SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING

LABORATORY MANUAL

BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS LAB

(ECEG-1104)

CLUSTER HEAD LAB HEAD LAB INCHARGE

DEPARTMENT OF
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

1
 GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS
Every student inside the laboratory should follow the following
rules

1. Previous experiment writes up should be brought to the lab and submit to the in-
charge. Without it, students will not be allowed to perform next experiment and
will be marked absent.
2. Students have to attend the lab in time. Anybody coming late more than 5
minutes will be marked absent for that day.
3. They cannot leave the labs without the permission of the in-charge. Any body found
violating the rules would be marked absent.
4. The instrument allotted to a particular group of students, and if it is found not
functioning properly after they return the blame will go to the whole group. So, they
should check the instruments before and after delivery.
5. Students are required to maintain the decorum of the labs

2
 BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING LAB(ECEG-1104)

COURSE OUTCOMES

CO1. Understand the fundamentals of basic electrical & electronics

components.

CO2. Analyze and validate various circuits of electrical & electronics based
network theorem, diodes and bipolar junction transistors etc.
CO3. Implementation of series R-L-C circuit and digital combinational circuits by
using logic gates

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

Ex. No. Experiment COs

To study various electrical & electronic components and measuring CO1
1 instruments.
To study the voltage and current measurements to understand the CO1, CO2, CO3
2 measurement methods respectively in electrical circuit.
3 To plot V-I characteristics of PN junction diode in reverse and forward biasing CO1, CO2, CO3
conditions.
4 To verify Thevenin’s Theorem of an electrical circuit. CO1, CO2, CO3
5 To study half-wave and full-wave rectifier circuit and rectification parameter. CO1, CO2, CO3
6 To verify Superposition Theorem of an electrical circuit. CO1, CO2, CO3
7 To measure & to plot input/output characteristics of NPN transistor in CE CO1, CO2, CO3
configuration.
8 To verify the Maximum Power Transfer Theorem of an CO1, CO2, CO3
electrical circuit.
9 To measure & to plot input/output characteristics of NPN transistor in CB CO1, CO2, CO3
configuration.
10 To study the phenomenon of resonance in L-C-R series circuit and to plot the CO1, CO2, CO3
same.
Value added experiments
11 Implementation of Half and Full Adder. CO1, CO2, CO3
12 To study the phenomenon of resonance in LCR parallel circuit and to plot the CO1, CO2, CO3
same.

3
 EXPERIMENT NO-1
TO STUDY VARIOUS ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC
COMPONENTS AND MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

4
Aim: To study the various electronics and electrical components and measuring
instruments.

Introduction-An electronic circuit is composed of various types of components. Some

of these components are termed as active components because they take part in the
transformation of the energy while other components, which only dissipate or store
energy, are called as passive elements. The vacuum tubes, rectifier, transistors are some
of-the common active while the resistances, which dissipate the power and energy storing
elements such as capacitances and inductances are known as passive elements. The
transformers may be regarded as a matching device. The success of any electronic circuit
depends not only on proper selection of the active elements but on the passive and
matching elements too. The proper function, of an active device is decided by the proper
values of these passive elements. Hence the selection of these elements such as
resistances, inductances, capacitance, and transformers not only require the proper
attention, but also decide the proper function of the active devices as well as the circuit as
a whole.

Here we shall discuss about some important electronic components and their
characteristics, particularly used in biomedical instruments.

Electronics components: These can be classified into

(I)-Active Components
(II)- Passive Components

(I)-Active Components: They can be further classified as-Semiconductor Devices:

Semiconductor diode, zener diode, and varactor diode etc. Uni-junction transistor, Bipolar
junction transistor (BJT), FET, silicon, Controlled rectifier etc.

Vacuum Tube Devices: Vacuum tube diode, triode, Tetrode, Pentode, Hexode, Heptode
etc.

Gas Tube Devices: Gas diodes, Threatens etc.

Photo Sensitivity Devices: Gas photodiodes, photo multiplier tubes, photodiodes,
light emitting diode, photosensitive transistor etc.
Though there are devices, which are specific to particular frequency range and
applications like microwave devices etc.

(II) Passive Components: Components like resistance, capacitance, inductance, and

fall in this class.

5
 Resistor
A resistor is an electronics/electrical component that limits or regulates the flow of electrical
current in an electronic circuit. Resistors can also be used to provide a specific voltage for an
active device such as a transistor. All other factors being equal, in a direct-current (DC) circuit,
the current through a resistor is inversely proportional to its resistance, and directly proportional
to the voltage across it. This is the well- known Ohm's Law. In alternating-current (AC) circuits,
this rule also applies as long as the resistor does not contain inductance or capacitance. Resistors
can be made to control the flow of current, to work as Voltage dividers, to dissipate power and it
can shape electrical waves when used in combination of other components. Basic unit is ohms,
(Ω).

(A)-Carbon-composition resistor

Resistors can be fabricated in a variety of ways. The most common type in electronic devices
and systems is the carbon-composition resistor. Fine granulated carbon (graphite) is mixed with
clay and hardened. The resistance depends on the proportion of carbon to clay; the higher this
ratio, the lower the resistance.

6
3 Band Description
The number of bands is important because the decoding changes based upon the number of color
bands. There are three common types: 3 band, 4 band, 5 band, and 6 band resistors. For the 3
band resistor:

Band 1-First significant digit.

Band 2- Second significant digit
Band 3 – Multiplier

4 Band Descriptions
The number of bands is important because the decoding changes based upon the number of color
bands. There are three common types: 4 band, 5 band, and 6 band resistors. For the 4 band
resistor:

Band 1 – First significant digit.

Band 2 – Second significant digit
Band 3 – Multiplier
Band 4 – Tolerance

7
 5 Band Description
The number of bands is important because the decoding changes based upon the number of color
bands. There are three common types: 4 band, 5 band, and 6 band resistors. For the 5 band
resistor:
Band 1 – First significant digit.
Band 2 – second significant digit
Band 3 – Third significant digits
Band 4 – Multiplier
Band 5 – Tolerance

6 Band Description
The number of bands is important because the decoding changes based upon the number of color
bands. There are three common types: 4 band, 5 band, and 6 band resistors. For the 6 band
resistor:
Band 1 – first significant digit.
Band 2 – second significant digit
Band 3 – third significant digit
Band 4 – Multiplier
Band 5 – Tolerance
Band 6 – Temperature Coefficient (Tempco)

(B)-POTENTIOMETER- A potentiometer, informally a pot, is a three-terminal resistor

with a sliding or rotating contact that forms an adjustable voltage divider. If only two terminals
are used, one end and the wiper, it acts as a variable resistor or rheostat. The measuring
instrument called a potentiometer is essentially a voltage divider used for measuring electric
potential (voltage); the component is an implementation of the same principle, hence its name.
Potentiometers are commonly used to control electrical devices such as volume controls on audio
equipment. Potentiometers operated by a mechanism can be used as position transducers, for
example, in a joystick. Potentiometers are rarely used to directly control significant power (more
than a watt), since the power dissipated in the potentiometer would be comparable to the power
in the controlled load.

8
Capacitors
The comparisons between the different types of capacitor are generally made with regards to the
dielectric used between the plates. Like resistors, there are also variable types of capacitors
which allow us to vary their capacitance value for use in radio or “frequency tuning” type
circuits. Commercial types of capacitors are made from metallic foil interlaced with thin sheets
of either paraffin-impregnated paper or Mylar as the dielectric material. Some capacitors look
like tubes, this is because the metal foil plates are rolled up into a cylinder to form a small
package with the insulating dielectric material sandwiched in between them. Small capacitors are
often constructed from ceramic materials and then dipped into an epoxy resin to seal them. Either
way, capacitors play an important part in electronic circuits so here are a few of the more
“common” types of capacitor available.

