilled in teaching Dhamma. And briefly his three virtues:
Paññā (wisdom); Visuddhi (purity); Karuœā (compassion).
355
The Six Qualities of the Dhamma: Perfectly enunciated is the Dhamma by the Blessed One; it is verifiable
here and now, and bears immediate fruit; it invites all to test for themselves, leads one onward to Nibbāna and is to be
experienced by the wise for himself.
162

The third: I go for refuge to the SaÙgha.356

It is through the simple act of reciting this formula three times that one declares
oneself a Buddhist. When we have bare attention and our body and mind are really to
practice SatipaÊÊhāna whether Samatha or Vipassanā. The Process of Practice as Harmony-
Dhamma is going on well day by day.

4.5 Summary

Regarding to Samatha and VipassanÅ, one who has first developed tranquility as his
vehicle, after having established himself in Full Concentration, contemplates the five groups
of grasping subsequently and is thus, called a SamathayÅnika. For one who has pure Insight
as his vehicle, has no access to Concentration but he starts to apply Insight to the Five
Groups of Grasping and is called Suddha VipassanÅyÅnika.

However, both of them have to be mindful with Breathing as already developed; it

would be both Samatha and VipassanÅ in itself. There is no need to develop it separately. It
consists of morality, concentration and wisdom in itself because the pure morality of conduct
is the cause of concentration; concentration is the cause of insight, insight is the cause of the
Noble Paths, and the Noble Paths are the cause of the Noble Fruits. The nature of Dhamma,
thus, appears, in no other way. So ‘VipassanākammaÊÊhāna’ is the practice of the correct
view of reality or mental development for clear knowledge to see the truth of all realities as
Ti-lakkhaœa (Three Characteristics).

Therefore, we can see that the practice of SatipaÊÊhāna (along with Samatha and
Vipassanā) does not require withdrawal from society or a fixed time schedule. For this
reason, many wise teachers have encouraged its integration into general daily life. It is very
much of benefit of SatipaÊÊhÅna as Samatha-VipassanÅ meditation whether for individual or
social, benefits or for the world peace and so on.
---------------------------------------------

356
The Nine Qualities of the SaÙgha: The Community of the Blessed One’s disciples, who have practiced well,
The Community of the Blessed One’s disciples, who have practiced straightly, The Community of the Blessed One’s
disciples, who have practiced rightly, The Community of the Blessed One’s disciples, who have practiced properly, That is
to say, the four pairs of men, the eight individual persons, that is the Community of the Blessed One’s disciples, Worthy of
gifts, worthy of hospitality; worthy of offerings, who should be respected, Incomparable field of merit for the world.
 163

CHAPTER V:

BENEFITS OF SATIPAÂÂHÄNA PRACTICE

This chapter is dedicated to the detailed explanation on the benefits of SatipaÊÊhÅna-

practice. SatipaÊÊhÅna-practice is indeed essential as it helps one not only in eliminating
pollutions of mind (CittasaÙkilesa) but also in attaining purification of mind
(CittavodÅna).357 The main benefits connected with the topic have already been discussed at
“2.3.4 SatipaÊÊhÅna as the Clear Aim” in the chapter II. Herein, it is desirable to discuss the
benefits of SatipaÊÊhÅna-parctice as applied to the Individual and the Society, SatipaÊÊhÅna
and World peace and SatipaÊÊhÅna and Ecology.

5.1 SatipaÊÊhÅna as Individual Benefits

First of all, we would like to list the detail of benefits of SatipaÊÊhÅna-practice in

various aspects according to the words of the Budddha himself found in the NikÅya as well
as the AÊÊhakathÅ (Commentaries) and the words of Meditator Masters concerned with.

5.1.1 Benefits as Described in the PÅli-canon

The Buddha proclaims in MahÅsatipaÊÊhÅna Sutta, 358 two good results of the practice
of the four Foundations of Mindfulness; namely Arahanta-ship (state of one who has
attained NibbÅna) here and now or, if there be yet a remainder of clinging, AnÅgÅm≠ (The
state of Non-returner), for whoever has practiced continuously for seven days as the
minimum and seven years as the maximum.

MahÅsatipaÊÊhÅna Sutta also clearly states in the introduction that SatipaÊÊhÅna

(foundation of mindfulness) is the only way that leads to the attainment of purity of human
beings, to overcome sorrow and lamentation, to end pain and grief, to the entering upon the
right path and the realization of Nibbāna.

357
SatipaÊÊhÅna-meditation is like lightness to rid of darkness of defilement, when lightness appears, darkness
gets lost. So when purification of mind appears, pollution of mind gets lost.
358
D.II. 314-315;DB.II.345-346 (PTS-1989).
164

In the ÄnÅpÅnasati-Sutta, the great fruit and great benefit are expressed by the
Buddha as:

“ÄnÅpÅnasati, Bhikkus, that one has developed and made much of, has
great fruit and great benefit. ÄnÅpÅnasati, that one has developed and made
much of, perfects the four foundations of mindfulness. The four foundations of
mindfulness, that one has developed and made much of, perfect the seven factors
of awakening. The seven factors of awakening, that one has developed and made
much of, perfect insight knowledge and liberation”.359

In this case, ĀnÅpÅnasati as one of the four SatipaÊÊhÅnas with the fulfillment of
these seven factors of Awakening associated with Viveka (solitude), VirÅga (fading away)
and Nirodha (quenching), has been developed and made much of, perfect knowledge and
liberation (VijjÅ and Vimutti). This is the end of suffering and the highest benefit of
ÄnÅpÅnasati.

In the KÅyagatÅsati Sutta, the Buddhas have talked of assurance of ten blessings with
reference to the practice of mindfulness of body. They are:

1. Aratiratisaho: He is the one, who overcomes dislikings and likings,

and dislikings do not overcome him; he fares along constantly conquering any
dislike that has arisen.
2. Bhayabheravasaho: He is the one, who overcomes fear and dread, and
fear and dread do not overcome him; and he fares along constantly conquering
any fear and dread that have arisen.
3. S≠ta-uœÅd≠naµ AdhivÅsikajÅtiko: He is the one, who bears cold, heat,
hunger, thirst, the touch of gadfly, mosquito, wind and sun, creeping things,
ways of speech that are irksome, unwelcome; he is of a character to bear bodily
feelings which are painful, acute, sharp, shooting, disagreeable, miserable,
deadly.

359
M.III.82; MLS.III.124 (PTS-1990).
 165

4. DiÊÊhadhammasukhavihÅrÅnaµ NikÅmalÅbh≠: He is one who at will,

without trouble, without difficulty. Acquires the four meditations that are of the
purest mentality, aiding in ease here and now.

-Six psychical powers (AbhiññÅ)360

5. Iddhividha : He experiences various forms of psychic power; having

been one he is manifold; having been manifold he is one; manifest or invisible
he goes unhindered through a wall, a rampart, a mountain as if through air; he
plunges into the ground and shoots up again as if in water, he walks upon the
water without parting it as if on the ground; sitting cross-legged he travels
through the air like a bird on the wing; with his hand he rules and strokes this
moon and sun although they are of such mighty power and majesty; and even as
far as the Brahma world he has power in respect of his person.

6. Dibbasota: By the purified Deva-like hearing which surpasses that of

men he hears both sounds-Deva ones and human ones whether they be far or
near.
7. CetopariyañÅœa or Paracittavidâ: He comprehends by mind the minds
of other beings, of other individuals such as mind with attachment or without
attachment etc.
8. PubbenivÅsÅnussatiñÅœa: He recollects manifold former habitations,
that is to say one birth and two births and…Thus he recollects (his) former
habitations in all their modes in detail.
9. Dibbacakkhu: With the purified Deva-vision surpassing that of men he
beholds beings as they pass hence and come to be; he comprehends that beings
are men, excellent, fair, foul, in a good born, in a bad born according to the
consequences of deeds.
10. ĀsavakkhayañÅœa: By the destruction of cankers, having realized
here and now by his own super-knowledge the freedom of mind and the freedom
through intuitive wisdom that are cankerless, entering thereon, he abides therein.

360
It means benefit from 5 -10.
166

The conclusion of the discourse of Mindfulness of Body is expressed

with the following statement: “These ten benefits, Bhikkhus, are to be expected
from pursuing Mindfulness of Body, developing it, making of it, making it a
vehicle, making it a foundation, practicing it, increasing it, and fully
understanding it”.361

When the practitioner is walking, he knows and notes ‘I am walking’, in the

PañcakanipÅta, AÙguttaranikÅya, the benefits or advantages of walking mindfully
(CaÙkamaœa)362 were pointed out by the Buddha as follows:

“Bhikkhus, there are these five benefits of walking mindfully, what

five: 1) It hardens one for traveling; 2) it is good for striving; 3) it is healthy; 4)
(its use) tends to good digestion after one has eaten and drunk, munched and
crunched; and 5) the concentration won from walking mindfully lasts long.
Bhikkhus, these are the five benefits of walking mindfully”. 363

In VedanÅ Sutta (Amatavagga, SatipaÊÊhÅna Saµyutta) the way of full understanding

and the benefit of SatipaÊÊhÅna practice on feeling is said to be in the following manner:

“There are three kinds of feeling, O Bhikkhus; pleasant feeling,

unpleasant feeling and neutral feeling. For the full understanding of these three
kinds of feelings, Bhikkhus the four Foundations of mindfulness should be
cultivated”.

“In pleasant feelings, Bhikkhus, the inclination to greed should be given

up, in unpleasant feelings the inclination to aversion should be given up; in
neutral feelings the inclination to ignorance should be given up.”

“If a Bhikkhu has given up in pleasant feeling the inclination to greed, in

unpleasant feelings the inclination to aversion, and in neutral feelings the
inclination to ignorance, then he is called one who is free of inclinations, one

361
M.III.97-99.
362
The term ‘Walking’ is called in PÅli ‘CaÙkamaœa’.
363
A. III. 27.
 167

who sees clearly. He has cut off craving, sundered the fetters, and through the
destruction of conceit, has made an end of suffering”.364

In Dhammapada, the Buddha had revealed the benefit of controlled mind and
contemplated mind in the following manner:

“Wonderful, indeed, it is to subdue the mind, so difficult to subdue, ever

swift, and seizing whatever it desires. A tamed mind brings happiness.365
Dwelling in the cave (of the heart), the mind, without form, wanders far and
alone. Those who subdue this mind are liberated from the bonds of MÅra
(defilements).”366

Regarding the benefit of the contemplation on Mind-objects (Dhammas), The

Buddha had answered the question on the method of abandonment of ignorance and arising
of knowledge as follows:

“Herein, brother, it has been heard by a certain brother; ‘Things, ought not
to be adhered to’. Then if that brother has heard ‘All things ought not to be
adhered to’, he fully understands the whole Dhamma (Norm). Fully understanding
it, he comprehending it, he regards all phenomena as changeable. He regards the
eye-objects and the rest as changeable. So knowing, so seeing, a brother abandons
ignorance and knowledge arises in him”.367

The brief life of a person who clearly comprehends the arising and falling of all
things is better than long life of the ignorant one. This truth has been expressed by the
Buddha in the Dhammapada as: 368

“Though one should live a hundred years

364
S.IV. 205.
365
Dh.Veres 35 (PTS): (Dunniggahassa lahuno yattha kÅmanipÅtino, cittassa damatho sÅdhu cittaµ dantaµ
sukhÅvahaµ.).
366
Dh.Veres 37 (PTS): (DâraÙgamaµ ekacaraµ asar≠raµ guhÅsayaµ, ye cittaµ saññamessanti mokkhanti
mÅrabandhanÅ.).
367
S. IV. 49.
368
Dh. Verse 113 (PTS): (Yo ca vassataµ j≠ve abassaµ udayabbayaµ EkÅhaµ j≠vitaµ seyyo passato
udyabbyaµ).
168

Without comprehending how all things rise and fall,

Yet better, indeed, is a single day’s life of one
Who comprehends how all things rise and fall down”.

5.1.2 Benefits as Discussed in the Commentary

In the Visuddhimagga, Buddhaghosa, the great commentator, has described the

benefits of meditation both SamÅdhi (calm meditation) and VipassanÅpaññÅ (insight
meditation) in SamÅdhiniddesa369 and PaññÅbhÅvanÅnisaµsaniddesa. 370The four
Foundations of Mindfulness can be used as the object of calm meditation and insight
meditation such as breathing etc. So, while describing SamÅdhi (meditation), five benefits
have been mentioned by Buddhaghosa which are as follows:

1. DiÊÊhadhammasukhavihāratÅ (Blissful abiding): It refers to the

attainment-concentration which can produce blissful abiding for a long time in
meditation, here and now.
2. VipassanÅnisaµsa (It is conducive to insight): This benefit is referred
to the words of the Buddha as: “concentrated one sees clearly thing as it really
is”.371
3. AbhiññÅnisaµsa (Aspiring to the kinds of Direct-knowledge): These
kinds of Direct-knowledge consist of psychic power, divine-eye, divine ear,
knowing the other’s minds etc.
4. Bhavavisesanisaµsa (Benefit of an improved form of existence):
supports one to be born in the better world such as heaven etc.
5. NirodhÅnisaµsa (Benefit of cessation): It means the meditator who
has attained the eight stages of absorption, can attain the Nirodha-SamÅpatti or
the attainment of the cessation through seven days for blissful abiding.

In the description of benefits of the development of understanding or insight

meditation, Buddhaghosa has described the four benefits of insight meditation as follows:

369
Vism. XI.120; ÑÅœamoli, The Path of Purification, Kandy, BPS. Press, 1979, pp. 406-08.
370
Vism.XXIII.I; ÑÅœamoli, Ibid, p 1819.
371
S.III.13.
 169

1. NÅnÅkilesaviddhaµsanaµ (Removal of various defilements): It

includes the removal of lust, hatred and delusion which are the root of immoral
things.
2. Ariyaphala-rasÅnubhÅvanaµ (Experience of the taste of Noble Fruit):
These Noble Fruits stream-enterer, one-returner, non-returner, and Arahanta are
experienced by practicing insight meditation.

3. NirodhasamÅpattisamÅpajjanasamatthatÅ (Ability to achieve the

attainment of cessation): It is the Noble SamÅpatti of the Noble One. One can
enter to the state of attainment of cessation any time and anywhere by the power
of knowledge and insights.

4. Ähuneyya-bhÅvÅdi-iddhi (Achievement of worthiness to receive gifts

and so on): It shows a person who completes in supermundane wisdom, being of
cultivated mind, cultivated wisdom, becomes the worthy one to receive the gifts
of the people, respect from the people and the best of merit of the world.