(A)-Dielectric Capacitor -Dielectric Capacitors are usually of the variable type were
a continuous variation of capacitance is required for tuning transmitters, receivers and
transistor radios. Variable dielectric capacitors are multi-plate air-spaced types that have a
set of fixed plates (the stator vanes) and a set of movable plates (the rotor vanes) which
move in between the fixed plates. The position of the moving plates with respect to the
fixed plates determines the overall capacitance value. The capacitance is generally at
maximum when the two sets of plates are fully meshed together. High voltage type tuning
capacitors have relatively large spacing’s or air-gaps between the plates with breakdown
voltages reaching many thousands of volts.

9
Variable Capacitor

As well as the continuously variable types, preset type variable capacitors are also
available called Trimmers. These are generally small devices that can be adjusted or “pre-set” to
a particular capacitance value with the aid of a small screwdriver and are available in very small
capacitance’s of 500pF or less and are non-polarized.

(B)-Film Capacitor-Film Capacitors are the most commonly available of all types of
capacitors, consisting of a relatively large family of capacitors with the difference being in their
dielectric properties. These include polyester (Mylar), polystyrene, polypropylene,
polycarbonate, metalized paper, Teflon etc. Film type capacitors are available in capacitance
ranges from as small as 5pF to as large as 100uF depending upon the actual type of capacitor and
its voltage rating. Film capacitors also come in an assortment of shapes and case styles which
include:

Wrap & Fill (Oval & Round) – where the capacitor is wrapped in a tight plastic tape and have
the ends filled with epoxy to seal them.
Epoxy Case (Rectangular & Round) – where the capacitor is encased in a molded plastic shell
which is then filled with epoxy.
Metal Hermetically Sealed (Rectangular & Round) – where the capacitor is encased in a metal
tube or can and again sealed with epoxy. With all the above case styles available in both Axial
and Radial Leads.

Film Capacitors which use polystyrene, polycarbonate or Teflon as their dielectrics are
sometimes called “Plastic capacitors”. The construction of plastic film capacitors is similar to
that for paper film capacitors but use a plastic film instead of paper. The main advantage of
plastic film capacitors compared to impregnated-paper types is that they operate well under
conditions of high temperature, have smaller tolerances, a very long service life and high
reliability. Examples of film capacitors are the rectangular metalized film and cylindrical film &
foil types as shown below.

10
Radial Lead Type

Axial Lead Type

11
The film and foil types of capacitors are made from long thin strips of thin metal foil
with the dielectric material sandwiched together which are wound into a tight roll and
then sealed in paper or metal tubes.

Film Capacitor

These film types require a much thicker dielectric film to reduce the risk of tears or
puncture in the film, and are therefore more suited to lower capacitance values and larger
case sizes.
Metalized foil capacitors have the conductive film metalized sprayed directly onto each
side of the dielectric which gives the capacitor self-healing properties and can therefore
use much thinner dielectric films. This allows for higher capacitance values and smaller
case sizes for a given capacitance. Film and foil capacitors are generally used for higher
power and more precise applications.
(C)-Ceramic Capacitors-Ceramic Capacitors or Disc Capacitors as they are
generally called, are made by coating two sides of a small porcelain or ceramic disc with
silver and are then stacked together to make a capacitor. For very low capacitance values
a single ceramic disc of about 3-6mm is used. Ceramic capacitors have a high dielectric
constant (High-K) and are available so that relatively high capacitance’s can be obtained
in a small physical size.

12
 Ceramic Capacitor

They exhibit large non-linear changes in capacitance against temperature and as a result
are used as de- coupling or by-pass capacitors as they are also non-polarized devices.
Ceramic capacitors have values ranging from a few Pico farads to one or two microfarads,
(μF) but their voltage ratings are generally quite low.
Ceramic types of capacitors generally have a 3-digit code printed onto their body to
identify their capacitance value in Pico-farads. Generally the first two digits indicate the
capacitors value and the third digit indicates the number of zero’s to be added. For
example, a ceramic disc capacitor with the markings 103 would indicate 10 and 3
zero’s in Pico farads which is equivalent to 10,000 pF or 10nF.Likewise, the
digits 104 would indicate 10 and 4 zero’s in Pico farads which is equivalent to 100,000
pF or 100nF and so on. So on the image of the ceramic capacitor above the numbers 154
indicate 15 and 4 zero’s in Pico farads which is equivalent to 150,000 pF or 150nF or
0.15uF. Letter codes are sometimes used to indicate their tolerance value such as: J = 5%,
K = 10% or M = 20% etc.

13
(D)-Electrolytic Capacitors-Electrolytic capacitors are generally used when very
large capacitance values are required. Here instead of using a very thin metallic film layer
for one of the electrodes, a semi- liquid electrolyte solution in the form of a jelly or paste
is used which serves as the second electrode (usually the cathode).The dielectric is a very
thin layer of oxide which is grown electro-chemically in production with the thickness of
the film being less than ten microns. This insulating layer is so thin that it is possible to
make capacitors with a large value of capacitance for a small physical size as the distance
between the plates, d is very small.

The majority of electrolytic types of capacitors are Polarized, that is the DC voltage
applied to the capacitor terminals must be of the correct polarity, i.e. positive to the
positive terminal and negative to the negative terminal as an incorrect polarization will
break down the insulating oxide layer and permanent damage may result.
All polarized electrolytic capacitors have their polarity clearly marked with a negative
sign to indicate the negative terminal and this polarity must be followed.
Electrolytic Capacitors are generally used in DC power supply circuits due to their large
capacitance’s and small size to help reduce the ripple voltage or for coupling and
decoupling applications. One main disadvantage of electrolytic capacitors is their
relatively low voltage rating and due to the polarization of electrolytic capacitors, it
follows then that they must not be used on AC supplies. Electrolytic generally come in
two basic forms; Aluminum Electrolytic Capacitors and Tantalum Electrolytic Capacitors.

Electrolytic Capacitor

Inductors-

14
Like capacitors, inductors also store energy in one part of AC cycle and return it during
the next part of the cycle. Inductance is that property of a device that reacts against a
change in current through the device. Inductors are components designed for use in
circuits to resist changes in current and thus serve important control functions. Inductor
designed is based on the principle that a varying magnetic field induces a voltage in any
conductor in that field. Thus, a practical inductor may simply be a coil wire. The current
in each loop of the coil produces a magnetic field that passes through neighboring loops.
If the current through the coil is constant the magnetic field is constant and no action
takes place. A change in the current, however, 8 produces a change in the magnetic field.
The energy absorbed or released from the changing magnetic field reacts against the
change in current, and this is exhibited as in induced voltage (electromotive force, Emf),
which is counter to the change in applied voltage. The inductor thus behaves as an
impedance to ac current. The counter emf is directly proportional to the rate of change of
current through the coil (VL=L[di/dt]). The proportionality constant is the inductance L,
which has the unit of henrys (H) in an A.C circuit, as shown in, the inductor offers
reactance to alternating current. The inductive reactance XL has the units of ohms and is
given by XL = wL = 2πfL Total inductance L = L1 + L2 + L3 inductances in parallel:
1/L = 1/L1 + 1/L2 + 1/L3

15
Diode

A diode is a specialized electronic component with two electrodes called the anode and
the cathode. Most diodes are made with semiconductor materials such as silicon,
germanium, or selenium. Some diodes are comprised of metal electrodes in a chamber
evacuated or filled with a pure elemental gas at low pressure. Diodes can be used as
rectifiers, signal limiters, voltage regulators, switches, signal modulators, signal mixers,
signal demodulators, and oscillators.