Further, it is necessary and beneficial both if BojjhaÙga Practice as SatipaÊÊhāna is

developed. Questions may be raised as to the benefits of BojjhaÙgas. In addition, it can be
concluded in the following way:

1. Seven factors of enlightenment are the way leading to NibbÅna. It is clear with the
simile of the Buddha: “Just as, Bhikkhus, in a peaked house all rafters whatsoever go
together to the peak, slope to the peak, join in the peak and of them all the peak is reckoned
chief; even so, Bhikkhus, the Bhikkhu who cultivates and makes such seven factor, of
enlightenment, slopes to NibbÅna, inclines to NibbÅna, tends to NibbÅna.”372

2. BojjhaÙgas are comparable with medicine. They cure the sick man, from disease.
As a result of listening the discourses of seven factors of Enlightenment, the sickness of
Venerable MahÅkassapa, MoggallÅna and even the Buddha himself is abandoned.373

372
S.V. 75.
373
S.V. 76-81.
170

3. BojjhaÙgas are just like the seven treasures of the Emperor.374 They make the
practitioner a rich-man (Adaliddo).375 Here mindfulness is comparable to the wheel, Truth-
investigation is to an elephant, energy to a horse, zest to a jewel, calmness to a woman,
concentration to the house-father and equanimity to heir apparent.
4. BojjhaÙga is the way for crushing of MÅra’s host.376
5. BojjhaÙgas if well-developed, leads to Dhamma eye, insight, growth of wisdom.
They agree not with pain and is conducive to NibbÅna.377

Thus these are the brief uses of BojjhaÙgas which are well trained in the process of
practice of SatipaÊÊhÅna.378

5.1.3 Benefits as Meditator’s Experience

In this context, for Buddhadasa Bhikkhu, one who fully practices the ÄnÅpÅnasati
experiences the following benefits in brief:

In practicing ÄnÅpÅnasati,379 the four sets of Dhammas are fulfilled, Sati

(mindfulness), PaññÅ (wisdom), Sampajañña (wisdom-in-action) and SamÅdhi
(concentration). With them, we are then able to conquer every kind of object that comes in
through the eyes, ears, nose, tongue, body and mind. The four component Dhammas are the
unsurpassed guardians. They watch over and protect us.

374
S.V. 98.
375
S.V. 99.
376
S.V. 99.
377
S.V. 97.; (For beginner’s use, there are two sections of BojjhaÙgas: 1. Dhammavicaya (investigation), Viriya
(energy) and P≠ti (joy); 2. Passaddhi (calmness), Samādhi (concentration) and Upekkhā (equanimity). Both sections should
well be understood by the practitioners, while practicing SatipaÊÊhāna. At that time their mind will mostly slope two
conditions: 1. Th≠na-middha (Sloth and Torpor); 2. Uddhacca-kukkucca (flurry and worry). When the practitioner feels
sloth and torpor, he should use the first section of BojjhaÙga that is suitable to observe it, but when he feels slop to flurry
and worry, the second section of BojjhaÙga is suitable to do it. However, Sati is needed in all times and activities.
378
More detailed study may be had from, Phra Sudh≠varañāœa (Narong Cherdsungnoen), A Study of Sati
(Mindfulness) in Buddhism: Theory and Practice in Thai Tradition, Op.Cit., pp.140 -55.
379
The practice of ÄnÅpÅnasati can easily bring us the Triple Gem [Buddha-Dhamma-SaÙgha] that
we make our mind (Citta) clean-clear-calm. And also we easily practice the most fundamental principle of Buddhism,
namely, S≠la-SamÅdhi-PaññÅ (virtue, concentration and wisdom).
 171

The next benefit is that we are able to practice in line with the principle of
PaÊiccasamuppÅda (dependent origination, conditioned arising). It explains the causal
origination of Dukkha. A series of course, each depending on a previous cause, leading to
suffering. However, once we come to its practical application, dependent origination
becomes simple. Do not let is be ignorant Phassa (contact). Then that contact will not lead to
ignorant feeling and ignorant feeling will not lead to foolish craving (TaœhÅ). It stops all
there. ÄnÅpÅnasati makes Sati sufficiently abundant and fast, qualified enough to perform its
duty in the moment of Phassa stops the stream of PaÊiccasamuppÅda just then and there.

So also in the principle of the Four Noble Truths, the essence of this law is seen in
that Dukkha is born out of ignorant desire (TaœhÅ). If there is TaœhÅ, there must be Dukkha.
When we are able to use Sati to stop TaœhÅ and break it off, there is no Dukkha. To stop
TañhÅ by employing the power of Sati. ÄnÅpÅnasati in all its four steps must be practiced.

Thus he comes to the conclusion that: “The Buddha himself declared that he realized
perfect self-awakening (Anuttara SammÅsambodhi) through practicing ÄnÅpÅnasati. He
became a Buddha while practicing ÄnÅpÅnasati. Thus, he offered it to us the best system of
all to practice. He advised us all to use this practice for our own welfare, for the welfare of
others, for the welfare of everyone. There is no better way to practice Dhamma than
Mindfulness with Breathing”. 380

Further, Venerable Nyanapoœika states in “The heart of Buddhist Meditation” that

well practiced SatipaÊÊhāna will make us to get threefold natural value, shortly:

1. The Value of bare attention knowing the mind:381 It means when practicing
bare attention, the first powerful impact on the observer’s mind will probably be the direct
confrontation with the ever-present fact of change. In terms of the Dhamma, it is the first of
the three characteristics of life: Anicca (impermanence)- The incessant sequence of
individual births and deaths of the events observed by bare attention will become an
experience of growing force and will have decisive consequences on the meditative progress.
From that same experience of momentary change, the direct awareness of the two other

380
BuddhadÅsa, Mindfulness with Breathing, Bangkok: The Dhamma Study and Practice Group, Press, 1989,
pp.90-104.
381
Nyanaponika, The Heart of Buddhist Meditation, Op.Cit., pp.36-37.
172

characteristics of existence will emerge in due course, such as Dukkha (ill;suffering,

insufficiency) and Anattā (impersonality).

2. The Value of bare attention shaping the mind: 382 This means right mindfulness
recovering for man the lost pearl of his freedom, snatching it from the jaws of the dragon
time. Right mindfulness cuts man loose from the fetters of the past, which he foolishly tries
even to re-inforce by looking back to it too frequently, with eyes of longing, resentment or
regret. Right mindfulness stops man from chaining himself even now, through the
imaginations of his fears and hopes, to anticipated events of the future. Thus, right
mindfulness restores to man a freedom that is to be found only in the present. 383

3. The Value of bare attention for liberating the mind:384 In this context, the
suggestion is offered to the practitioner that he may try, at first for a few test days, to keep as
well as he can to an attitude of bare attention towards people, inanimate environment and the
various happenings of the day. By doing so he will soon feel how much more harmoniously
such days are passing away compared with those when he gave in to the slightest stimulus
for interfering by deed, word, emotion or thought. As if protected by invisible armour
against the banalities and importunities of the outer world, one will walk through such days
serenely and content, with an exhilarating feeling of case and freedom. It is as if, from the
unpleasant closeness of a hustling and noisy crowd, one has escaped to the silence and
seclusion of a hill top, and, with a sigh of relief, is looking down on the noise and bustle
below. It is the peace and happiness of detachment, which will thus be experienced.

Phra Brahmaguœābharaœa (P.A. Payutto) has pointed out the fruit of practice of Right
Mindfulness is beneficial for the individual in the following ways:

“Visuddhi (Purity): When Sati is fixed exclusively on the object which one desires
to focus and Sampajañña (clear comprehension) comprehends that thing in its true light, the

382
Ibid., p.41.
383
Thoughts of the past and the future are the main material of day-dreaming which by its tough and sticky
substance of endlessly repetitive character crowds the narrow space of present consciousness, giving no chance for its
shaping, and making it, in fact, still more shapeless and slack.
384
Ibid., pp.43-45.
 173

stream of consciousness and thought will be naturally maintained in purity for there will be
no room for various defilements to arise.385

“Issariyaµ (Freedom): The pure state of mind spoken of above, will also be blessed
with freedom, being unperturbed by the various sense-impressions which impinge upon it,
through utilizing every one of them as material for objective study. When sense-data is not
interpreted in line with the dictates of the cankers, it exerts no subjective influence over the
one who experiences it. Behavior of that person will be liberated from the defilements that
act as unconscious drives or motivations. This is what is referred to the tests as dwelling
independently (i.e. not being the servant of craving and views) and clinging to naught in the
world.

“Paññā (Wisdom): In the training of such a mental process, the faculty of wisdom
functions with maximum effectiveness. The absence of diversion by emotions, proclivities
and prejudices ensures a perception of things as they actually exist, an authentic
awareness”.386

“Vimutti (Liberation from Dukkha): when mind dwells in a state of wakefulness,

understanding things in their actuality and able to maintain such a vision those positive and
negative inclinations in relation to things which are unfounded on a purified logic will be
unable to arise. Thus, there will be an absence of states rooted in covetousness (AbhijjhÅ) or
in distress (Domanassa) and freedom from the various expressions of anxiety. This is the
state of mind which is called “released”. It is experienced as a light spaciousness, relaxation,
serenity and independence.”387

“The State of perfect mental health: if this insight attains an optimum profundity
and clarity, there is realization of the state of liberation. It establishes mind in the new mode
of being, as a light, bright stream, free of inner knots, proclivities and attachments. It is the
birth of a new personality.”388

385
Phra Brahmaguœābharaœa (P.A. Payutto), Right Mindfulness, Bangkok: Buddhadhamma Foundation, Press
1988, p.32.
386
Ibid., p.33.
387
Ibid.,p.33-34.
388
Ibid.,p.35.
174

Further, in case of freedom, he has said again that there are four levels of freedom,
the achievement of which is indispensable for the realization of peace and happiness. There
are:389

1. Physical freedom or freedom in relation to the physical environment.

This includes freedom from lack of the basic needs of life such as food, clothing,
shelter and health-care. Safety from life-threatening calamities and unfavorable
natural conditions.

2. Social freedom or freedom in relation to other people, the community

or social environment. This is represented by freedom from persecution,
exploitation, crime and injustice, violations of human rights, violence, terrorism,
and war. It is the non-violation of the five precepts, or in more positive terms, a
harmonious relationship with neighbors, social well-being, and such values as
equality, liberty, fraternity, discipline, respect for the law, tolerance and co-
operation.

3. Emotional freedom or freedom of heart. Ideally, this refers to the state

of freedom from all traces of mental defilement and suffering, the state of mind
that is unshaken by worldly vicissitudes-purified, sorrow-free, secure, and
profoundly happy and peaceful, which is called NibbÅna.

4. Intellectual freedom or freedom of mind through knowledge and

wisdom. Included in this class of freedom are unbiased learning; freedom of
thought and judgment and the exercise of knowledge and wisdom that are free of

389
These four levels of freedom can be re-classified as three by putting the third and the fourth levels together is a
one and the same level, called ‘spiritual’ or ‘individual’ freedom. The four (or three) levels of freedom are inter-related and
interdependent. Without a minimal amount of physical freedom, the road to the other three levels of freedom is blocked.
Without intellectual and emotional freedom, the wise use of resources, which is physical freedom, is rendered impossible.
Lacking the freedom of knowledge and wisdom, the heart cannot be free. In the absence of freedom of heart, social
freedom is only a dream. (Phra Brahmaguœābharaœa (P.A. Payutto), Buddhist Solution for the Twenty-first Century,
Bangkok: Sahadhammika Press 1994, p.50).
 175

prejudices or self-interest; and the knowledge of all things as they really are. 390

In daily life, when we practice ÄnÅpÅnasati, it will be useful now and here with
following way, namely:391

1. Promoting physical and mental relaxation and health;

2. Overcoming stress and strain in life;
3. Developing a mind with complete freedom;
4. Lowering the level of high blood pressure;
5. Increasing self-confidence;
6. Enhancing good personality;
7. Improving memory;
8. Increasing the learning power;
9. Improving the effectiveness of job performance;
10. Making effective use of time;
11. Enhancing creativity;
12. Contributing to giving up of drinking and smoking habits as well as drug abuse;
13. Lessening worries and anxieties;
14. Enriching one’s life with subtle happiness and tranquility;
15. Acquiring initiative and creative wisdom highly beneficial to one’s life;
16. Reliving physical and mental stress, suffering;

390
This fourfold freedom, real peace and real happiness, both within the mind of an individual and externally in
the society, are secured. With physical freedom, we are relatively free from the oppression of natural forces, and at the same
time we do not exploit nature. Rather we make wise and unselfish use of natural resources to achieve mutual well being for
both man and nature. Therefore, we live at peace with nature. Equipped with all the facilities provided by science and
technology as our servants, rather than as our masters, we can be said to have fulfilled the physical aspect of the good or
ideal life. With this physical freedom as a foundation, we are in a good position to realize the other three aspects of
freedom, (Ibid, p.50).
391
1) Kāyikacetasikassa Phāsukāya; 2) Sokaparidevānaµ Samatikkamāya; 3) Cittassa Isariyabhāvanāya; 4)
Lohitassa Samatulabhāvassa; 5) Vesārajjakaraœadhammassa; 6) Sineha-Pāsādika-Puggalikassa; 7) Sudhāraœassa; 8)
Susikkhitabhāvassa; 9) Kammamahāphalassa; 10) Dhammena Kālaµ Atikamāpetvā; 11) D≠ghadass≠; 12) S≠lena
Apāyamukhasmā Mocetukāmo; 13) Kukkucca Vinodetuµ; 14.) J≠vitassa Santibhāvassa; 15) Satipaññabalabhāvita-
bahul≠katā; 16) Viriyena Dukkhamacceti or Äraddhadubbiriyo; 17) Dukkhadomanassānaµ AtthaÙgamāya and
SandiÊÊhika-dhamma-sukhavihārāya, ( Vinai Ussivakul, An introduction to Buddhist Meditation for Results. Bangkok:
Tippaywisut Ltd., Press, 1996, p.11).
176

17. Providing a wholesome and effective outlet for coping with life’s problems and
attaining a high level of invaluable tranquility and happiness.

In the following way, SatipaÊÊhÅna practice not only helps in the promotion of a
healthy lifestyle but also prevent us from unhealthy lifestyle and thus keeping us free from
all diseases with bare attention and clear comprehension. This is the successful life of an
individual who on having and enjoying the fruits or benefits that arise from the performance
of that duty or right, benefits even the whole of humanity. He is called as the one who loves
himself and others or reaps the benefits for himself as well as brings social benefits.

The following discussion can be best summarized in the Buddha’s own word as:

“O Bhikkhus, there are two kinds of disease: physical disease and

spiritual disease (literally, mental disease). Those beings who may assert that
they have been without physical disease for a whole year are to be found in the
world. Those people who may assert that they have been without physical
disease for two years…three years ….four years….five years….ten
years….twenty years….fifty years…a hundred years are to be found, but hard to
find in this world are those beings who may assert that they have been free from
spiritual disease, even for a single moment, apart from those in whom the
cankers have been destroyed”. 392

Therefore, O! Householder, we should train ourselves that even though our body is
beset by illness our mind will not be.

5.2 SatipaÊÊhÅna as Social Benefits

For the Social value of SatipaÊÊhÅna, the Buddha said:

“O Bhikkhus, once upon a time, a bamboo-acrobat set up his pole and

called to his pupil, saying, ‘Come, my lad, climb the pole and stand on my
shoulders’, and the pupil did as he was bidden. Then the bamboo acrobat said to
his pupil, ‘now, my lad, you look after me well and I’ll look after you. By

392
A.IV.157.
 177

watching and protecting each other in this way, we will show off our skills, get a
good fee and come down safe from the bamboo pole”.

At these words, the pupil said to the acrobat; “Master, it cannot be done
like that. You look after yourself, Master, and I look after myself. If we both
watch and protect ourselves then we will be able to show off our skills, get a
good fee and come down safe from the bamboo pole.”

“The Blessed One said ‘that was the correct way of practice in that case.
In the same way as the pupil spoke to his master, Bhikkhus, when thinking, ‘I
will protect myself’ you must practice SatipaÊÊhÅna (be mindful) and when
thinking, ‘I will protect others’ you must also practice SatipaÊÊhÅna.’

“O Bhikkhus, protecting oneself, one protects others, and by protecting

others, one protects oneself. And how does one, in protecting others? By earnest
practice, cultivation and development (of SatipaÊÊhÅna), in this way, by
protecting oneself, one protects others. And how does one, in protecting others,
protect oneself? By forbearance, by non-violence, by possessing a heart of
MettÅ and KaruœÅ (Compassion)’ in this way by protection of others, one
protects oneself, taking a resolution.
“I shall protect myself with this intention, Bhikkhus, SatipaÊÊhÅna should
be practiced.”
“I shall protect others with this intention, Bhikkhus, SatipaÊÊhÅna should
be practiced.”
“Protecting oneself, one protects others, protecting others, one protects
oneself.”393

Phra Dhammāth≠raraj Mahāmuni has written the benefits of SatipaÊÊhÅna VipassanÅ

Meditation in his book ‘The Path to NibbÅna’ thus: to give certainty of truth, and not to be
deceived by and not to hold fast to concepts (Paññatti) which are mere mundane
conventions; to make people truly cultured, having good morals; to make people love one

393
S.V. 758-762.
178

another; make them feel their unity and to be compassionate towards each other; and to
make them have gladness and appreciation when they see others who are joyful...394

In case of healing the illness of people by Mindfulness Meditation as part of

Psychotherapy, there is evidence of research and experiment conducted by Olaf G.
Deatherange (Creston, British Columbia, USA) who applied Mindfulness Meditation to his
seven clients successfully. 395Thus, it can successfully be applied even as a part of scientific
study to heal people’s diseases.

Moreover, the benefit provided by the practice of SatipaÊÊhÅna to the society is of

high importance in the following ways: -

1. By establishing security, peace and happiness,

2. By preventing social problems, such as crime, drug addiction, drug abuse etc.,
3. By enabling the general public to engage in the activities which are useful to them
as well as to society without causing any harm or undesirable consequences,

4. By enhancing the effective utilization of resources without being wasteful or

without being inconsiderate to other next generation,

5. By creating a good social environment for the promotion of physical and mental
health,
6. By enabling the government officials of each country to really work for the
benefits of the society within their own country as well as others’ without resorting to
corrupt practices or seeking dominance over others’ economically, politically or militarily;
thereby increasing, the stability and peace in the world.396

394
Phra Dhammādh≠rarajmahÅmun≠ (Jodok Ñāœasiddhi), The Path to NibbÅna, Bangkok: VipassanÅ Centre, Wat
MahÅdhÅtu Press, 1989, pp.35-37.
395
Olaf G.Deatherange, Mindfulness Meditation as Psychotherapy, Kandy, Sri Lanka: The Wheel, Magazine of
Buddhist Publication Society Press, 1982, pp.17-43.
396
Quoted in, Phramaha Preecha Yundon, A Critical Study of MahāsatipaÊÊhāna-sutta, Varaœas≠:
Thesis Submitted for The Degree of Doctor of in Banaras Hindu University Press, 2006, p.53.
 179

5.3 SatipaÊÊhÅna and World Peace

SatipaÊÊhāna may affect the world system and become instrumented in bring world
peace as well. It indicates to the objects that we experience and the world in which we live.
At the moment we see the world as visible object, the world of visible objects does not last,
it falls away immediately. When we hear, the world is sound, this to falls away. Yet we are
absorbed in and infatuated by the objects we experience through eyes, ears, nose, tongue,
body-sense and mind-door, but not one of these objects lasts. What is impermanent should
not be mistaken for self. 397 So, it is said “this world is life, which means body and mind.”

Moreover, the Buddha taught people about the ‘world’ and the path to reach the end
of the world, that is, the end of suffering. 398

5.3.1 Peace with Negative and Positive Meanings: 399

Negatively, peace may be understood as absence of war, conflict, hostility, agitation,

disturbance, disagreement or quarrel, struggle, violence, terrorism, civil strife or civil
commotion, social disorder etc. It also means an absence of mental disturbance such as
anxiety, worry, restlessness etc.

Positively, peace may be understood by a state or tranquility, calm, repose, quietness,

harmony, friendship, amity, concord, peaceful or friendly relation, public order, pacification,
spiritual content, reconciliation, serenity, security and bliss. Thus the concept of peace
encompasses within itself the absence of conflict as well as the presence of harmony. 400

Buddhism has used the term ‘Santi’ which etymologically means ‘peace’. Buddhist
concept of peace lays emphasis on individual aspect of peace and its social consequences are
held to follow from the center of the individual’s own psychology.

It denotes essentially the absence of conflict in the individual psychology and in the
fundamental sense refers to the absolute state of mental quietude expressed by the term

397
A.II.Rohitassavagga p.5; Quoted in Nina Van Gorkom, Abhidhamma in Daily Life, Bangkok: Dhamma study
and propagation foundation, Press 1975, p.30.
398
Ibid, p.32.
399
B.Khemananda, The Buddhist Concept of Peace, Calcutta: Lazo Print, 1996, p.1.
400
P.Prayoon Meererk, A Buddhist Approach to Peace, Bangkok: Amrin Printing Prove Ltd., 1989, p.16.
180

NibbÅna. One of the oldest texts, the Sutta NipÅta, refers to internal peace as resulting from
the elimination of ideological and other conflicts of mind.

From the point of view of Buddhist concept of peace, there are two aspects viz.,
internal peace that is peace of mind and external peace, which is peace of society. It can
further be divided into two levels viz., temporary peace, i.e., it is the peace of a person who
does not get salvation or enlightenment but can only calm illness and suffering. Permanent
peace on the other hand is the peace of a person who gets salvation or enlightenment. It
means Dukkha-nirodha (the cessation of suffering) through the extinction of craving which
is the cause of suffering.401

5.3.2 SatipaÊÊhÅna for Internal-External World Peace

While considering internal and external or inter-relation between internal-external

world peace, the main focus should be on the practice of SatipaÊÊhÅna. This practice being
the foundation of mindfulness is the main fundamental step of Dhamma practice in
Buddhism and is the only way that leads to attainment of ultimate peace. We focus now on
how this may be translated into reality:

First of all, it brings inner peace of mind. The practice of SatipaÊÊhÅna begins with
contemplating of the body, feelings, mind and mind-objects, such that the body is cool and
calm, the feeling, mind and phenomena are cool and calm too. There after it spreads outward
and brings about external peace. How the inner peace can be achieved has been the best
captured in the words of the Buddha as thus:

“Bhikkhus, Mindfulness with breathing that one has developed and

makes much of, has great fruit and great benefit. Even I myself, before
awakening, when not yet enlightened, while still a Bodhisatva (Buddha to be),
lived in this dwelling (way of life) for the most part. When I lived mainly in this
dwelling, the body was not stressed, the eyes were not strained, and my mind
was released from the Āsava (corruptions, cankers) through non-attachment. For
this reason, should anyone wish "may my body be not stressed, may my eyes be

401
Phramaha Khomsorn Khamkert, Buddhis Approach to Science, Technology and Human Peace, Op.Cit.,
pp.115-116.
 181

not strained, may my mind be released from the Āsava through non-attachment,"
then that person ought to attend carefully in his heart to this Mindfulness with
breathing meditation.”402

S.N. Goenka, the distinguished Vipassaka teacher while speaking on mindfulness

said that to propose mindfulness practice, to observe one's mind in order to gain peace in the
mind and the world briefly: ‘one should rather than converting people from one organized
religion to another organized religion, try to convert people from misery to happiness, from
bondage to liberation and from cruelty to compassion. When there is no peace of mind in the
individuals, how can there be real peace in the human world? First, have peace within
yourself. So one has to observe whether there is real peace within oneself or not. When one
is generating anger, hatred, animosity, one will immediately realize that one is the first
victim of the anger. And realize that being victim of hatred animosity ourselves we are
agents of generating harm within ourselves as well as causing harm to others.

There cannot be peace in the world when people have anger and hatred in their
hearts. Only with love and compassion in the heart is world peace attainable.
When there is anger and hatred within, one becomes miserable irrespective of whether one is
a Christian or a Hindu or a Muslim… This is the simple truth thus before you harm others,
you first harm yourself by generating mental negativity; and by removing the negativity; you
can find peace within and strengthen peace in the world.”403

It is not world peace along but it is universal peace at which we have to aim. Herein,
Ven. NÅrada MahÅthera says that the whole universe is a vast field of battle. Everywhere
there is fighting. Existence is nothing but a vain struggle against germs of dreadful diseases,
molecules against molecules, atoms against atoms, and electrons against electrons. Mind is
still a more vigorous scene of battle. Forms, sounds, tests etc. are resultants counteraction
and belligerent forces. The very existence of war proves that there is a state of prefect Peace.
It is what we call NibbÅna. 404

402
S. 19/1327-29/401 (STP).
403
www.meditationgeek.org/.../mindfulness-teacher-speaks-at-un-world.html (Accessed on July 22, 2012).
404
Phra Sripariyattimoli (Somchai Kusalacitto), The Buddha in the Eyes of Eminent Scholars, Bangkok: MCU.
Press, 2543 B.E.p.139.
182

Even though problems are going on, we have perfect peace called NibbÅna which is
the ultimate benefit of SatipaÊÊhÅna-practice. It is the path that leads to the world peace and
it is at the same time a peaceful way without persecution.405 If we have practiced
SatipaÊÊhÅna truly, the right perspective can be reached, as a result of which we can avoid
problems whether individual, national and international, and we shall ultimately bring peace
and tranquility to the world, 406

In this dispensation, Buddhism can play a decisive role for providing, sustaining and
preserving peace and harmony in the world. The religion of Gautama Buddha is totally
compatible with the harmonious, congenial, and peaceful global order. The tenets, doctrine,
and philosophy of Buddhism are the best suited for inter-faith dialogue, harmony and
universal peace. 407

Thus, SatipaÊÊhÅna or right mindfulness as the Noble Eightfold Path leads to

cessation of Dukkha or to obtain the benefits called Santi (peace) and Sukha (happiness),
which are synonymous: to an unhappy person who cannot find peace and there can be no
peace without happiness. In the Buddha’s words: “Natthi santi paraµ sukhaµ (There is no
higher happiness than peace).” 408

5.3.3 SatipaÊÊhÅna as Mettā to Peace-Development

Sati may be used as a tool to Develop loving-kindness (MettÅ),409 which means

developing loving-kindness (MettÅ) towards all beings. The well-known Metta Sutta in the
KhuddakapÅÊha and Sutta-nipÅta describes the development of loving-kindness (MettÅ) as
Sati should be practiced virtually all the time:

“Just as a mother would protect her own son, her only son, with her life, so
one should develop the immeasurable mind towards all beings and loving-

405
Ibid. p. 65.
406
Ibid. p. 124.
407
Ram Nandan Singh, Buddhism from Genesis to Decline, Delhi: New Bharatiya Book Corporation, 2007, p.
154.
408
Dh. 25/25/42 (STP).
409
Tse-Fu Kuan, Mindfulness in Early Buddhism: New approaches through Psychology and Textual Analysis of
Pali, Chinese and Sanskrit Sources, London and New York: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group, Press 2008, pp.41-56.
 183

kindness towards the whole world. One should develop the immeasurable mind,
upwards, downwards and across, without obstruction, without hatred and hostility.
Standing, walking, sitting, or lying down, as long as one is free from drowsiness,
one should practice this mindfulness. They say, “This is a divine dwelling in this
world.”410

MettÅ is one of the four BrahmavihÅras411 that will support the cultivation of more
KaruœÅ, MuditÅ and UpekkhÅ. Baidyanath Labh has shortly stated the significance of
BrahmavihÅra in “The Mahābodhi 2550th Buddha Jayanti” (2006-2007), that unlike the
ancient times, the modern society has evolved as a multi-lingual, multi-racial, multi-religious
and multi-cultural one. To face problems in such a complex world, the Buddha’s teaching of
BrahmavihÅra is highly useful and applicable. It consists of four factors-MettÅ (friendliness,
love or goodwill), KaruœÅ (compassion), MuditÅ (selfless joy) and UpekkhÅ (equanimity).412
These Four Sublime States are a panacea for peace and harmony in the world.