(A) P_N junction silicon diode

P-N junction diode is the most fundamental and the simplest electronics device. When one
side of an intrinsic semiconductor is doped with acceptor i.e., one side is made p-type by
doping with n-type material, a p-n junction diode is formed. This is a two terminal device.
It appeared in 1950’s. P-N junction can be step graded or linearly graded. In step graded
the concentration of dopants both, in n - side and in p - side are constant up to the
junction. But in linearly graded junction, the doping concentration varies almost linearly
with the distance from the junction.

16
 When the P-N diode is in unbiased condition that is no voltage is applied across it,
electrons will defuse through the junction to p-side and holes will defuse through the
junction to n-side and they combine with each other. Thus the acceptor atom near the p-
side and donor atom near n-side are left unutilized. An electron field is generated by these
uncovered charges. This opposes further diffusion of carriers. So, no movement of region
is known as space charge or depletion region.

If, we apply forwards bias to the p-n junction diode. That means if positive side of the
battery is connected to the p – side, then the depletion regions width decreases and
carriers flow across the junction. If the bias is reversed the depletion width increases and
no charge can flow across the junction.

(B)- Zener Diode

A zener diode is like a normal diode, but instead of being destroyed by a big reverse voltage, it lets
electricity through. The voltage needed for this is called the breakdown voltage or Zener voltage.
Because it is built with a known breakdown voltage it can be used supply a known voltage.

17
C)-Light-Emitting Diode (LED)
An LED produces light when electricity flows through it. It is a longer lasting and more
efficient way of creating light than incandescent light bulbs. Depending on how it was
made, the LED can make different colors. LEDs were first used in the 1970's. The light-
emitting diode may eventually replace the light bulb as developing technology makes it
brighter and cheaper (it is already more efficient and lasts longer). In the 1970's the LEDs
were used to show numbers in appliances such as calculators, and as a way to show the
power was on for larger appliances.

(D)-Photo diode
A photodiode is a photo detector (the opposite of a light-emitting diode). It responds to
light that comes in. Photodiodes have a window or optical fiber connection, which lets
light in to the sensitive part of the diode. Diodes usually have strong resistance; the light
reduces the resistance.

18
Voltage Regulator IC (78XX & 78XX)
A voltage regulator is one of the most widely used electronic circuitry in any device. A regulated
voltage (without fluctuations & noise levels) is very important for the smooth functioning of
many digital electronic devices. A common case is with micro controllers, where a smooth
regulated input voltage must be supplied for the micro controller to function smoothly

Nomenclature and packaging

For ICs within the 78xx family, the xx is replaced with two digits, indicating the output
voltage (for example, the 7805 has a 5-volt output, while the 7812 produces 12 volts). The
78xx line are positive voltage regulators: they produce a voltage that is positive relative to a
common ground. There is a related line of 79xx devices which are complementary negative

19
voltage regulators. 78xx and 79xx ICs can be used in combination to provide positive and
negative supply voltages in the same circuit.[1]
78xx ICs have three terminals and are commonly found in the TO-220 form factor,
although they are available in surface-mount, TO-92, and TO-3 packages. These devices
support an input voltage anywhere from around 2.5 volts over the intended output voltage
up to a maximum of 35 to 40 volts depending on the model, and typically provide 1 or 1.5
amperes of current (though smaller or larger packages may have a lower or higher current
rating)

Family members

78xx
There are common configurations for 78xx ICs, including 7805 (5 V), 7806 (6 V), 7808 (8
V), 7809 (9 V),
7810 (10 V), 7812 (12 V), 7815 (15 V), 7818 (18 V), and 7824 (24 V) versions. The 7805
is the most common, as its regulated 5-volt supply provides a convenient power source for
most TTL components.
Less common are lower-power versions such as the LM78Mxx series (500 mA) and
LM78Lxx series (100 mA) from National Semiconductor. Some devices provide slightly
different voltages than usual, such as the LM78L62 (6.2 volts) and LM78L82 (8.2 volts)
as well as the STMicroelectronics L78L33ACZ (3.3 volts).
Transistors
Transistor is a semiconductor device which is used to amplify the signals as well as in
switching circuits. Generally transistor is made of solid material which contains three
terminals such as emitter (E), Base (B) and Collector (C) for connections with other
components in the circuit. Some transistors contains fourth terminal also i.e. substrate (S).
Transistor is one of the active components. From the time of first transistor invention to
present days the transistors are classified into different types depending on either
construction or operation, they are explained using tree diagram as below.

20
 The transistors classification can be understood by observing the above tree diagram.
Transistors are basically classified into two types; they are Bipolar Junction Transistors
(BJT) and Field Effect Transistors (FET). The BJTs are again classified into NPN and
PNP transistors. The FET transistors are classified into JFET and MOSFET. Junction FET
transistors are classified into N-channel JFET and P-channel JFET depending on their
function. MOSFET transistors are classified into Depletion mode and Enhancement mode.
Again depletion and enhancement mode transistors are classified into N-channel JFET
and P- channel.

Nowadays the vacuum tubes are replaced with transistors because the transistors have
more benefits over vacuum tubes. Transistors are small in size and it requires low voltage
for operation and also it has low power dissipation. Due to these reasons the transistor is
used in many applications such as amplifiers, switching circuits, oscillators and also in
almost all electronic circuits.

Types of Transistors
Transistor is the proper arrangement of different semiconductor materials. General
semiconductor materials used for transistor are silicon, germanium, and gallium-arsenide.

21
 Basically the transistors are classified depending on their structure. Each type of
transistors has their own characteristics, advantages and disadvantages. Some transistors
are designed primarily for switching purpose, other side some are designed for
amplification purpose and some transistors are designed for both amplification and
switching purposes. Depending on the structure the transistors are classified into BJT and
FET.

Junction Transistors - Junction transistor is generally called as Bipolar Junction

Transistor (BJT). The BJT transistors have three terminals named emitter (E), Base (B),
Collector (C). The name itself indicates that it has two junctions between p-type and n-
type semiconductors. The BJT transistors are classified in to NPN and PNP transistors
depending on the construction. Unlike FET transistors, the BJT transistors are current-
controlled devices. If small amount of current flows through the base of a BJT transistor
then it causes to flow large current from emitter to collector. The BJT transistors have low
input impedance and it causes to flow large current through the transistor. The BJT
transistors are only the transistors which are turned ON by the input current which is
given to the base. Bipolar junction transistors can operate in three regions, they are

 Cut-off Region: Here the transistor is in ‘OFF’ state i.e the current flowing through
the transistor is zero.
 Active Region: Here the transistor acts as an amplifier.
 Saturation Region: Here the transistor is in fully ‘ON’ state and also works as a
closed switch.

NPN Transistor

NPN is one of the two types of Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT). The NPN transistor
consists of two n- type semiconductor materials and they are separated by a thin layer of
p-type semiconductor. Here the majority charge carriers are electrons and holes are the
minority charge carriers. The flowing of electrons from emitter to collector forms the
current flow in the transistor through the base terminal. A small amount of current at base
terminal causes to flow large amount current from emitter to collector. Nowadays the
generally used bipolar transistor is NPN transistor, because the mobility of electrons is
greater than mobility of holes. The standard equation for the currents flowing in the
transistor is

IE = IB + IC

The symbols and structure for NPN transistors are given below.

22
PNP Transistor

The PNP is another type of Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT). The PNP transistors
contain two p-type semiconductor materials and are separated by a thin layer of n-type
semiconductor. The majority charge carriers in the PNP transistors are holes and electrons
are minority charge carriers. The arrow in the emitter terminal of transistor indicates the
flow of conventional current. In PNP transistor the current flows from Emitter to
Collector. The PNP transistor is ON when the base terminal is pulled to LOW with
respect to emitter. The symbol and structure for PNP transistor is shown below.

23
FET (Field Effect Transistor)

The Field-Effect-Transistor (FET) is another transistors type. Basically the FET

transistors have three terminals they are gate (G), Drain (D) and Source (S). FET
transistors are classified into Junction Field Effect transistors (JFET) and Insulated Gate
FET (IG-FET) or MOSFET transistors. For the connections in the circuit we also consider
fourth terminal called base or substrate. The FET transistors have control on the size and
shape of a channel between source and drain which is created by applied voltage. The
FET transistors are uni-polar transistors because they perform single channel operation
whereas BJT transistors are bipolar junction transistors. The FET transistors have high
current gain than BJT transistors.

JFET (Junction-Field Effect Transistor)

The Junction-Field-Effect transistor (JFET) is an earliest and simple type of FET

transistors. These JFETs are used as switches, amplifiers and resistors. This transistor is a
voltage controlled device. It doesn’t need any biasing current. The voltage applied
between gate and source controls the flow of electric current between source and drain of
a transistor. The JFET transistors are available in both N-channel and P-channel types.

N-Channel JFET

In N-channel JFET the current flow is due to the electrons. When voltage is applied between gate

24
and source, a channel is formed between source and drain for current flow. This channel is called
N-channel. Nowadays N-channel JFET transistor is most preferable type than P-channel JFET.
The symbols for N- channel JFET transistor are given below

P-Channel JFET

In this JFET transistor the current flow is because of holes. The channel between
source and drain is called P-channel. The symbols for P-channel JFET transistors
are given below. Here arrow marks indicates the direction of current flow.

MOSFET
Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET) is most useful type of
among all transistors. The name itself indicates that it contains metal gate terminal. The
MOSFET has four terminals drain, source, gate and body or substrate (B). MOSFET has
many advantages over BJT and JFET, mainly it offer high input impedance and low
output impedance. It is used in low power circuits mainly in chip designing technologies.
The MOSFET transistors are available in depletion and enhancement types. Further the
depletion and enhancement types are classified into N-channel and P-channel types.
N-Channel MOSFET

25
 The MOSFET having N-channel region between source and drain is called N-channel
MOSFET. Here the source and gate terminals are heavily doped with n-type materials and
substrate is doped with p-type semiconductor material. Here the current flow between
source and drain is because of electrons. The gate voltage controls the current flow in the
circuit. N-channel MOSFET is most preferable than P-channel MOSFET because the
mobility of electrons is high than mobility of holes. The symbols for N-channel MOSFET
transistors are given below.

P- Channel MOSFET

The MOSFET having P-channel region between source and drain is called as P-channel

26
 MOSFET. Here the source and drain terminals are heavily doped with P-type material

and the substrate is doped with N- type material. The current flow between source and
drain is because of holes concentration. The applied voltage at gate will controls the
flow of current through channel region. The symbols for P- channelMOSFET transistors
in depletion and enhancement types are given below.

Digital storage oscilloscope (DSO)

A digital storage oscilloscope (often abbreviated DSO) is an oscilloscope which stores

27
and analyses the signal digitally rather than using analog techniques. It is now the most
common type of oscilloscope in use because of the advanced trigger, storage, display and
measurement features which it typically provides.
The input analogue signal is sampled and then converted into a digital record of the
amplitude of the signal at each sample time. The sampling frequency should be not less
than the Nyquist rate to avoid aliasing. These digital values are then turned back into an
analogue signal for display on a cathode ray tube (CRT), or transformed as needed for the
various possible types of output—liquid crystal display, chart recorder, plotter or
network interface.

Digital storage oscilloscope

Cathode-Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)

Cathode-ray oscilloscope (CRO) is a common laboratory instrument that provides
accurate time and amplitude measurements of voltage signals over a wide range of
frequencies. Its reliability, stability, and ease of operation make it suitable as a general
purpose laboratory instrument. The heart of the CRO is a cathode-ray tube

28
 Cathode-Ray Oscilloscope

THE BREADBOARD
The breadboard consists of two terminal strips and two bus strips (often broken in the center).
Each bus strip has two rows of contacts. Each of the two rows of contacts are a node. That is,
each contact along a row on a bus strip is connected together (inside the breadboard). Bus strips
are used primarily for power supply connections, but are also used for any node requiring a large
number of connections. Each terminal strip has 60 rows and 5 columns of contacts on each side
of the center gap. Each row of 5 contacts is a node. You will build your circuits on the terminal
strips by inserting the leads of circuit components into the contact receptacles and making
connections with 22-26 gauge wire. There are wire cutter/strippers and a spool of wire in the lab.
It is a good practice to wire +5V and 0V power supply connections to separate bus strips.

29
30
 The lines indicate connected holes.

The 5V supply MUST NOT BE EXCEEDED since this will damage the ICs (Integrated
circuits) used during the experiments. Incorrect connection of power to the ICs could
result in them exploding or becoming very hot - with the possible serious injury occurring
to the people working on the experiment! Ensure that the power supply polarity and all
components and connections are correct before switching on power Supply.

Building the Circuit

Throughout these experiments we will use TTL chips to build circuits. The steps for
wiring a circuit should be completed in the order described below:

1. Turn the power (Trainer Kit) off before you build anything!
2. Make sure the power is off before you build anything!
3. Connect the +5V and ground (GND) leads of the power supply to the power
and ground bus strips on your breadboard.
4. Plug the chips you will be using into the breadboard. Point all the chips in the
same direction with pin 1 at the upper-left corner. (Pin 1 is often identified by a
dot or a notch next to it on the chip package)
5. Connect +5V and GND pins of each chip to the power and ground
bus strips on the breadboard.
6. Select a connection on your schematic and place a piece of hook-up wire
between corresponding pins of the chips on your breadboard. It is better to
make the short connections before the longer ones. Mark each connection on
your schematic as you go, so as not to try to make the same connection again
at a later stage.
7. Get one of your group members to check the connections, before you turn the power
on.
8. If an error is made and is not spotted before you turn the power on.
Turn the power off immediately before you begin to rewire the circuit.
9. At the end of the laboratory session, collect you hook-up wires, chips and all
equipment and return them to the demonstrator.
10. Tidy the area that you were working in and leave it in the same condition as it
was before you started.

Common Causes of Problems

1. Not connecting the ground and/or power pins for all chips.
2. Not turning on the power supply before checking the operation of the circuit.
3. Leaving out wires.

31
 4. Plugging wires into the wrong holes.
5. Driving a single gate input with the out puts of two or more gates
6. Modifying the circuit with the power on.
Multimeter
A multimeter also known as a VOM (volt-ohm-millimeter), is an electronic measuring
instrument that combines several measurement functions in one unit. A typical multimeter
can measure voltage, current, and resistance. Analog multimeter use a micrometer with a
moving pointer to display readings. Digital multimeter (DMM, DVOM) have a numeric
display, and may also show a graphical bar representing the measured value. Digital
multimeter are now far more common due to their cost and precision, but analog
multimeter are still preferable in some cases, for example when monitoring a rapidly
varying value.
A multimeter can be a hand-held device useful for basic fault finding and field service
work, or a bench instrument which can measure to a very high degree of accuracy.
They can be used to troubleshoot electrical problems in a wide array of industrial and
household devices such as electronic equipment, motor controls, domestic appliances,
power supplies, and wiring systems.