Further, this SatipaÊÊhānabhāvanā supports the Brahma-vihāra-bhāvanā as well. When

there is perfection of Brahmavihāra, everywhere will be peace. Obviously, it is full of
loving-kindness and giving smile called ‘the world of Ariyametteya-Buddha’ in the next
world. It is firmly believed in the Buddhist world that Ariyametteya-world is very soon or
near to come.413 If everybody practices SatipaÊÊhāna, which is easy to have
Brahmavihāradhamma such as Arahanta who has perfect mindfulness, it is full of
Brahmavihāra called ‘Appamaññā’. 414

410
Dh. 25/10/13-14 (STP), (Mātā yathā niyaµ puttaµ āyusā ekaputtamanurakkhe. Evampi sabbabhâtesu
mānasaµ bhāvaye aparimāœaµ. Mettañca sabbalokasmiµ mānasaµ bhāvaye aparimānaµ. Uddhaµ adho ca tiriyañca
asambādhaµ averaµ asapattaµ. TiÊÊhañcaraµ nisinno vā, sayāno vā yāvatassa vigatamiddho. Etaµ satiµ adhiÊÊheyya
brahmetaµ vihāraµ idhamāhu).
411
MettÅ, KaruœÅ, MuditÅ and UpekkhÅ
412
Ven. D.Rewatha Thero & Santosh Bikash Barua (Ed.), Sudhir Bhatnagar (As.Ed.), The Mahabhodhi 2550th
Buddha Jayanti, MahÅ Bodhi Society of India, Press, C.E.2007.p.70.
413
Wise Äcariya said that it is close in our hand.
414
The four Brahma-vihāras are also known as ‘four Appamaññā’ meaning ‘four boundless states’. They are so
called because those who practice these exercises are radiating loving-kindness or compassion or sympathetic joy to all
beings without limit or obstruction.
184

- Brahma-vihāra (Living in Sublime Abode)415

Anyone who is practicing one of the four Brahma-vihāras is said to be living in the
sublime abode. To practice Mettā, one extends one’s loving-kindness towards all beings,
sincerely wishing them to be happy and free from danger, free from bodily pain and mental
suffering. To practice Karuœā, one embraces all sorrow stricken beings, sincerely wishing
them to be free from all miseries. To exercise Muditā, one embraces all prosperous beings,
whishing them sincerely that all their gain and prosperity remain with them for a long time.
To exercise Upekkhā, one embraces the good and the bad, the loved and the unloved, the
sorrow-stricken or the prosperous, with equanimity contemplating that ‘all beings are as they
are conditioned by their Saka-kamma (own action).416

5.4 SatipaÊÊhÅna and Ecology as Balance of Life

417
In SumaÙgalavilÅsin≠ and AÊÊhasālin≠ it has appeared as the natural laws which
were illustrious, viz. 1) UtuniyÅma (law of season, physical inorganic order, or physical
laws), 2) B≠janiyÅma (law of seed, physical organic order, or biological laws), 3)
CittaniyÅma (law of mind, or psychic law), 4) KammaniyÅma (law of action, order of act and
result, the law of Kamma, or moral lows) and 5) DhammaniyÅma (law of phenomenal
universe, order of the norm, the general law of cause and effect, or causality and
conditionality). These were interpreted as physical laws, natural laws, moral laws, and
original laws, respectively. Buddhism holds that while first four laws operate in cooperation
with each other, the whole of Dhamma with its law of arising, of cessation, of dependent
origination, of existance ensures that there is ecological balance.

Today, we are truly a global family. What happens in one part of the world may
affect us all due to the extraordinary modern communication system. His Holiness, Dalai
Lama observes: “War and peace; the destruction or protection of nature; the violation or
promotion of human rights and democratic freedom; poverty or material well-being; the lack
of moral and spiritual values, or their existence and development; and the breakdown or

415
Appendix D, as the Chart No. 5: the Chanting of Mettā-meditation.
416
Dr. Mehm Tin Mom, The Essence of Buddha Abhidhamma, Myanmar: Mya Mon Yadanar Press 1995, pp.366-
69.
417
D≠ghanikÅya AÊÊhakathÅ (SumaÙgalavilÅsin≠).II.432; DhammasaÙgaœi AÊÊhakathÅ (AÊÊhasÅlin≠).272.
 185

development of human understanding, are not isolated phenomenon that can be analyzed,
and tackled independently of one another. In fact, they are very much interrelated at all
levels and need to be approached with that understanding.”418

5.4.1 Deep Ecology:419

If we wish to talk of SatipaÊÊhana-practice whether KÅyÅnupassanÅ,

VedanÅnupassanÅ, CittÅnupassanÅ, or DhammÅnupassanÅ, we should first of all, study all
of them primarily as a balancing force of our internal life. It is rather deep ecology by itself,
especially DhammÅnupassanÅ that is understood as a very deep ecology so much. However,
when we examine deep ecology that it appears as external materiality in Buddhism, just as
when we study about the mind, it should not overlook the body. After this, we come to
discuss how SatipaÊÊhÅna concerns ecology:

Buddhism and deep ecology indeed explores the ecological and environmental
teachings of Buddha, particularly Dhamma (nature) and their relationships with Deep
Ecology as well as with effective public participation. Dhamma (also known as ‘Dharma’ by
many Buddhists) is nature, natural truth, natural law, and the teachings of Buddha. Lack of
effective communication and citizen participation in environmental affairs, especially
between Westerners and the peoples of Asia, has been the cause of needless environmental,
societal, and economic problems and costs. Buddhism, especially through Dhamma and
Deep Ecology offers a means to secure that participation in the decision-making process in
both Buddhist and non-Buddhist nations.

Technical experts offer countless opinions, pro and con, on the developments that
may change forever a stream, stand of rain forest, or other fragile ecological setting.
However, although technical comment abounds, it is, unfortunately, for sale or hire by the
highest bidder. Public opinion is scarcely heard over the cacophonous chorus of vested
interests. The author trusts that Buddhism and deep ecology will bring some harmony to the
discordant voices of all those concerned with the life on this planet.

418
Excerpts from the Noble Peace Prize Lecture of H.H., the Dalai Lama, ‘A Zone of Peace’ in Buddhism and
Ecology (Ed.), Delhi: Martin Batchelor and Kerry Brown, Motilal Banarsidass, Press 1994, p.111.
419
http://www.buddhanet.net/pdf_file/deep_ecology.pdf, (Accessed on July 22, 2012.]
186

Environmental issues are best handled with the participation of all concerned
citizens, at the relevant levels. At the national level, each individual shall have appropriate
access to information concerning the environment…including information on hazardous
materials and activities in their communities, and the opportunity to participate in decision-
making processes. States shall facilitate and encourage public awareness and participation by
making information widely available. Effective access to judicial and administrative
proceedings, including redress and remedy, shall be provided.

The teachings of Buddha also have ‘Oneness,’ egocentric, and spiritual orientations
with loving and compassionate concern for all living beings. These teachings are intimately
correlated and compatible with Deep Ecology and its orientations. Thus, both the teachings
can contribute to each other for holistic and deeper approaches toward various ecological
and environmental issues. The present research aims at dealing with Buddhism and deep
ecology on a general and overall basis so that both Buddhists and non-Buddhists with
ecological and environmental interests find it a refreshing, valuable, and insightful approach
to their labor of love.

Environmental aspects various aspects of the natural environment can be cited as a

subject for meditation to understand Dhamma or nature. Because people and the natural
environment are made up of the same elements, meditating on the composition of the body,
mind and emotions in relation to the nature can be very helpful for general concentration
practice as well as preparing the ground for the arising of PaññÅ (wisdom). The rising and
falling away of impermanence, for example, is associated with the human body as well as
the tree/forest in the natural environment.

Right mindfulness or SatipaÊÊhāna enables the observer to look at things objectively,

the way they are, not as one likes them to be. Mindfulness involves one’s only taking note or
observing mental and physical phenomena and not reacting according to one’s past
conditioning, emotions, or thought-concepts of liking or dislike. Thus one becomes capable
of purer actions in harmony with Dhamma, the law of nature, in the sense of not relating
them to oneself. Thus, merely seeing becomes meaningless as seeing environmental
problems through mindfulness means taking action for the solution of these problems.
 187

5.4.2 Examples of Ecological Balance:

Buddhism is a religion which emphasizes conservation of wildlife and trees and

natural resources in general. The teachings of the Buddha is clear on man just not destroy
lives around us. Everything in nature must be utilized with necessity and utmost value.
aiming mainly at the happiness and harmony of lives and everything in nature.420 Following
are some useful as well as interesting examples:

[A] The Lord Buddha’s Life

After having renounced the household life, he practiced Dukkarakiriyā or

Attakilamathānuyoga (self-mortification or the practice of austerities) for many years
but gradually realizing its futility has turned back to practice SatipaÊÊhÅna as
SukhavihÅridhamma to obtain enlightenment.

The life of the Buddha, as mentioned earlier, was spent amidst forests and trees and
moreover was imbued with his understanding and compassion for all living beings. The
instruction given to Bhikkhus stands as witness: “Here, O Bhikkhus, are the roots of trees,
here are empty places-meditate,” seems to be the Buddha’s categorical imperative and a
symbol of the Buddhist way of life. As the Buddha attained enlightenment under the ‘Bodhi’
tree, the Buddhist world has always ensured the conservation of the tree. Likewise, other
trees (like SÅla) are protected from plundering. 421

And in this case, Rakesh Kumar Mishra says in his article– the Environmental
Concerns of Contemporary Man in “Ecological Perspectives in Buddhism” (K.C.Pandey
(ed.), 2008), that glorious example of environmental and pastoral sanctity can find its
mention in the annals of Buddhist religion and culture. There is no need to say that the great
Buddha himself and his disciples to this day loved and continue to do so, to meditate and
attain spiritual awakening or enlightenment under the salubrious environs of huge trees and
tree-trunks, on the banks of flowing rivers and streams and mountain peaks.

420
Chatsumarn Kabilsingh et.al., Buddhism and Nature Conservation, Bangkok: Thai Tibet Center Press, 2010,
p.76.
421
Ibid, p.21.
188

How can one imagine to do all this or even contemplating, acquiring mental and
spiritual peace, when these very environs have virtually been trampled upon and desecrated
by selfish humans in the name of development, whom one can call as the modern
AÙgulimÅlas. There is no Buddha around to reform and rehabilitate these AÙgulimÅlas of
modernity and modern civilization.422

[B] Trees of importance

The Buddha spent most of his time within the natural surroundings. He was born
under the SÅla tree, attained enlightenment under the Bodhi tree, and thus spent next 45
years wandering in the forest, traveling from one village to another, preaching Dhamma to
the people. Finally, he chose to pass away between the SÅla trees, so these trees are
important in the Buddha’s life.

Even today, they are highly respected by Buddhists all over the world, mainly as
reverence to the Buddha. The direct positive result of this attitude is the conservation of
these species of trees of importance. This conservation needs no force of the law but stems
naturally from the understanding and belief of the people themselves. As such, it is more
effective.423

[C] Dove in the Forest (old JÅtaka Tale)

A long time ago, there was a thick forest. Trees were fresh and deep. The air was
crystal clear; it was sending the echoes of birds singing a beautiful melody, enchanting
comfortable life there. The sky was so blue and open. The forest was full of grace, hope and
peace. In this forest, there were thousands and thousands of creatures living together as one
in harmony with nature. One day, a dove flew over the forest to look for food for its babies.
When she returned, the dove saw a big fire rising up in the forest! All the living creatures,
including birds, animals, plants, and flowers were trying to escape, desperately crying for
help in this terrible distaste.

422
K.C. Pandey (ed.), Ecological Perspectives in Buddhism, New Delhi: Readworthy Publications Pvt.Ltd,
Press, 2008, pp.225-226.
423
Chatsumarn Kabilsingh, et.al., Buddhism and Nature Conservation, Op.Cit., p.88.
 189

The dove was astonished to see this happening, yet had no time to think. She
immediately flew off to a lake far away. When the dove arrived at the lake, she jumped into
the water and had its body completely soaked. The dove flew up again and hurried into the
burning forest. Flying back to where the fire was blazing briskly, the dove shook its body
and dropped a few portions of water. Then she took off to a long flight to get to the lake
again. In this way, the dove made many trips between the lake and the forest.

The heaven above, upon watching what was happening in the forest on the earth,
asked the dove, “Do you think that you, of humble body, can stop the fire with those few
shakes of water?” The dove answered, “The fire must be stopped as soon as possible. There
are children. There are my fellows. Moreover, there is the very forest who nurtures all of our
lives. Everything is caught in a big fire now. I have something to do. I will continue making
trips this way, until I die.”

Eventually, the earnest wish and the prayer of this one little dove were taken to the
Heaven. A heavy rain was brought to the forest and the fire ceased. The forest returned to a
peaceful, beautiful place, which it once was.424

5.5 Summary

From above perspectives, the benefits of SatipaÊÊhÅna practice can be summarized in

the main points as follows [A.III.106]:

1. Kāyabhāvanā: Physical development i.e. health, medical cure, mindful death etc.
2. S≠labhāvanā: Social development such as avoiding bad behaviour, activeness in social
work, good administrator, guiding the life of the people, improving the ability for working
job in duty etc.
3. Cittabhāvanā: Mental development such as training oneself and others, self-control,
unshackle mind etc.
4. Paññābhāvanā: Intellectual development such as instruction of general courses, clear
understanding on the teaching of the Buddha in scriptures, freedom from defilements and
fetters, realization of truth, seeing the way to NibbÅna etc.

424
http://www.buddhanet.net/pdf_file/deep_ecology.pdf, (Accessed on July 22, 2012.]
190

Thus SatipaÊÊhÅna practice is the technique of application of Mindfulness employed

in the daily life for self-development or individual progress as well as social progress.
Through it morality, concentration and wisdom are fine tuned in the pursuit of Middle way.
SatipaÊÊhÅna as the foundation of the Enlightenment is the way of purification of morality,
concentration and wisdom.

Eventually, when it brings fullness of morality, concentration and wisdom, it

ultimately benefits the individual and brings internal benefit, which further expand to
external benefits for the society, the world and the universe as a whole. Its benefit can be
talked of as effecting four parts of our life e.g., body is calm, VedanÅs are cool, mind is
peaceful and Dhammas (all conditions) are mindful as they really should be.

………………………………..
 191

CHAPTER VI: CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION

The Foundation of Mindfulness (MahāsatipaÊÊhānasutta or SatipaÊÊhÅnasutta)425

forms a very essential Dhamma in the practice-way. Indeed, the teaching of SatipaÊÊhāna
informs us that our life has just four areas which require the watchful eye and governance of
Sati. In brief, the main elements of SatipaÊÊhÅna are as follows:426

1. KÅyÅnupassanā: contemplation or mindfulness of the body; i) ĀnÅpÅnasati,

going to a secluded place, sitting cross-legged and focusing sati on one’s inhalation
and exhalations; ii) Iriyāpatha, focusing on posture, clearly perceiving the present
mode of disposition of the body, whether standing, walking, sitting or lying down;
iii) Sampajañña, maintaining clear comprehension on every kind of action and
movement; iv) PaÊikâlamanasikāra, contemplating on one’s body, from the top of
the head to the soles of the feet, as a repository of a large number of unattractive
constituents; v) Dhātu-manasikāra, contemplating on one’s body by considering it
separated into its four constituent elements; vi) Navasīvathika, looking at corpses
in nine different stages of decay, from one newly dead to one reduced to crumbling
bones, and, in each case, applying what is seen to oneself, reflecting that one’s own
body must meet a similar fate.

2. Vedanānupassanā: mindfulness of feeling, i.e. when a feeling of pleasure,

pain, or indifference arises, whether associated with sensual desires or
unassociated from them, one has a clear perception of it in its actuality at the
moment of occurrence.

3. Cittānupassanā: mindfulness of mind, i.e. how mind is at a given moment

– for instance, whether sensual desire is present in it or not, whether aversion is

425
MahāsatipaÊÊhānasutta and SatipaÊÊhÅnasutta can be called ‘MahasatipaÊÊhāna’. It has the same meaning, but
just only MahāsatipaÊÊhānasutta in D≠ghanikāya has completely preached especially in ‘Dhammānupassanā’ more than
SatipaÊÊhānasutta in Majjhimanikāya and Saµyuttanikāya.
426
DA.2.p.685,(STP). The kind of 21 objects such as Änāpānapubba is first and there is final Saccapabba. All of
them, 11 objects “Änāpānasati, PaÊikâlamanasikāra, and 9 Navasīvathikas” are appanābhāvanā. Others are
upacārabhāvanā.
192

present in it or not, whether it is agitated or concentrated, liberated or still fettered,

etc., one has a clear perception of the underlying state of mind in its actuality in the
present moment.