32
 DIGITAL MULTIMETER

Circuit Breaker
A circuit breaker is a vital mechanical switching device that protects your electrical equipment
from short circuit and power surges. It automatically detects a faulty condition and interrupts the
harmful current flow from reaching the sockets. Every circuit breaker has 2 coils; a closing coil
that closes the circuit and a tripping coil to trip the circuit.

There are 2 types of contacts in a circuit breaker. One is a moving connection that uses stored
energies to make and break the circuit. Another one is fixed contact, comprising a spring that
holds the moving contact after closing.

Fuse
In electronics and electrical engineering, a fuse is an electrical safety device that operates to
provide overcurrent protection of an electrical circuit. Its essential component is a metal wire or
strip that melts when too much current flows through it, thereby stopping or interrupting the
current.

The main components of a standard fuse are metal-fuse elements, support body, contacts, and
connection. The metal-fuse elements can be made from alloy, copper, aluminum, zinc, silver, etc.

33
Switch
Yes! We all know what a switch is! Let’s get to its technical definition. The primary purposes of
a switch as a device are to break the current, interrupt the current, and supply current from one
conductor to another. The “On and off” mechanism is used to perform this task. There are 4 main
classifications of a switch:-
Single Pole Single Throw (SPST)
Single Pole Double Throw (SPDT)
Double Pole Single Throw (DPST)
Double Pole Double Throw (DPDT)
Various operative technologies are used in a switch, such as:-

1) Toggle Switches
A toggle switch is actuated by a lever that can be 'flicked' into one, two more positions to actuate
the switch. Most commonly described using the pole and throw notation described in the
previous section. A momentary toggle switch will spring back to the original position when
pressure is released.

2) Push Button Switches

The most common type of two position switch - Come in a variety of shapes, styles and
materials. Pushing the button will either make (On) or break (off) a circuit. The action can either
be latching or momentary. A latching switch will stay On or off until it is pressed again.

34
3) Rocker Switches
A Rock Switch has a 'seesaw' type action whereby pressing one side will rock the button in that
direction and close the contacts (ON). Rocking the switch back to the alternate side will open the
contacts (OFF). Many styles and shapes are available in single pole and double pole
configurations for example.

4) Rotary Switches
A rotary switch is turned in order to open or close the contacts of the switch. It consists of a
moving contact which is turned in order to connect with the stationary contacts. A visual
example would be the dial on a cooker.

5) Slide Switches
Commonly have a small knob that can 'slide' in order to open or close the switch contacts. They
are very compact and easy to operate making them ideal for small scale projects or circuits where
changeovers are required, for example within model railway.

6) Micro switches
Micro switches have either a small push button or lever in order to actuate the switch. They
require very little physical force in order to operate and are ideal for small scale projects or
applications. They use a tipping point mechanism or 'over center' mechanism, sensitive to small
actions.

A common practical example of a micro switch in action would be within a microwave door; if
the door is opened whilst the microwave is operating the switch lever is released and the contacts
are open, stopping the machine.

Relay
Earlier relays were used as amplifiers in the long-distance telegraph circuits. Relay evolved to
solve more purposes in the technology sector and telephone exchange. They are
electromechanical switches that use low-power signals to control the circuit.

Its essential components are an armature, a spring, an electromagnet, and a series of electrical
contacts. The circuits inside a relay use magnetic connections instead of electric ones.

35
 Motor
An electric motor is an electrical machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.
Most electric motors operate through the interaction between the motor's magnetic field and
electric current in a wire winding to generate force in the form of torque applied on the motor's
shaft.

Motors convert electrical energy into mechanical energy. It comprises a stator, conduit box, eye
bolt, rotor, enclosure, and bearings. Motors are more efficient in energy supply than their
pneumatic and hydraulic counterparts. Therefore it is the most common part amongst all the
electrical machinery.

There are different types of motors available in the market. They are:-

 AC inductance motors
 Brushless permanent magnet synchronous motor
 Stepper motor
 DC motors
 Switched reluctance motor

36
Battery
Batteries act as a source of electric power through the electrochemical cells. Each cell is consists
of an anode (-), cathode (+), and electrolyte. It works on the principle of electrochemical reaction
as the cells create the flow of electrons through a chemical reaction. In layman’s terms, batteries
are portable containers that store electrical potential energy.

f it were not for batteries, your Xbox controller and mobile phones would’ve been tied to a charger all
day. There are two types of cells in a battery – primary rechargeable cells and secondary non-
rechargeable cells.

Electrical Wires & Power Cables

It’s almost impossible to make an electrical structure without electrical wires and cables.
Electrical wires do the work of connecting a device to the power source through cables. You
need wires to install every device, be it switches, sockets, LEDs, or anything else.

When multiple electrical wires are bundled or run side by side for transmission and distribution
of electrical current, it is known as an electrical power cable. When you can’t use overhead lines,
electrical cables come in handy to transmit high voltage current. A cable has 3 primary
components – conductor, sheath, and dielectric

37
Transformer
A Transformer is a static electrical machine which transfers AC electrical power from one
circuit to the other circuit at the constant frequency, but the voltage level can be altered that
means voltage can be increased or decreased according to the requirement.

It works on the principle of Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction which states that “
the magnitude of voltage is directly proportional to the rate of change of flux.”
Results: Study of all the electronics and electrical components has been done.

38
 EXPERIMENT NO 02
TO STUDY THE VOLTAGE AND CURRENT
MEASUREMENTS TO UNDERSTAND THE
MEASUREMENT METHODS RESPECTIVELY IN
ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT

39
Aim: To study the voltage and current measurements to understand the measurement methods
respectively in electrical circuit.

APPARATUS REQUIRESD: Following apparatus are required to

perform the experiment,

Sl. No Name of Apparatus Type Range/Rating Quantity

Voltmeter DC - 1
1.
Supply DC - 1
2.
Ammeter DC - 1
3.
Connecting wires - - -
4.
Digital multimeter - - 1
5. (Voltmeter & Ammeter)

Theory: There are two ways to find the resistance value of a resistor. The color bands
on the body of the resistor tell how much resistance it has. As shown in the following
diagrams figure (1), there are 5-band resistors and 4-band resistors. Form both 5- and 4-
band resistors, the last band indicates tolerance in table (1). Consult with the “Resistor
Tolerance” in table (2) chart for finding the tolerance value.

Fig. (1) 5- Band and 4- Band resistors 2

40
 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: The circuit diagram is given as,

Fig. 2. Arrangement of all the components and measurement device

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:

A. Arrange volt-meter across the resistance to measure the voltage.

B. Arrange Ammeter in series with the resistance to measure the current.
C. Increase the supply voltage to observe the quantitative analysis of voltage and current.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

S. Current Current % Voltage Voltage %

No. (Practical) (Theoretical) Error (Practical) (Theoretical) Error

Calculation:
 To verify the KVL, voltage divider and current divider rule for theoretical calculation.

41
Result: The resistor color code has been studied and resistance values for simple electrical
circuit have been verified by measuring using multimeter (ammeter-voltmeter method).

Precaution and sources of error:

1. All connections should be tight.

2. All steps should be followed carefully.
3. Readings and calculation should be taken carefully.
4. Do not touch the live terminals.

42
 EXPERIMENT NO-3
TO PLOT V-I CHARACTERISTICS OF PN JUNCTION
DIODE IN REVERSE AND FORWARD BIASING
CONDITIONS.

43
AIM: To plot V-I characteristics of PN junction diode in reverse and forward biasing
conditions.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S. No Name Range Type Quantity

1 Regulated power (0-30)V DC 1
supply
2 Ammeter (0-200) mA (for Forward bias)
(0-200)µA (for Reverse Bias) DC 1
3 Voltmeter (0-20)V (for Forward bias)
(0-30)V(for Reverse Bias) DC 1
4 Si Diode 1N4007 - 1
5 Resistor 1KΩ - 1
6 Breadboard - - 1
7 Wires - - -

THEORY: A PN junction diode is a two terminal junction device. It conducts only

in one direction (only on forward biasing).

FORWARD BIAS: On forward biasing, initially no current flows due to barrier potential.
As the applied potential exceeds the barrier potential the charge carriers gain sufficient
energy to cross the potential barrier and hence enter the other region. The holes which are
majority carriers in the P-region, become minority carriers on entering the N-regions, and
electrons, which are the majority carriers in the N-region become minority carriers on
entering the P-region.

REVERSE BIAS: On reverse biasing, the majority charge carriers are attracted towards
the terminals due to the applied potential resulting in the widening of the depletion region.
Since the charge carriers are pushed towards the terminals no current flows in the device
due to majority charge carriers. There will be some current in the device due to the
thermally generated minority carriers. The generation of such carriers is independent of
the applied potential and hence the current is constant for all increasing reverse
Potential. This current is referred to as reverse Saturation Current (I O) and it increases
with temperature. When the applied reverse voltage is increased beyond the certain limit,
it results in breakdown. During breakdown, the diode current increases tremendously.

44
 FIG. FORWARD BIAS

Fig. REVERSE BIAS

Specification for 1N4001:

Silicon Diode Peak Inverse
Voltage: 50V Idc= 1A.

Maximum forward voltage drop at 1 Amp is

1.1 volts

Maximum reverse current @50Volts is 5µA

45
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
FORWARD BIAS:

1. Connect the circuit as per the diagram.

2. Vary the applied voltage V in steps of 0.1V.
3. Note down the corresponding Ammeter readings I.
4. Plot a graph between V & I

REVERSE BIAS:
1. Connect the circuit as per the diagram.
2. Vary the applied voltage V in steps of 1.0V.
3. Note down the corresponding Ammeter readings I.
4. Plot a graph between V & I.
5. Find the dynamic resistance r = ∆V / ∆I

OBSERVATIONS TABLE
1. Find the d.c (static) resistance = V/I.
2. Find the forward voltage drop = [Hint: it is equal to 0.7 for Si and 0.3 for Ge].

Measurement in forward bias

S. No. Input voltage Diode Voltage(Vd) Current(mA) (Id)

1 0.1V
2 0.2V
3 0.3V
4 0.4V
5 0.5V
6 0.6V
7 0.7V
8 0.8V
9 0.9V
10 1V
11 2V
12 3V
13 4V
14 5V

46
Measurement in reverse bias
S. No. Input Voltage Diode Voltage (Vd) Current (µA)(Id)
1. 2V
2. 4V
3. 6V
4. 8V
5. 10V
6. 12V
7. 14V
8. 16V
9. 18V
10. 20V
11. 22V
12. 24V
13. 26V
14. 28V
15. 30V

MODEL GRAPH

47
RESULT:
Forward and Reverse bias characteristics of the PN junction diode
and the dynamic resistance under
1. Forward bias = ---------------------
2. Reverse bias =------------------.
3. Reverse Saturation Current =-------------.

PRECAUTION AND SOURCES OF ERROR:

1. While doing the experiment do not exceed the ratings of the diode. This may lead to damage
of the diode.

2. Connect voltmeter and Ammeter in correct polarities as shown in the circuit diagram.

3. Do not switch ON the power supply unless you have checked the circuit
connections as per the circuit diagram

48
 EXPERIMENT NO-4
TO VERIFY THEVENIN’S THEOREM OF AN
ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT

49
Aim: To verify thevenin’s theorem of an electrical circuit.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sl. No Name of Apparatus Type Range/Rating Quantity

1. Voltmeter DC - 1

2. Supply DC - 1

3. Ammeter DC - 1

4. Connecting wires - - -

THEORY:
Sometimes we want to determine the response (Current, Voltage or power delivered) in a single
load resistance in network by a simple equivalent circuit. Determining the response in the load
resistance then becomes much easier. The use of this theorem is very helpful & time saving
when we have to find the response in any branch of a given network shown below for different
values of load resistance.
According to the Thevenin’s theorem, “Any linear, bilateral network having terminals A and B
can be replaced by a single source of e.m.f. (Vth) in series with a single resistance Rth.

 The value of ‘Vth’ is the open circuit voltage between the terminals A and B
of the network.

 Rth is the resistance of the network measured between the terminals A and B
with load removed and all the e.m.f. sources replaced by their respective
internal resistances. All the ideal current sources, if any, are open circuited.

 Current across the load resistance (RL) is given by the equation

IL=Vth/(Rth+RL )

50
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:

Step1: Remove the load resistance or the branch from original given circuit,
where response or loops current have to be measured.

Step 2: Calculation of Vth or VOC:

VOC = V.R2/(R1+R2) =VTH

51
 Step 3: Calculation of Rth:

By series-parallel or star-delta trans-formation we can calculate the

Thevenin resistance.

Here,

Rth=R1IIR2+R3=(R1 R2/R1+R2)+R3;

Theoretically:

2) Practically:
(i) We can measure the Thevenin’s resistance by measuring short circuit current I SC
through AB terminal by connecting an ammeter.

V Th
RTh=
I sC

(i) We can measure the Thevenin’s resistance by using digital multi-meter.

52
  Step 4: Now make the equivalent circuit and connect the supply = Vth or
VOC; Thevenin resistance RTH & load resistance RL in series.

Step 5: Now measure/ calculate the load current IL through load resistance.
IL= Vth/(Rth+RL);

OBSERVATION TABLE:

S.NO. Theoretically Practically % error

1. Supply voltage
2. Thevenin voltage Vthor VOC

3. Thevenin Resistance from Rth

4. Circuit Load Current IL

53
 CALCULATION :

IL= Vth/(Rth+RL) RTh=VTH/ISC

RESULT:

1. The value Thevenin’s voltage V TH is ……….. volts.

2. The value of Thevenin’s resistance RTH is................ohms.

3. The value of current across load is………………………. amps

Note: From the reading, it is found that measured value of the current flowing through
the load (IL) is same as determined by Thevenin’s theorem.

PRECAUTIONS and SOURCES of ERROR:

1. All connections should be tight.

2. All steps should be followed carefully.
3. Readings and calculation should be taken carefully.
4. Do not touch the live terminals.

54
 EXPERIMENT NO-5

TO STUDY HALF-WAVE AND FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER

CIRCUIT AND RECTIFICATION PARAMETER

55
 AIM: To study half-wave and full-wave rectifier circuit and rectification parameter.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

(A)-HALF WAVE RECTIFIER:

S No Name Range Type Quantit

y
1 Transformer 230/(9-0-9)V Step down 1

2 Diode 1N4007 1

3 Resistor 1KΩ 1

4 Breadboard 1

5 Connecting Wires As per

required
6 Digital storage
oscilloscope(DSO)/Cathode
Ray oscilloscope (CRO) 1

THEORY-A diode is a unidirectional conducting device. It conducts only when its

anodes is at cycle of the input, the diode gets forward biased and it conducts .current
flows through the load resistor RL and a higher voltage with respect to its cathode. In a
half wave rectifier circuit during positive half voltage is developed across it. During
negative half cycle of the input, the diode gets reverse biased. Now no current (except the
leakage current which is very small) flows. The voltage across the load resistance during
this period of input cycle is zero. Thus a pure AC signal is converted into a unidirectional
signal. It can be show that

Where,
is the output DC voltage and is peak AC voltage at the input of rectifier circuit.