4. Dhammānupassanā, mindfulness of Dhammas; i) Nīvaraœa (hindrance),

clear perception, in that moment, of whether any of the Five Hindrances is present
in mind or not; ii) Khandha (aggregate), comprehension of the nature of each
Khandha, how it arises and how it ceases; iii) Āyatana (sense-base), clear
perception of each of the internal and external sense-bases and of the fetters that
arise depending on them, how those already arisen may be abandoned and how
those already abandoned may be prevented from re-arising; iv) BojjhaÙga
(constituents of enlightenment), clear perception, in that moment, of whether or not
any of the Seven constituents of Enlightenment is present in one’s mind, how those
as – yet un-arisen may arise and how those already arisen may be developed to
fullness; v) Ariyasacca, clear and authentic perception of each of the Four Noble
Truths.

It is contemplation to these parts whether body and its behavior, various feelings of
pleasure and pain, different states of mind, and mind-objects (Dhammas). Conducting one’s
life with Sati guarding over these four points will help to ensure a freedom from danger and
suffering and a life of clarity and well-being, culminating in the realization of the ultimate
truth.

SatipaÊÊhÅna theoretically speaking, is one of the moral psychic factors. It also

becomes the factor of virtues such as BahukÅra-Dhamma (virtues of great assistance),
SatipaÊÊhÅna (Four Foundation of Mindfulness), Balas (Five Powers), Indriyas (Five
Faculties), BojjhaÙgas (Seven Factors of Enlightenment), and AÊÊhaÙgikamagga (The Noble
Eightfold Path), etc. These things are the partaking of Enlightenment. Just as salt is needful
in all soups, so also is Mindfulness a needful element in all activities as can be seen from
the words of the Buddha himself that: “Mindfulness, Bhikkhus, I say, is needful in all
activities.”427

427
Ibid. p.656, (STP).
 193

And, SatipaÊÊhÅna if practically speaking, is confirmed by the Buddha as “the only

way for purification of all beings… for realization of NibbÅna.” Thus, MahÅsatipaÊÊhÅna
Sutta becomes the main discourse, the way for practicing of meditation both tranquility
(Samatha) and Insight (VipassanÅ) meditation. One should be careful of the practice of
Mindfulness. For if Mindfulness is not associated with ÄtÅp≠ (ardent or right effort),
Sampajañña (clear comprehension or right understanding) and Vineyya Loke
AbhijjhÅdomanassaµ (having overcome covetousness and grief concerning the world or
right thought and other factors of Eightfold Path) it is wrong mindfulness and leads to the
dangerous result. If it consists of morality, concentration and wisdom. It is Right
Mindfulness. This results in the awareness of peace and peace in awareness. It generates
only the beneficial results.

Particularly the benefit of ÄnÅpÅnasati pointed out in realization of Path, Fruition

and NibbÅna. It, however, can be used for the benefit of the reminding all generations
whether young-men, householders or old-ages to be aware of avoiding wrong practice and
continue doing right practice. Moreover, it can be used for solving the problems faced in
daily life such as in performing duties without suffering, creating beautiful things of arts and
culture etc. At the same time, it can be used to cure physical as well as mental illness.”428

Further, in our daily life, SatipaÊÊhāna is main function that is always practiced or
developed because Sati that is well practiced brings the happiness or usefulness anytime. In
fact, SatipaÊÊhāna consists four parts: body, feeling, mind and mind-objects. Even we have
practiced only one part, it is development all parts by accompaniment of them that is said
SatipaÊÊhāna is as four in one. Otherwise it is needed to practice Sati and Sampajañña as
Samatha and Vipassanā yoked together. This is what purpose is whished.

Here it would be like to state the SatipaÊÊhāna as VedanÅnupassanÅ that is story of

Bodhisattva can serve as a good example of how it functions:

Indeed, when the Bodhisattva practices on feelings, he conceives a great

compassion for those beings that cling to the happiness arising from feelings. And
he thoroughly learns to understand: “Happiness is where there is no feeling”. He

428
BuddhadÅsa, ÄnÅpÅnasati: Handbook of Study and Practice, Op.Cit., pp.185-212.
194

practices feeling-contemplation on feelings, for the sake (of helping) all beings to
give up (Attachment to) feelings. For (effecting) the cessation of feelings in
beings, he dons his armor; but for himself he does not strive after the cessation of
feelings.

Any feeling felt by him is pervaded by deep compassion. Thus, when

experiencing a pleasant feeling, he conceives deep compassion for beings whose
character is strongly inclined to lust, and he himself gives up the propensity to
lust. When experiencing an unpleasant feeling… complete propensity to hatred.
When experiencing a neutral feeling… propensity to delusion.

He is not attracted by a pleasant feeling, but strives after the eradication of

attraction. He is not repelled by an unpleasant feeling, but strives after the
eradication of repulsion. He is not left in ignorance by a neutral feeling, but
strives after the eradication of ignorance.

Whatever feeling he experiences, all feeling he knows as transient; all

feeling he knows as painful; all feeling he knows as not-self. He feels the pleasant
feeling as transient; the unpleasant feeling as a thorn; the neutral feeling as
peaceful. Thus, indeed, what is pleasant is transient; the unpleasant is (transient)
just as the pleasant, and the neutral is without an ego.429

One who can control Vedanā is a master of the world because Sabbe Dhammā
VedanÅ-samosaraœÅ (the condition of things flows with sensation). If it can stop at VedanÅ.
TaœhÅs (cravings) of greed, hatred and delusion will not arise. It is cutting the stream of
suffering or the flow of wheel of dependent origination because it is caused by AvijjÅ
(ignorance). This form of pairs of eye-consciousness, Ear-nose-tongue-body-mind-
consciousness involve the same kind of contemplation. This is beginning of Sati and wisdom
or Sampajañña that is Samatha and Vipassanā by itself.

In doing so, a meditator comes to see both Samatha and VipassanÅ as Ti-lakkhaœa
(three characteristics) of everything or NÅma-Râpa in terms of impermanence suffering and
non-self and contemplate that there is only arising and passing away of mind and no ‘I’

429
Nyanaponika Thera, The Heart of Buddhist Meditation., Op.Cit., pp.199-200.
 195

‘mine’ ‘myself’, this is the arising and passing away of Dhamma or mind and matter,
nothing else. Bearing in mind thus leads to the automatic eliminating of wrong views or the
so called SakkÅya DiÊÊhi. In doing away with defilements, SakkÅya DiÊÊhi and so on, the
meditative technique of the mind is in its finest and is trouble-free.

From all of these reasons as anlyzed above, it can be summarized in the Buddha’s
own words that the practice of the contemplation of origination-factors is such that:

“I shall show you, Bhikkhus, the origination and cessation in the four
foundations of mindfulness. Listen to my words!. What now, Bhikkhus, is the
origination of the body? Through the origination of nutriment there is origination
of the body, through the cessation of nutriment there is cessation of the body.
Through the origination of sense impression there is origination of feelings.
Through the cessation of sense impression there is cessation of feelings.

Through the origination of mind-and body (NÅma-Râpa) there is

origination of consciousness. Through the cessation of mind-and-body there is
cessation of consciousness. Through the origination of attention there is origination
of mind-objects. Through the cessation of attention there is cessation of mind-
objects.”430

Again he has clearly brought out the sevenfold contemplation of the four
SatipaÊÊhÅnas as thus:

Bhikkhus, How does, Bhikkhu in Dhamma-Vinaya, dwell practicing body-

contemplation on the body, feeling-contemplation on the feelings, mind-
contemplation on the mind, Dhamma-contemplation on the Dhammas?

Bhikkhus, Bhikkhu in Dhamma-Vinaya, certainly contemplates the four

foundations of mindfulness (body, feelings, mind, and Dhammas) as sevenfold

430
S.19/819/246, (STP), [Catunnaµ bhikkhave satipaÊÊhānaµ samudayañca atthaÙgamañca desissāmi taµ
suœātha. Ko ca bhikkhave kāyassa samudayo. Ähārasamudayā kāyassa samudayo āhāranirodhā kāyassa atthaÙgamo
phassasamudayā vedanānaµ samudayo phassanirodhā vedanānaµ atthaÙgamo nāmarâpasamudayā cittassa samudayo
nāmarâpanirodhā cittass atthaÙgamo manasikārasamudayā dhammānaµ samudayomanasikāranirodhā dhammānaµ
atthaÙgamo.]; Also Vide in Nyanaponika Thera, The Heart of Buddhist Meditation, Op.Cit., p 154.
196

contemplation: 1) as impermanent and not as permanent; 2) as painful and not as

pleasurable; 3) as not-self and not as a self; 4) he turns away and is not delighted
by it; 5) he is dispassionate and does not crave; 6) he causes cessation of it and not
origination; and 7) he relinquishes and does not grasp.

Contemplating it as impermanent, he abandons the notion of permanency;

contemplation it as painful, he abandons the notion of pleasure; contemplating it
as not-self, he abandons the notion of a self; by turning away, he abandons delight;
by being dispassionate, he abandons greed; by causing cessation, he abandons
origination; and by relinquishing, he abandons grasping.

In that sevenfold manner he practices the fourfold foundation-

contemplation. They are the foundation, not mindfulness, but mindfulness is
foundation as well as mindfulness. With that mindfulness and with that knowledge,
he has contemplated the fourfold foundation of mindfulness. Hence, it is called
SatipaÊÊhÅnabhÅvanÅ.431

Those who put this meditation into practice meditation methodically and acutely can
become a noble person. The four Ariyapuggalas (Noble persons) are in turn divided,
according to their ability to eradicate defilements by applying the ten Saµyojanas (fetters) as
the means for estimating, as follows:432

1) Sotāpanna is one who cuts off Sakkāya-diÊÊhi (the opinion to have a self);
Vicikicchā (doubt); Sīlabbataparāmāsa (clinging to virtue and rituals, groping for them in
the way of rites).

2) Sakadāgāmī is one who cuts the Saµyojana of the preceding stage and has
weakened Kāmarāga and PaÊigha.

3) Anāgāmī is one who cuts the five lower Saµyojana, that is Sakkāya-diÊÊhi,
Vicikicchā, Sīlabbataparāmāsa, Kāmarāga, and PaÊigha (anger) completely.

431
Kh. 31/727-730/622-26, (STP); Also Vide in Nyanaponika Thera, The Heart of Buddhist Meditation, Op.Cit.,
pp.- 155-56.
432
D.I. p.156.
 197

4) Arahat is one who cuts off all the ten fetters; the five lower Saµyojanas and
additionally the fetters of Rūparāga, Arūparāga, Māna, Uddhacca, and Avijjā completely.

In above all, it is obvious when there was the end of this Buddha’s Dammadesanā
(sermon) at that time, the D≠ghanikāya-aÊÊhakathā of MahāsatipaÊÊhānasutta has referenced
that there were thirty thousand people who attained Arahanthood.433

Thus, we understand that SatipaÊÊhÅna-meditation is a spiritual function or duty of

ours in daily-life. It is be of great profit to end all of our problems. SatipaÊÊhāna has
interesting aspects of psychology as well as technique of practice-way. Its benefits result in
enhancing spiritual power which is beyond the reach of materialistic world. Application of
SatipaÊÊhÅna perfectly bring benefits be it at individual, social level and world peace etc,
especially in this modern age of globalization.

Suggestion: In saying this, SatipaÊÊhÅna or the foundation of mindfulness is needed

in all situations of our life. That which ‘looks over’ the various factors which arise in
meditation is ‘Sati’ (mindfulness). Sati is life. Whenever we do not have Sati, we are
heedless, it is as if we are dead... Thus Sati is simply presence of mind. It is cause for the
arising of self-awareness and wisdom... Even when we are no longer in Samādhi, Sati should
be present throughout. So, mindfulness is always a very important factor associated with
Sati-cetasika and because of its presence one is mindful to the extend that one contemplates
on the body, feelings, mind and mind-objects as they really are.

Therefore, everybody should understand SatipaÊÊhÅna so that there is mindfulness in

all postures or situations that results in one’s well being. Moreover it can be included as
section of the study in educational institutions as a proper foundation on the lines of
SatipaÊÊhÅnas equip individuals to be mindful of who they are, what is the state of present
situation and thus accordingly apply the required solution as the problem demands leading to
a prosperous and happy society.

…………………………………….

433
“Desanāpariyosāne pana tiµsasahassāni arahatte patiÊÊhahiµsâ’ti.” DA.2. p. 686. (STP).
198
 199

Appendix A:

Part 1: Suttas concerned SatipaÊÊhāna in Pāli Texts

MahāsatipaÊÊhānasutta or SatipaÊÊhānasutta has been preached briefly by the

Buddha. If we wish to know its details, it may be found out from many Texts like:

-In Vinaya PiÊaka: SatipaÊÊhāna appeared in MahāvibhaÙga (Vin.1.[STP]) as Uttari-

manussadhamma (superhuman condition) that is the Buddha-paññatti (established by the
Buddha) and as the Buddha’s teaching such on ‘Änāpānasati’.

-In Suttanta PiÊaka: SatipaÊÊhāna as MahāsatipaÊÊhānasutta appears in D≠ghanikāya

(D.10), as SatipaÊÊhānasutta appears in Majjhimanikāya (M.12), as SatipaÊÊhānasaµyutta
appears in Saµyuttanikāya (S.19) as SatipaÊÊhānavagga appears in AÙguttaranikāya
(A.22). There are 10 Suttas, such as Sikkhādubbalyasutta in Majjhimanikāya (M.13),
SatipaÊÊhāna appears as Änāpānassatisutta, Kāyagatāsatisutta, Mahārāhulovādasutta, and
SekkhapaÊipadāsutta. Further, SatipaÊÊhāna appears in the PaÊisambhidāmagga (Ps.31)
which has been explained by the Elder Sār≠putta as Änāpānasatikathā, SatipaÊÊhānavāra, and
SatipaÊÊhānakathā.

-In Abhidhamma PiÊaka: SatipaÊÊhāna has appeared in VibhaÙga, and Kathāvatthu.

First of all, VibhaÙga (Vbh.35), has divides SatipaÊÊhāna as Suttanta-bhājan≠yanaya,
Abhidhammabhājan≠yanaya and Pañhāpucchakanaya and thus presents a detailed study of
SatipaÊÊhāna. Secondly, in Kathāvatthu (Kvu.37) SatipaÊÊhāna appears as SatipaÊÊhānakathā.