220v/6v

56
 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM FOR HALF WAVE RECTIFIER

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the primary side of the transformer to the AC mains. Connect the CRO/DSO
probes to the output points. Adjust the CRO/DSO so that a good and stable wave shape is
visible on it screen. Plot this wave form in your record book. Take the CRO/DSO probes
at the input points of the rectifier. Note the wave shape of the signal. Compare them.
2. Now use a multi meter to measure the AC voltage at the secondary terminals of the
transformer. This given the r.m.s value. Also measure the AC & DC voltage at the output
points.
3. Multiply this r.m.s value by to get the peak value. Calculate the theoretical value
V dc
of DC voltage Using formula = Compare this value with the practically measured value
of output DC voltage.
4. Using the measured value of DC and AC output voltages calculate ripple factor.

57
CALCULATION:

Vm
1. V dc =
π

Vm
2. V rms =
2

V rms
3. Form factor =
V dc

4. Ripple factor =

MODEL GRAPH:

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Theoretical value Practical value

-
-
Form factor 1.57
Ripple factor 1.21

58
 RESULT: We have studied the half wave rectifier using one diode in forward condition
& calculated its ripple factor & form factor.

(B)-FULL WAVE RECTIFIER

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S No Name Range Type Quantity

1 Transformer 230V / (9-0-9)V AC 1

2 Si Diode 1N4007 2

3 Resistor 1KΩ 1

4 Breadboard 1

5 Connecting Wires As per

required
6 Digital storage
oscilloscope(DSO)/Cathode
Ray oscilloscope (CRO) 1

THEORY:-
In a full wave rectifier circuit there are two diodes, a transformer and a load resistor. The
transformer has a center-tap in its secondary winding. It provides out -of –phase voltage
to the two diodes. During the positive half cycle of the input, the diode D2 is reverse
biased and it does not conduct. But diode D1 is forward biased and it conduct. The current
flowing through D1 also passes through the load resistor and a voltage is developed across
it. During the negative half cycle, the diode D2 is forward biased and D1 is reverse
biased. Now, current flow through diode D2 & load resistor. The current flowing through
load resistor RL passes in the same direction in both the half cycles. The DC voltage
obtained at the output is given as

2V m
V dc =
π

59
 Where, is the peak value of the AC voltage between the center-tap point and one of the diode.

Circuit diagram for full wave rectifier

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the mains voltage to the primary of the center – tapped transformer.
Connect the output terminals to the CRO/DSO. Adjust the CRO/DSO at the center –tap
and one of the diode. Observe the wave shape on the CRO/DSO. Plot both the wave
shape in your record book. Compare the two voltage wave shapes.
2. Measure AC voltage at the input and output points. Also measure the DC voltage
across the load resistor.
3. from the measured AC voltage. Calculate the DC voltage. Compare it with the
measured value of DC output voltage. Now calculate the ripple factor by dividing AC
voltage (at the output) by DC voltage at the output.

CALCULATION:

60
 3. Form factor =

MODEL GRAPH

OBSERVATION TABLE:
Theoretical value Practical value
-
-
Form factor 1.11
Ripple factor 0.48

RESULT: We have studied the full wave rectifier circuit using two diode in
forward condition & calculated its ripple factor & form factor.

61
PRECAUTIONS and SOURCES of ERROR:

1. All connections should be tight.

2. All steps should be followed carefully.
3. Readings and calculation should be taken carefully.
4. Do not touch the live terminals.

62
 EXPERIMENT NO-6
TO VERIFY SUPERPOSITION THEOREM OF
AN ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT

Aim: To verify the Superposition Theorem of an electrical circuit.

63
 APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sl. No Name of Apparatus Typ e Range/Rating Quantity

1. Voltmeter DC - 1
2. Supply DC - 1
3. Ammeter DC - 1

4. Connecting wires - - As per required

THEORY:
Super position theorem states that In a linear, bilateral DC network containing more than one
energy source, the resultant potential difference across or the current through any element is
equal to the algebraic sum of potential differences or currents for that element respectively,
produced by each source acting alone with all other independent ideal current sources are
replaced by open circuit and all other independent voltage sources are replaced by their
respective internal resistances.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Fig. 1: Schematic diagram of apparatus

64
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:

 Step1: Connect the circuit as shown in fig 2 through patch cords. Consider
only one source at a time, initially utilize the 10 volts.

 Switch ‘ON’ the instrument using ON/OFF switch provided on the front panel.
 Note down the respective currents I1, I2, & I3 by connecting ammeter of 250
mA ranges in series of resistances R1, R2 & R3 in table 1.

Figure 2

 Similarly note down voltages V1, V2, &V3, one by one by connecting
voltmeter of range 15V across the each resistance in table1.

 Step2: Now connect the circuit again by removing the V1 voltage source,
through patch cords. Consider only current source at a time, secondly utilize 50
mA.

Figure 3

65
  Measure I 1, I 2, I 3 and V 1,V 2 ,V 3 for given sources values.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Parameter In figure 1 In figure In figure Sum of %error

2 3
value Fig2 and
value value fig 3 value

Current

Voltage

CALCULATION:

Apply current divider rule to determine the I 1, I 2, I 3with the same .

RESULT: Superposition theorem has been verified.

PRECAUTIONS & SOURCE OF ERROR:

1. In AC power supplies there are always variations present at output due to

fluctuations in mains input. These fluctuations may disturb the output results, so
be careful when you are performing verification of super position theorem in AC
circuits.

2. Resistance tolerance: 10%

3. Check AC output voltage every time while performing the experiments.

66
 EXPERIMENT NO-7

TO MEASURE & TO PLOT INPUT/OUTPUT

CHARACTERISTICS OF NPN TRANSISTOR IN CE
CONFIGURATION

67
AIM: To measure & to plot input/output characteristics of NPN transistor in CE configuration.
.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sl. No Name of Apparatus Type Range/Rating Quantity

1. Transistor Npn BC 107 1

2. Resistors 1K , 100K ,47kΩ 1
3. Bread board 1
4. Dual DC Regulated Power (0 - 30 V) 1
supply
5. Digital Ammeters (0 - 200 mA, 0-200 1
μA)
6. Digital Voltmeter (0 - 20V) 2
7. Connecting wires (Single As per
Strand) required

THEORY: A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify or switch

electronic signals and electrical power. It is composed of semiconductor material with
at least three terminals for connection to an external circuit. A voltage or current
applied to one pair of the transistor's terminals changes the current through another pair
of terminals. Because the controlled (output) power can be higher than the controlling
(input) power, a transistor can amplify a signal.

Input Characteristic: In common emitter configuration, it is the curve plotted

between the input current ( I B) verses input voltage (V BE) for various constant values of
output voltage (V CE ).
This characteristic reveals that for fixed value of output voltage, V CE as the base to emitter
voltage increases, the emitter current increases in a manner that closely resembles the
diode characteristics.

The input resistance is calculated using the formula,

68
 Common emitter Input & Output configuration (NPN)

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:

Input Characteristics:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.

2. Keep output voltage VCE = 0V by varying VCC.
3. Varying VBB gradually, note down base current IB and base-emitter voltage VBE.

4. Step size is not fixed because of nonlinear curve. Initially vary VBB in steps of
0.1V. Once the current starts increasing vary VBB in steps of 1V up to 12V.