Besides, it can be found out from its AÊÊhakathā-Ê≠kā such as Mahāsati-

paÊÊhānasutta-aÊÊhakāthā in ‘SumaÙgalavilālin≠’ (DA.2), SatipaÊÊhānasutta-aÊÊhakathā in
‘Papañcasâdan≠’(MA.1), SatipaÊÊhānasaµyutta-aÊÊhakathā in ‘Sāratthapakāsin≠’(SA.3),
SatipaÊÊhananiddesa-aÊÊhakathā in ‘Saddhammappakāsin≠’(PsA.2), SatipaÊÊhānavibhaÙga-
aÊÊhakathā in ‘Sammohavinodin≠’(VbhA), and SatipaÊÊhāna in Abhiddhammat-
thavibhāvan≠Ê≠kā (SaÙgaha.Â.).
200

Part 2: She has been mindful to overcome Sorrow and Lamentation– PaÊācārā’s story*

When the Buddha was dwelling at the Jetavana Monastery in Sāvatthī, there lived in
the neighborhood a young girl named PaÊācārā. She was endowed with all the possessions of
which a woman could be proud of. She was exquisitely beautiful; her parents were rich; and
she could have won the love of any young man of the country for the purposes of marriage.

Nevertheless, PaÊācārā had a clandestine love affair with one of the household
servants and as she was aware that her parents would never agree to her unequal marriage
with this serf. So she eloped with her lover and lived in a jungle den in a far-away forest. As
time passed, PaÊācārā was expecting her first baby and she had a very keen desire to visit her
parents in Sāvatthī.

However, PaÊācārā’s husband was afraid to face his former master, as he thought that
he would be punished for secretly winning the love of the girl and eloping with her.
PaÊācārā, however, was determined to see her parents and when her husband was absent, she
fled away from her forest abode. On the way, however, a baby boy was born and yielding to
the pleadings of her husband who had followed her, she returned to their hut in the forest.

In the course of time, PaÊācārā was expecting her second child and she felt once again
a very strong desire to visit her parents. For the second time she fied away from the hut and
was on her way to Sāvatthī, this time accompanied by her first child. Once again her
husband followed her, and while in the forest she gave birth to her second child.

On this occasion there was very heavy rain and her husband, wanting to provide a
shelter for his spouse and the little children, went in search of some leaves. But, to PaÊācārā’s
great dismay, he did not return. PaÊācārā was worried and spent a restless night.

On the following morning, she set out in search of her husband and to her untold
sorrow she beheld her husband dead, close to an ant hill. He had been bitten by a snake when
he was about to cut leaves. Nevertheless, PaÊācārā continued her journey to her parental
home.

*[DsA.4.pp.143-47(MTP); C.D.Weerasinghe, Women in Ancient India, 1970.].

 201

On the way, the unfortunate PaÊācārā had to cross a river which was in spate due to
the previous night’s rain. As the current was very swift, she left the elder child on the river
bank and crossed the river carrying the newly born infant. Reaching the opposite bank she
left the infant there and started back to fetch the other child.

She was almost mid-way across the river when she spied a hawk hovering over the
infant on the bank she had just left. The hawk, thinking that it was a piece of meat, carried
the baby away. PaÊācārā cried out in the hope that the hawk would leave the child, but it was
of no avail. The elder child, seeing the mother waving her hands in the attempt to drive away
the hawk, thought that his mother was calling him and jumped into the river, where he was
swept away by the current. Thus she had lost her husband and both of her little children.

So PaÊācārā continued on her way all alone. However, as she approached the place of
her parental home, she saw a fire and anxiously inquired what it was. One of the passers-by
told her, “Last night, owing to the heavy rain, a house came down and all its occupants were
killed. In that funeral pyre the dead are being cremated.” It was her parents’ house and
PaÊācārā realized that her father, mother and brother were all dead. Under the weight of all
these losses she had suffered, her mind’s sanity broke down. She ran distraughtly, and in her
mad flight her cloth fell off. People seeing that mad woman running naked threw stones at
her, but she continued her flight until she came to the Jetavana Monastery where the Buddha
was preaching.

-PaÊācārā finds peace

The Buddha saw PaÊācārā roaming about aimlessly when he was making a discourse
to an audience at the Jetavana monastery. Seeing that her faculties had now ripened, the
Buddha willed that PaÊācārā come to him at the monastery. People tried to prevent her
coming to the monastery but the Buddha said to them; “Don’t try to stop her”. When she
came nearer, the Buddha said to her, ‘Pātācārā be mindful.’

As soon as she heard the Buddha’s words, thanks to the Buddha’s powers. PaÊācārā
regained her senses. Knowing her nakedness she sat down on her closed knees and remained
with her body bent, and trying her best to cover up her naked body with her hands. Someone
202

then threw down to her a piece of garment which she took up, cloaked herself in, and drew
near the Buddha. In worshipping posture, she related the tragic story thus:

“Venerable Sir, may you be my refuge! My younger son was swooped

away be a kite. My elder son was drowned in the current of a stream. My husband
died on the way. My parents and my brothers were killed in the house that
collapsed and they were cremated on a single pyre.”*

The Buddha then gave a sermon pointing out that everything in the world changes
and is subject to decay. These changes bring great sorrow to the mind and the only way to
avoid that sorrow is to end the cycle of births by attaining Nibbāna. PaÊācārā accepted the
words of the Buddha. She entered the Order of Bhikkhunīs and in due course attained
Arahantaship. She was singled out by the Buddha as being foremost among the nuns in her
knowledge of the disciplinary rules of the Order. After losing all, PaÊācārā ultimately won to
the highest and final deliverance.

Thus we find that PaÊācārā had been under the condition of sorrow and lamentation,
but she was awaked by the Kalyāœamitta (good friend) like the ‘Buddha’. Because of that,
she became mindful through Maraœānussati (mindful contemplation of Death) that was
unique experience to her.

-------------------------------------

*[U Tin OO (Myaung), The Great Chronicle of Buddhas, 2000, p. 42].

 203

Appendix B:
Four Paramatthadhammas (Ultimate Realities):
Citta, Cetasikas, Râpas and Nibbāna

Part 1: Citta (Consciousness)

Citta: [Dhs. 34/21/10 (STP)] stands for the faculty of investigating an object
(Ārammaœa) or the faculty of taking possession of an object, or the faculty of knowing an
object or the faculty of being conscious of an object.

Six types of Citta: 1. Cakkhu-viññÅœa (Consciousness of eye) 2. Sota-viññÅœa

(Consciousness of ear); 3. GhÅœa-viññÅœa (Consciousness of nose); 4. JivhÅ-viññÅœa
(Consciousness of tongue); 5. KÅya-viññÅœa (Consciousness of body); 6. Mano-viññÅœa
(Consciousness of mind). In the Arâpa-loka, however, mind-consciousness arises without
any base.

Again, the four types of consciousness with reference to 121 Bhâmis (spheres) are as
follows:

1. KÅmÅvacaracitta (consciousness of sense-sphere):

a) Akusalacitta (immoral consciousness) 12:
-Lobhamâlakacitta (attachment-rooded consciousness) 8
-Dosamâlakacitta (hatred-rooted consciousness) 2
-Mohamâlakacitta (delusion-rooted consciousness) 2
b) Ahetukacitta (rootless consciousness ) 18:
-AkusalavipÅkacitta (result of immorality) 7
-KusalavipÅkacitta (result of morality) 8
-AhetukakiriyÅcitta ( functional consciousness) 3
c) KÅmÅvacarasobhanacitta (sense-sphere beautiful consciousness) 24:
-MahÅkusalacitta (moral consciousness ) 8
-MahÅvipÅkacitta (resultant consciousness) 8
-MahÅkiriyÅcitta (functional consciousness ) 8
Total 54
204

2. RâpÅvacaracitta (form-sphere consciousness) 15:

a) RâpÅvacarakusalacitta (form-sphere moral consciousness) 5
b) RâpÅvacaravipÅkacitta (form-sphere resultant consciousness) 5
c) RâpÅvacarakiriyÅcitta (form-sphere functional consciousness ) 5

3. ArâpÅvacaracitta (formless-sphere consciousness ): 12:

a) ArâpÅvacarakusalacitta (formless-sphere moral consciousness) 4
b) ArâpÅvacaravipÅkacitta (formless-sphere resultant consciousness ) 4
c) ArâpÅvacarakiriyÅcitta (formless-sphere functional consciousness) 4

4. Lokuttaracitta (supermundane consconsciousness) (5 jhÅnas x) 8 = (40):

a) Lokuttarakusalacitta (moral supermundane consciousness) 4 (20)
b) LokuttaravipÅkacitta (resultant supermundane consciousness ) 4 (20)
Total 89 or 121. *

In addition to the explanation of Citta:

(1) Of these, kÅma-consciousness is that which lies within the jurisdiction of desire
prevailing in KÅma-taœhÅ and it is fourfold as thus: moral (Kusala), immoral (Akusala),
resultant (VipÅka), and inoperative (KiriyÅ).

(2) Râpa-consciousness is the JhÅnic or ecstatic consciousness which has become

free from KÅma-desire and related objects, but still remains within the jurisdiction of the
desire prevailing in Râpa-loka (Râpa-taœhÅ), and is threefold: Moral, Resultant, inoperative.

(3) Arâpa-consciousness is also the JhÅnic or ecstatic mind which has become free
from Râpa-desire, and related objects, but still remains within the jurisdiction of the desire
prevailing in the Arâpa-loka (Arâpa-taœhÅ) and also is threefold: Moral, Resultant, and
inoperative.

__________________________________
*(The detail in AbhidhammaÊÊhakathā Dhamma-saÙgaœ≠vaœœā (AÊÊhasālin≠)]; [also vide in P.A. Payutto
‘Dictionary of Buddhism’ Ob.Cit., pp. 329-39)].
 205

(4) Lokuttara, or transcendental consciousness is the noble consciousness (Ariya-

citta) which has become free from the threefold desire, and has transcended the three planes–
KÅma, Râpa and Arâpa. It is of two kinds: noble consciousness in the Path, and noble
consciousness in the Fruition.

Part 2: Cetasika (mental factors):

Cetasika: Cetasikas are characteristics of consciousness, of mental properties born
of mind, or concomitants of mind. They are 52 in number and have four characteristics of: 1)
arising together, 2) passing away together, 3) have the same object, and 4) have the same
basis. They have been classified into three groups:*

A). AññasamÅna-cetasika (13 general mental factors ) :

1) SabbacittasÅdhÅraœacetasikas (7 universal mental factors), and
2) Pakiœœakacetasikas (6 mental factors).

1) SabbacittasÅdhÅraœacetasikas (7 universal mental factors):

1. Phassa means contact or sense-impression and contact means the faculty of

pressing the object (Ārammaœa).
2. VedanÅ means feeling, or the faculty of tasting the sapid flavors thus squeezed out
by Phassa. All creatures are sunk in this VedanÅ.
3.SaññÅ means perception, or the act of perceiving. All creatures become wise
through this perception.
4. CetanÅ means volition or the faculty of determining the activities of the mental
concomitants, so as to bring them into harmony. In the common saying of the world we are
accustomed to say of one who supervises a piece of work that he is the performer or author
of the work.
5. EkaggatÅ means concentration of mind. It is also called right concentration
(SamÅdhi). It becomes prominent in the JhÅnasamÅpatti, the attainment of the supernormal
modes of mind called JhÅna.

_______________________________

*[Comp. 94.; [also vide in P.A. Payutto ‘Dictionary of Buddhism’ Op .Cit., pp. 278-80].
206

6. Jivitindriya means psychic life or the life of mental phenomena. It is pre-eminent

in preserving the continuance of mental phenomena.
7. ManasikÅra means attention. Its function is to bring the desired object into the
view of consciousness.

These seven factors [1-7] are called Sabbacittika, universal properties, as they always
enter into the composition of all consciousness.

2) Pakiœœakacetasikas (6 mental factors):

8. Vitakka means the initial application of mind. Its function is to direct the mind
towards the object of research. It is also called SaÙkappa (aspiration), which is of two kinds:
SammÅsaÙkappa or right aspiration, MicchÅsaÙkappa or wrong aspiration.
9.VicÅra means sustained application. Its function is to concentrate upon objects with
deviation or distraction.
10. Viriya means effort of mind in actions as two kinds: right effort and wrong effort.
11. P≠ti means pleasurable interest of mind, or buoyancy of mind.
12. Chanda means desire-to-do, such as desire-to-go, desire-to-stay, and so forth.
13. Adhimokkha means decisions, or literally, it is intended to connote the freedom of
mind from the wavering state between the two courses: ‘Is it?’ or ‘Is it not?’

The above thirteen kinds (1) and (2) are called mixtures (Vimissaka). They are
common to both moral and immoral consciousness in composition.

B). Akusala-cetasikas ( 14 immoral mental factors):

1. SabbakusalasÅdhÅraœacetasikas (4 universal immoral factors):

14. Lobha ethically means greed, but psychically it means agglutination of mind
with objects. It is sometimes called TaœhÅ (craving), sometimes AbhijjhÅ (covetousness),
sometimes KÅma (lust), and sometimes RÅga (sensual passion).
15. Dosa (hate) in its ethical sense is hatred, but psychically it means the violent
striking of mind on the object. It has two other names: PaÊigha (repugnance), and ByÅpÅda
(ill-will).
 207

16. Moha (dullness) means dullness or lack of understanding in philosophical

matters. It is also called AvijjÅ (nescience), AññÅœa (not-knowing) and Adassana (not-
seeing).
The above three just mentioned [14-16] are called the three Akusalamâla, or the three
main immoral roots, as they are the sources of all immoralities.

17. DiÊÊhi means error or wrong seeing in matters of philosophy. It takes

impermanence for permanence, non-soul for soul, and moral activities for immoral ones, or
it denies that there are any results of action and so forth.

2. Pakiœœaka-akusalacetasikas ( 10 particular immoral factors):

18. MÅna means conceit or wrong estimation. It wrongly imagines the name-and-
form (NÅma-râpa) to be an ‘I’, and estimates it as noble or ignoble according to the caste,
creed or family and so on, to which the person belongs.
19. IssÅ means envy, or absence of inclination to appreciate or congratulate others
upon their success in life. It also means a disposition to find fault with others.
20. Macchariya means selfishness, illiberality, or unwillingness to share with others.
21. Kukkucca means worry, anxiety, or undue anxiousness for what has been done
wrongly, or for right actions that have been left undone. There are two wrongs in the world,
namely, doing sinful deeds and falling to do meritorious deeds.
22. Ahirika means shamelessness. When a sinful act is about to be committed, no
feeling of shame such as ‘I’ will be corrupted if ‘I do this’, arise in him who is shameless.
23. Anottappa means utter recklessness as regards such consequences, as
AttÅnuvÅdabhaya (fear of self-accusations like: ‘I have been foolish’, ‘I have done wrong’,
and so forth), ParÅnuvÅdabhaya (fear of accusations by others), DaœØabhaya (fear of
punishments in the present life inflicted by the rulers), ApÅyabhaya (fear of punishments to
be suffered in the realms of misery).
24. Uddhacca means distraction as regards an object.
25. Th≠na means slothfulness of mind, that is, the dimness of mind’s consciousness
of an object.
26. Middha means torporfulness of mental properties that is the dimness of the
faculties of each of the mental properties, such as contact, feeling and so forth.
208

27. VicikicchÅ means perplexity, that is, not believing what ought to be believed.

The above fourteen kinds [14-27] are called PÅpajÅti or Akusala-dhamma. They are
indeed the real immoralities.

C ). Sobhana-cetasikas (25 moral factors):

1. SobhanasÅdhÅraœacetasikas (19 universal moral factors):

28. Alobha means disinterestedness of mind as regards to an object. It is also called
Nekkhama-dhÅtu (element of abnegation or renunciation), and AnabhijjhÅ (liberality).
29. Adosa means amity in its ethical sense means inclination of mind in the direction
of its object, or purity of mind.
30. Amoha means reason or knowing things as they are. It is also called ÑÅœa
(wisdom), PaññÅ (insight), VijjÅ (knowledge), SammÅdiÊÊhi (right view).

These three [28-30] are called the three KalyÅœamâlas or the three main moral roots
as they are the sources of all moralities.
31. Saddhā means faith in what ought to be believed.
32. Sati means constant mindfulness in good things so as not to forget them. It is also
called DhÅraœa (retention), and UÊÊhÅna (readiness).
33. Hiri means modesty which connotes hesitation in doing sinful acts through shame
of being known to do them.
34. Ottappa means discretion which connotes hesitation in doing sinful deeds
through fear of self-accusation, of accusation by others.
35. TatramajjhattatÅ means the balance of mind, that is to say, that mode of mind
which neither cleaves to an object nor repulses it. This is called Upekkha-brahmavihÅra
(equanimity of the sublime abode in the category of BrahmavihÅra; and Upekkha-
sambojjhaÙga (equanimity that pertains to the factors of Enlightenment) in the BojjhaÙga.
36. KÅyapassaddhi means composure of mental properties.
37. Cittapassaddhi means composure of mind. By composure it is meant that the
mental properties are set at rest and become cool, as they are free from the three immoral
(PÅpa-dhamma) which cause annoyance in doing good deeds.
38. KÅyalahuta means buoyancy of mental properties.
 209

39. Cittalahuta (buoyancy of mind) means buoyancy of mind. By buoyancy it is

meant that the mental properties become light.
40. KÅyamudutÅ (pliancy of mental properties) means pliancy of mental properties.
41. Cittamuduta (pliancy of mind) means pliancy of mind.
42. KÅyakammaññatÅ (adaptability of mental properties) means fitness for work of
the mental properties.
43. CittakammaññatÅ (adaptability of mind) means the fitness of mind for work.
44. KÅyapāguññatÅ means proficiency of mental properties.
45. CittapāguññatÅ means proficiency of mind. Proficiency here means skillfulness.
46. KÅyujukatÅ means rectitude of mental properties.
47. CittujukatÅ means rectitude of mind.

2. Viraticetasikas (factors of 3 abstinences):

48. SammÅvÅcÅ means right speech i.e., abstinence from the fourfold sinful modes of
speech that consists of: Lying, slandering, abusive language and idle talk.
49. SammÅkammanta means right action through abstinence from threefold sinful
act: Killing, stealing, and unchastity.
50. SammÅ-Åj≠va means right livelihood.

3. AppamaññÅcetasikas (2 factors of boundless states):

51. Karuρ means pity, compassion or wishing to help those who are in distress.
52. MuditÅ means appreciation or delight in the success of others.

Part 3: Râpas (material quality) [ M.II.262]

It is termed in PÅli as ‘Râpa’, because it transforms through the influence of adverse

physical conditions such as heat, cold, etc. Here Râpa has further been studied in twenty-
eight varieties. They are examined under the eleven heads as below: *

1. Bhâtarâpa means primary material qualities that has Four types, namely PaÊhav≠
(earth), Äpo (water),Tejo (fire), and VÅyo (air).
________________________
*These are the twenty eight types of material quality under eleven heads. Hence, the four MahÅbhâta have been
put in under one head and UpÅdÅyarâpa has been studied under the further ten heads.
210

2. PasÅdarâpa means sensitive material that has Five types, namely: Cakkhu (eye),
Sota (ear), GhÅœa (nose), JivhÅ (tongue) and KÅya (body).
3. Gocararâpa means material qualities of sensefields that has Four types, namely:
Râpa (visible objects), Sadda (andible object), Gandha (Odorous object), Rasa (sapid
object).
4. BhÅvarâpa means material qualities of sex that has two types: namely-femininity
(Itthindriya) and masculinity (Purisindriya).
5. Hadayarâpa means physical base of consciousness that has one type known as
Hadayavatthu (heart-base).

6. J≠vitarâpa means material quality of life that has one type known as J≠vitindriya
(life faculty).
7. ÄhÅrarâpa means material quality of nutrition that has one type known as the
gross-food KavaliÙkarÅhÅra).
8. Paricchedarâpa means material quality of limitation that has one type; namely: a
space element (ÄkÅsadhÅtu).
9. Viññattirâpa means material quality of communication that has two kinds; namely:
KÅyaviññatti (physical intimation) and Vac≠viññatti (verbal intimation).
10. VikÅrarâpa means material quality of plasticity that has three kinds; namely –
LahutÅ (lightness), MudutÅ (pliancy) KammaññatÅ (adaptability).
11. Lakkhaœarâpa means material quality of characteristic has four kinds, namely:
Upacaya (origin), Santati (continuity), JaratÅ (decay) and AniccatÅ (destruction).

Part 4: NibbÅna

NibbÅna as AsaÙkhatadhamma (unconditioned) is getting out of the circle of

existences. NibbÅna means freedom from every kind of infelicity. In the ultimate sense a
human being is only a concept. It is composed of mind and matter. Mind consists of
consciousness and mental states. NibbÅna is a state in which mind and matter become
completely extinct.

NibbÅna may be classified into three kinds: First NibbÅna, Second NibbÅna and
Third NibbÅna.
-Freeing or deliverance from the plane of misery, the first NibbÅna.
 211

-Freeing or deliverance from the plane of KÅma-loka, the second NibbÅna.

-Freeing or deliverance from the planes of Râpa-loka and Arâpa-loka, the third
NibbÅna.*
-----------------------------------

______________________________

*[(Mahathera Ledy Sayadaw, the Manuals of Buddhism, pp.16-26); Also vide in (A.IV.379.; Again, there are two
kinds of NibbÅna: 1) SaupÅdisesanibbÅna: NibbÅna with the substratum of life remaining or extinction of the defilements.
2) AnupÅdisesanibbÅna: NibbÅna without any substratum of life remaining or extinction of the Aggregates).; (NibbÅna or
Vimutti which is extinction of greed hatred and delusion; the blowing out of personality. It is the true Goal of holy life in
Buddhism. In Buddha’s own word, the purpose of the Holy Life does not consist in acquiring alms, honors, or fame, or in
gaining morality, concentration, or the eye of knowledge. That unshakable deliverance of the heart.)]
212
 213

Appendix C:

Chart No. 1: The Chains of Origin of Dukkha

1. AvijjÅ: Ignorance

1. Ignorance 2.SaÙkhÅra:
12.JarÅ: Decay,
Maraœa: Death. 2. Mental Formation Mental Formation
Soka: Sorrow
Parideva: Lamentation 3. Consciousness
Dukkha: Bodily pain 4. Mind & Matter
Domanassa: Mental pain
UpÅyÅsa: Despair 5. Sense-Bases
6. Contact 3.ViññÅna:
Consciousness
7. Feeling
11. JÅti:Birth 8. Craving
9. Clinging 4. NÅma:Mind &
10. Being Râpa:Matter
11. Birth
10. 12. Decay, Death,
Bhava:Becoming - Sorrow 5.Sa¿Åyatana:
Sense-organs
- Lamentation,
- Bodily pain,
9. UpÅdÅna:
Clinging - Mental pain,
- Despair.
6. Phassa:Contact
8. TaœhÅ:Craving

7. VedanÅ:Feeling
214

Chart No. 2: These states of consciousness have been defined and

explained in the Commentary texts as mentioned below:

No. Names of consciousness Meaning Commentary’s note

1 SarÅgaµ Cittaµ With lust Akusala Lobha-8

2 V≠tarÅgaµ Cittaµ Without lust Lokiya Kusala and

AbyÅkata Citta
3 Sadosaµ Cittaµ With hate Dosamâlaka Citta-2
4 V≠tadosaµ Cittaµ Without hate Lokiya Kusala and
Abyākata Citta
5 Samohaµ cittaµ With ignorance Mohamâlaka Citta-2
6 V≠tamohaµ Cittaµ Without ignorance Lokiya Kusala and
Avyakata Citta
7 SaÙkhittaµ Cittaµ Shrunken state of mind Sloth and torpor
with sloth and torpor (Momâhacitta)
8 Vikkhittaµ Cittaµ Distracted state of Uddhacca-agitation
consciousness
9 Mahaggataµ Cittaµ With great mind RâpÅvacara and
ArâpÅvacara Citta
10 Amahaggataµ Cittaµ Not great mind KÅmÅvacara Citta
11 Sa-uttaraµ Cittaµ Having superior to it kÅmÅvacara Citta
12 Anuttaraµ Cittaµ Not having superior to it RâpÅvacara &
ArâpÅvacara
13 SamÅhitaµ Cittaµ Quieted state of mind With UpacÅra SamÅdhi
and AppanÅ SamÅdhi
14 AsamÅhitaµ Cittaµ Non-quieted state of Without partial and full
mind absorption
15 Vimuttaµ Cittaµ Freed state of TadaÙga and
consciousness Vikkhambhana Vimutti
16 Avimuttaµ vÅ Cittaµ Unfreed state of mind Without TadaÙga and
Vikkhambhana vimutti
 215

Chart No. 3: These techniques can be illustrated with the following table:

Dhammas: Techniques

Mind-objects Observation Eliminations Development Realizations

1. N≠varaœas / /
2. Khandhas /
3. Äyatanas /
4. BojjhaÙgas / /
5. Ariyasaccas / / / /
Total 5 2 2 1

Chart No 4: Twenty one Objects of SatipaÊÊhÅna

No Subjects numbers
1 Änāpānasati (Breathing) 1
2 Iriyāpathas (Four Postures) 1
3 Sampajañña (Clear Awareness) 1
4 PaÊikâla-manasikāra (Contemplation of Loathsomeness) 1
5 Dhātu-manasikāras (Four Elements) 1
6 Navas≠vathikā (The Meditation on Nine Cemeteries) 9
7 Vedanānupassanā (Contemplation of feeling) 1
8 Cittānupassanā (Contemplation of Consciousness) 1
9 N≠varaœas (Five Hindrances) 1
10 Pañca Khandhas (Five Aggregates) 1
11 Äyatanas (Sense-organs) 1
12 Satta BojjhaÙgas (Seven Factors of Enlightenment) 1
13 Catu Saccas (Four Noble Truths) 1
Total 21
216

Chart No. 5 : Äyatanas ( six Sensations or doors )

External sense-objects internal sense-organs

1. eye and visible objects with eye consciousness

2. ears and audible objects with ear consciousness
3. nose and odorous objects with nose consciousness
These are 4. tongue and sapid objects with tongue consciousness
Phassāyatanas 5. body and tangible objects with body consciousness
6. heart and ideational objects with meltal consciousness
 217

Chart No. 6: Main Differences between Samatha and VipassanÅ

Samatha VipassanÅ
1. Method: To concentrate on a 1. Method: To acknowledge any mental
single object, such as the breath, or physical process that predominantly
repeating words, staring at a visual arises in the present moment.
object or image in the mind.
2. Result: Peace, calmness, 2. Result: Increased mindfulness. Gain
tranquility. Developed or deeper insight into the true nature of body and
concentration. Psychic powers, such mind and thus life, Wisdom.
as mind reading.
3. Single object of attention. 3. Not a single object but overall
awareness of things that occurs naturally
in the body or mind.
4. Quick and temporary removal of 4. Gradually removes and uproots
defilements and hindrances. defilements and hindrances.
5. All distractions and processes of 5. Any ‘distraction’ becomes a new
the body and mind must be ignored. object of attention.
6. Thinking ceases 6. Continue thinking but realize it when
it arises and see it passing away.
7. Must be practiced in a quiet place 7. Can be practiced anywhere, anytime
with few distractions. [better in a quiet place]

---------------------------------
218
 219

Appendix D:
4 Fundamental Postures of Meditation*
Chart No. 1: Walking Meditation or Mindfulness in Walking*

1. 2. 3.

4. 5. 6.
1 stage: Left goes thus ( ), right goes thus (  ).
2 stages: Lifting ( ), treading (  ).
3 stages: Lifting ( ), moving ( ), treading (  ).
4 stages: Heels up ( ), lifting ( ), moving ( ), treading (  ).
5 stages: Heels up ( ), lifting ( ), moving ( ), lowering ( ),
treading (  ).
6 stages: Heels up ( ), lifting ( ), moving ( ), lowering ( ),
touching ( ), pressing ( )…

Further, there are preparations for Walking Meditation (CaÙkamaœa)

-Walking first, then continue right into sitting. It helps the Yog≠ to be alert and awake
during meditation. Indeed, “going or walking” means walking mindfully that is a practice of
concentrated walking. It is called ‘CaÙkamaœa’ in Pali.

*Charuwan Phungtian, Dhamma in Advanced English Learning, English through VipassanÅ, Op.Cit, pp.26-39.
[The picture made by Ajahn Thanit Yupho].
*Gacchanto vā gacchām≠’ti pajānāti
220

Do’s and Don’ts: Choose a quiet place without distractions. The walking space
should be about 3-4 meters. Don’t walk a long way in one direction or around in circles.

Walk back and forth. Don’t look around, look straight ahead and keep eyes half-
closed fixed on the ground about 4 to 5 feet ahead of own. The wandering eye is a difficulty,
so be mindful. Avoid looking at the foot or one will become distracted. Do not let the head
bend too low because this will cause strain and tension in the one’s own posture. Hold one’s
hands in front or behind, or cross own arms in the front. Don’t do anything else while
walking. If one wants to do something, even thinking, stop! Move slowly, observe and label.
Do one thing at a time. Don’t lift the foot too high or over exaggerate the step.

The step should be smooth, natural and as relaxed as possible, not broken into parts
likes a robot. Don’t try too hard or stress body and mind. Check and relax face and
shoulders. For beginners, pay attention to the foot. Note the step part by part as one’s own
follow the movement with careful attention. Mentally note the number of parts of step like
‘stepping, stepping’ for about 5-10 minutes.

Walk to the end of own marked place, stop, and note ‘standing’ 3 times then turn
back slowly mindfully noting ‘turning’ 4 times as one’s own turn. When the objects increase
gradually, the number of parts of step observed also gradually increase. Note own walking in
2 parts, ‘lifting, placing’ for 10 minutes 3 parts, ‘lifting, pushing (moving), placing’ for 15-
30 minutes. These three parts are the basic instructions for walking meditation. When one
feel comfortable with the first three, then proceed to the fourth, fifth and sixth respectively.
 221

Chart No. 2, Sitting Meditation or Mindfulness in Sitting [Nisinno vā nisinnomh≠’ti

pajānāti]

1. 2.

3. 4.

1. Position of the Hands.

2. Rising (  ), falling ( ), sitting (  ), touching ( ).
3. Changing ( ):Rising (  ), falling( ), sitting (  ),touching ( ).
4. Poking (): Rising (  ), falling ( ), sitting (  ), touching ( ).

Further, there are preparations for Sitting Meditation

In order to give balance to sitting meditation practice, do walking meditation first.

Find a quiet place and sit down comfortably. Let the body and mind relax as much as
possible. Maintain the body in well-balanced posture. Find a position that is suitable for you.
Maintain in a well balance upright posture, straight back, square shoulders, not too rigid or
too lax. Don’t lean or touch own back on anything. Keep own head straight, lower one’s chin
slightly. Gently close our eyes and keep them closed. Rest one hand in the other in one’s lap
or palms up on one’s knees at least for ten or fifteen minutes for a good start without
moving. Start by focusing on the sensations of the abdomen caused by the rising and falling
movement.
222

As the movement of the abdomen becomes steady and clear, increase the number of
noting. If the movements are complicated, note them in a general way. if there is a gap
between the rising and falling movement of the abdomen, insert the noting ‘sitting’ and/or
‘touching’. The breathing should be normal. Do not disturb natural breathing by taking sharp
or deep breaths. This will make you tired.

When secondary objects predominate, such as sounds, thoughts, etc. Repeat to

yourself ‘hearing hearing’, ‘thinking thinking’, ‘feeling feeling’ and so on. When secondary
objects have passed, go back to the primary object of the rising and falling movement of the
abdomen. It is not easy to note such a variety of objects, but with increased mindfulness it
becomes easier. If you feel pain, hot, sleepy, bored, lazy, and restless or any strong emotion,
try to identify first, then continue to observe whatever arises naturally in each present
moment. Remember, in VipassanÅ, we observe one thing at a time.

Although in the beginning we watch the rising and falling movement of the
abdomen, do not get attached to it. For it is not the only object, but one of many varieties in
VipassanÅ Meditation. Mindfulness of the movement of the abdomen leads to the direct
experience of the wind element and its specific characteristics of motion, vibration and
support. It is then that one can rightly know the real nature of the wind element, thereby
destroying the false view of self.

Chart No. 3, Standing Meditation or Mindfulness in Standing [Âhito vā ‘Êhitomh≠’ti

pajānāti]

Standing, Standing, Standing (   )

 223

Further, there are preparations for Standing Meditation

Find a quiet place with few distractions. Stand with own feet wide apart at
comfortable distance and hands by one’s sides. Relax the whole body, especially the
shoulders and back. Breathe in and relax, breathe out and relax. Be mindful of the breathing
process. Keep your eyes open but look at the ground to avoid distraction by external things.
Feel own whole body standing, note ‘standing, standing, standing.’ Whatever is
predominant, observe and label it, see it in it’s nature. One may stand with mindfulness as
long as he need, or 5-10 minutes,

Chart No. 4, Lying Meditation or Mindfulness in Lying [Sayāno vā sayānomh≠’ti

pajānāti]

1. Rising (  ),
2. Falling ( ),
3. Lying ( ),
4. Touching ( ).

Further, there are preparations for Lying Meditation

Lie flat on your back on a firm surface. Rest your hands by one’s sides with palms
up. Do not get too comfortable or one will feel sleepy. If one wishes to remain alert, one
must label sleepiness strongly. Lie still and don’t move, which can be painful, but just
observe and label it. At night time, use this technique to fall asleep mindfully and wake
up/feeling fresh. There are two ways of lying mindfully; systematic and freestyle. The
posture is the same for both.
224

-Systematic: Feel the place where the body touches the floor, called ‘touching
points’, then label ‘touching.’ Start with the right heel, calf, buttocks, the back, elbow,
shoulder blade and head. Then shift to the left side of the body at the same fix places,
thirteen points, altogether. Feel and label them as, ‘touching.’ Then label the rising and
falling of the abdomen twice or three times. Then from the top of the head, sweep the mind
down through the whole body and label ‘lying,’ briefly. After this, repeat the same process
with the left side of the body. If one starts thinking or feels pain, just label it ‘thinking’ or
‘pain’ until it’s gone and go back to the system and start again.

-Freestyle: Mindfully lie down on the floor and practice the same instructions as
sitting meditation and label whatever happens ‘rising and falling, hearing, thinking,
touching, lying, sleepy’ etc. This is excellent to relieve stress for busy people who want to
rest but cannot fall asleep.

Chart No. 5: Mettābhāvanā or Chanting of Mettā-meditation in brief

Ahaµ sukhito homi May I be happy

Avero homi be free from enmity and danger.
AbyÅpajjho homi be free from mental suffering.
An≠gho homi be free from physical suffering.
Sukh≠ attÅnaµ pariharÅmi May I take care of myself happily
Sabbe sattā sukhitā hontu May all beings be happy
Averā hontu be free from enmity and danger
Abyāpajjhā hontu be free from mental suffering
An≠ghā hontu be free from physical suffering.
Sukh≠ attÅnaµ parihaantu May all beings take care of themself happily

----------------------------------------------
 225

PARIYOSĀNA-GĀTHĀ ( EPILOGUE )

YÅ hi SatipaÊÊhÅnakathÅ gambh≠rÅ likhitÅ mayÅ

yÅ pÅliÅdiganthesu anekatthassa dhÅrakÅ
yÅyatiµ vicayasseva kammassa ca paccayÅ
yÅ suddhipekkhasattÅnaµ nibbÅnasukhapÅragÅ
yā ca niÊÊhaµ gatā suÊÊhu etaµ jānantu sādhavo
ye ca buddhādayo honti tesānubhāvatejasā
ye janÅdha, samaggÅ te hontu sammāsatiÊÊhitÅ
yo devo s≠tado hoti eso kālaµ pavassatu
yo rÅjÅ issaro niccaµ so hotu dasadhammiko
yaµ raÊÊhadhammanuññantaµ ciraµ tiÊÊhatu sotthinÅ
yaµ sukhaµ santibhÅvo, so lokasseva samijjhatu.
garâ cācariyā mayhaµ upajjhāyo cupāsakā
mātā ceva pitā cā’ti devā ca bahukārakā
tesaµdha puññamodissa kataññukatavediko
tesañca gāraveneva namāmihaµ nirantaraµ
tathÅ manussÅdha paj≠vare ye
cirÅyuvaØØhÅ ca suvaœœakÅ te
Dhanena vaØØhÅ siriyÅ ca hontaµ
Sukhena vaØØhÅ balena payuttÅ
sadÅ bhavantaµ paÊibhÅœagÅm≠
nirantarÅyÅ nirupaddavÅ ca.
nissokÅ pana niddukkhÅ arogÅ atha nibbhayÅ
sabbadÅ sotthipattÅ va hontu sabbepi pÅœino
tathÅ sijjhantu saÙkappÅ sattÅnaµ dhammanissitÅ
diÊÊhadhammasukh≠ ete saggaparÅyaœÅ siyuµ
j≠vitappariyosÅne mokkhadhammupagÅmino’ti.*

________________________
*Composed by Phramaha Chainarong Tessai, On July 29, 2012.
226
 227

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228

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 229

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230

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 231

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232

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Mindfulness (MahÅsatipaÊÊhÅna Suttaµ, PÅli Text and Translation, Bangalore:
Buddha Vachana Trust, Maha Bodhi Society Press, 1998.
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 233

Phra Sudh≠varañāœa (Narong Cherdsungnoen Phramaha), A Study of Sati (Mindfulness) In

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III. Encyclopedia, Dictionary & Website

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234
 235

Index
A
ariyasaccāni 3, akusalamâla 15,
alobha 17, adosa 17,
amoha 8, appamāda 32,
anurakkhaœā-padhāna 41, asammoha-sampajañña 43,
arâpajjhāna 126, aniccaµ 18,73,122,
abhiññā 165, anattā 18,73,
avijjā 198, anāgām≠ 196,
arahat 197, adukkhamasukha 66,
avimuttaµ vā cittaµ 71, amahaggataµ vā cittaµ 75,
anuttaraµ vā cittaµ 76, asamāhitaµ vā cittaµ 77,
ātāp≠ 53, āyatana 80,94,
ānāpānasati 127,139,147, ānāpāna-pubba 56,

attraction 8,194, accompaniment 47,

analysis 56,58,89, abandonment 94,95,
absorptions 128, application 128,154,
angry 72, aggregates 132,
B
bhikkhave 2,26, bhāvanā 125,
brahma-vihāra 126, bhāvanā-padhāna 41,
bojjhaÙgas 49,80, byāpāda 81,

becoming 9,124, breathing 139,140,146,

benefits 162,163, balance 184,
birth 6,7, body 8,11,
bones 55,60, base 94,95,
C
cakkaµ 1, cetanā 2,
cittānupassanā 53,70,76, catusacca 114,
cakkhu 118,203,
236

craving 3,4,52,206, contact 8,89,96,

cemeteries 56, concentration 62,103,111,
comprehension 124,172, covetousness 173,
characteristics 17,194, contemplation 25,49,
calm 22,50, corpse 59,126,
currents 80, clinging 136,196,
classification 52,75,103,
D
dukkha 122,132, domanassa 173,
dosa 5,16, dukkhadomanassānaµ atthaÙgamāya 26,38,
dhammānupassanā 53,79, dukkhavedanā 64,65,
dukkhaµ 117, dukkhasamudayo 118,
dukkhanirodho 118, dukkhanirodha-gāmin≠-paÊipadā 118,
dhammavicayasambojjhaÙga 106, dhātumanasikāra 56,

decay 70,191, death 6,7,202,

despair 7, delusion 65,68,
development 74,107,
E
ekāyano 26, 35, ekaggatā 149,

essence 40,151, effort 40,

elements 55,58, ecology 163,185,
environment 186, equanimity 183,208,
extinction 19, enmity 81,
energy 85, enlightenment 103,
F
formation 112,145, functions 173,193,
feeling 193,194, formless 204,
factors 1,18, flurry 81,
G
gocara-sampajañña 30, Grief 31, 38,
ghāna 118,
 237

H
hatred 16,39, hindrance 74,83,
I
iriyāpatha 155, issariyaµ 173,,
iriyāpatha-pabba 124,

ignorance 194, insight 21,43,

investigation 49,104, inclination 106,
ill-will 160,
J
jāti 70, jarā 70,
jivhā 210, joy 66,
K
kusalamâla 17, kammaÊÊhānā 126,
kāya-kamma 159, karuœā 177,183,
kāyānupassanā 185, kāmacchanda 74,
kāya 95,
L
lobha 5,15, lamentation 26,
loathsomeness 56,
M
manopubbaÙgamā 1, maraœa 6,
moha 16, majjhimā paÊipadā 3,
maggo 3, mano-kamma 160,
mettā 177, muditā 183,
mahaggataµ vā cittaµ 70, mano 95,

mental 1, 96, mindfulness 103,

mind 106, morality 110,
method 123, meditation 124,125,
N
nibbāna 129, ñāyassa adhigamāya 26,
nibbānassa sacchikiriyāya 26, nissaraœapahāna 42,
238

Nirāmisasukhavedanā 67, Nirāmisadukkhavedanā 67,

Nirāmisaupekkhāvedanā 68, n≠varaœas 80,
navas≠vatthikā 59,

neutral 62, nature 69,

nutriment 89,
P
parideva 6, paññākhandha 19,
paÊÊhāna 28, pahānappadhāna 41,
paÊipassaddhipahāna 42, paññā 43,
paÊikâlamanasikāra 57, passaddhisambojjhaÙga 110,
pañca Upādānakkhandhā 87, p≠tisambojjhaÙga 108,

problem 1, pain 142,

practice 143, purpose 155,
position 158, power 165,
postures 197, pleasant 8,
purity 21, peace 126,
phenomena 133, perception 7,
permanent 16,
Q
quality 16,
R
râpa-jhānas 128, reality 130,
râpakkhandhā 88,
S
satipaÊÊhāna 103,113,117, sauttaraµ vā cittaµ 75,
sampajañña-pabba 56, sakadāgām≠ 102,
saµsāra 4, soka 6,
Samādhikkhandha 20, Sammā-vāyāma 20,
Sammā-sati 20, Sammā-samādhi 20,
s≠lakkhandha 20 sammā-vācā 20,
sammā-kammanta 20, sammā-āj≠va 20,
 239

sokaparidevānaµ 37, sattānaµ visuddhiyā 36,

sokaparidevānaµ samatikkamāya 37, satimā 40,
sampajāno 40, saµvara-padhāna 41,
samucchedapahāna 42, satthaka-sampajañña 29,
sappāya-sampajañña30, samatha 123,124,
sotāpanna 102, Sāmisaupekkhāvedanā 67,
Sāmisadukkhavedanā 67, sota 95,
Sukhavedanā 64, sarāgaµ vā cittaµ 71,
sadosaµ vā cittaµ 72, samohaµ vā cittaµ 73,
saÙkhittaµ vā cittaµ 73, samāhitaµ vā cittaµ 77,
samādhisambojjhaÙga 111, satisambojjhaÙga 105,
saññākkhandha 90, saÙkhārakkhandha 91,

sorrow 100, suffering 100,101,

six senses 114, sensation 5,
suitability 30, suggestion 172,
sphere 203, significance 11,
sensual desire 12, sloth 73,
supramundane 76,
T
tadaÙga-pahāna 42, ti-lakkhaœa 43,,
taœhā 171,194,206, ti-ratana 161,
th≠na-middha 81,

typology 52, temperaments 127,

U
upāyāsa 6, upādāna 41,
upekkhā 68, upekkhāsambojjhaÙga 112,
upekkhā-vedanā 66, uddhacca-kukkucca 81,

unrest 1, unwholesome 15, 100,

unpleasant 61,
240

V
vibhavataœhā 118, visuddhiyā 26,
vikkhambhanapahāna 42, vicikicchā 74,
vedanānupassanā 53,61, v≠tadosaµ vā cittaµ 72,
v≠tamohaµ vā cittaµ 73, vikkhittaµ vā cittaµ 74,
vimuttaµ vā cittaµ 78, vipassanā 88,112,
vac≠-kamma 160, visuddhi 172,
vimutti 173, viriyasambojjhaÙga 107,
viññāœakkhandha 92, vedanākkhandha 89,
W
wholesome 15,159, wisdom 18,19,74,133,136,
worry 179,
Z
zest 103,108,110,

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