5. Repeat above procedure (step 3) for VCE = 5V.

69
 OBSERVATIONS TABLE:

Input Characteristics
VBB (Volts) VCE = 1V VCE = 5V

VBE (Volts) IB (µA) VBE (Volts) IB (µA)

MODAL GRAPH

70
 Input characteristics of CE (NPN)

Output Characteristic: This is the curve plotted between the output current I Cverses
output voltage V CE for various constant values of input current I B.
The output characteristic has three basic region of interest as indicated in figure 2 the
active region, cutoff region and saturation region.
In active region the collector base junction is reverse biased while the base emitter
junction if forward biased. This region is normally employed for linear (undistorted)
amplifier.
In cutoff region the collector base junction and base emitter junction of the transistor both
are reverse biased. In this region transistor acts as an ‘Off’ switch.
In saturation region the collector base junction and base emitter junction of the
transistor both are forward biased. In this region transistor acts as an on switch.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Keep emitter current IB = 20 A by varying VBB.
3. Varying VCC gradually in steps of 1V up to 12V and note down collector current
IC and Collector- Emitter Voltage (VCE).
4. Repeat above procedure (step 3) for IB = 60µA, 0µA.

OBSERVATIONS TABLE:

Output Characteristics:

Vcc(Volts) I B = 0 μA I B =10 μA

V CE (Volts) I C(mA) V CE (Volts) I C(mA)

71
MODAL GRAPH:

RESULT:
Input and Output characteristics of a Transistor in Common Emitter Configuration are studied
and plotted.

PRECAUTIONS AND SOURCES OF ERROR:

1. All connections should be tight.

2. All steps should be followed carefully.

72
 3. Readings and calculation should be taken carefully.
4. Do not touch the live terminals.

EXPERIMENT NO-8

TO VERIFY THE MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER

THEOREM OF AN
ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT

73
 Aim: To verify the Maximum Power Transfer Theorem an electrical circuit.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No. Name of Type Range/ Quantity

Apparatus Rating
1. Voltmeter dc - 1
2. Ammeter dc - 1
3. Resistance box - 25Ω - 275Ω -
4. Connecting wires - - -

THEORY:
According to the maximum power transfer theorem as applied to D.C. network, a
resistive load will abstract maximum power from a network when the load
resistance becomes equal to the resistance of the network as viewed from the output
terminals, with all energy sources replaced by their internal resistance. In the case of
A.C. network, load impedance should be complex conjugate of source impedance.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

74
 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
 Connection diagram is shown above in figure, where R is fixed at some suitable
value, load resistance RL varies and ammeter and voltmeter readings are noted.
 This process is repeated for different values of R.
 For every value of RL, curve is plotted between power consumed in the load
resistance and load resistance RL and from the curve so drawn the value of RL
for maximum power drawn in determined.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Value of R =

S.No Resistance Current in Voltage VL Power consumed

RL in ohms amperes (IL) in volts P= VL IL watts

CALCULATIONS:-

1. The value of current in the load resistance is mA.

2. The value of voltage across load resistance is volt.

3. The value of power consumed is W.

4. The value of load resistance is ohms.

75
RESULT:
From graph it is found that the power consumed will be maximum when R L becomes
to R. This verifies the maximum power transfer theorem.

PRECAUTION & SOURCES OF ERROR:

1. All the connections should be tight.

2. Readings should be taken carefully in presence of either faculty or lab
staff for accurate result.
3. Do not touch the live terminals because touching the live
terminals is injurious to health.
4. Switch off after taking the readings

76
 EXPERIMENT NO-9

TO MEASURE & TO PLOT INPUT/OUTPUT

CHARACTERISTICS OF NPN TRANSISTOR IN CB
CONFIGURATION.

77
AIM: To measure & to plot input/output characteristics of NPN transistor in CB configuration.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sl. No Name of Apparatus Type Range/Rating Quantity

1. Transistor NPN BC 107 1

2. Resistors 1K , 100K ,47kΩ 2
3. Bread board 1
4. Dual DC Regulated Power (0 - 30 V) 1
supply
5. Digital Ammeters (0 - 200 mA, 0-200 1
μA)
6. Digital Voltmeter (0 - 20V) 2
7. Connecting wires (Single As per
Strand) required

THEORY: A Transistor is three terminal active devices. The three terminals are emitter, base &
collector. In common base configuration, we make the base common to both input & output

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

78
 Common base Input /Output configuration (NPN)

Input Characteristic: In common base configuration, it is the curve plotted

between the input current ( I E ) versus input voltage ( ) for various constant values of
output voltage (V CB).
This characteristic is very similar to that of a forward-biased diode characteristic. The
input resistance is calculated using the formula.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:

Input Characteristics:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.

2. Keep output voltage VCB = 0V by varying VCC.
3. Varying VEE gradually, note down emitter current IE and emitter-base voltage(VEE).
4. Step size is not fixed because of nonlinear curve. Initially vary V EE in steps of
0.1V Once the current starts increasing vary V EE in steps of 1V up to 12V.
5. Repeat above procedure (step 3) for V CB = 4V.

79
OBSERVATIONS TABLE:

Input Characteristics

VEE (Volts) VCB = 0V VCB = 8V VCB = 18V

VEB (Volts) IE (mA) VEB (Volts) IE (mA) VEB (Volts) IE (mA)

Graph-Input characteristics of CB (NPN)

Output Characteristic: This is the curve plotted between the output current I Cversus
output voltage V CB for various constant values of input current I E . These curves are almost
horizontal. This shows that the output dynamic resistance is very high,

80
 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
Output Characteristic:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Keep emitter current IE = 5mA by varying VEE.
3. Varying VCC gradually in steps of 1V up to 12V and note down
collector current IC and collector-base voltage (VCB).
4. Repeat above procedure (step 3) for IE = 10mA.

OBSERVATIONS TABLE:

Output Characteristics

VCC (Volts) IE = 0mA IE = 1mA IE = 2mA

VCB (Volts) IC (mA) VCB (Volts) IC (mA) VCB (Volts) IC (mA)

81
 Graph-Output characteristics of CB (NPN)

Result: Thus the characteristics of Transistor (NPN) in common base configuration

have been verified and the graph has been plotted according to the observation and
to evaluate-1. Input resistance 2. Output resistance

PRECAUTION & SOURCES OF ERROR:

1. All the connections should be tight.

2. Readings should be taken carefully in presence of either faculty or lab
staff for accurate result.
3. Do not touch the live terminals because touching the live
terminals is injurious to health.
4. Switch off after taking the readings

EXPERIMENT NO-10

TO STUDY THE PHENOMENON OF RESONANCE IN

82
L-C-R SERIES CIRCUIT AND TO PLOT THE SAME

Aim: To study the phenomenon of resonance in L-C-R series circuit and to plot the same.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No. Name of Apparatus Type Range/Rating Quantity

1. Voltmeter A.C. - 1
2. Ammeter A.C. - 1
3. Kit for RLC Circuits - 1
4. Audio frequency - 1
Oscillator model-712.

THEORY:

83
 Consider an A.C. circuit containing a resistance R, and inductance L and a
capacitance C connected in series as shown below:

At resonance voltage, XL=XC (in

magnitude only); so, at Resonance:

(i) Net reactance is zero i.e., X= 0

(ii) Impedance of the circuit, Z= R

(i) The current flowing through the circuit is maximum and in phase with the
applied voltage. The magnitude of current is equal to V/ R.
(ii) The voltage drop across the inductance is equal to the voltage drop across
the capacitance.
(iii)The power factor is unity.
When this condition exists, the circuit is said to be in resonance and the frequency at
which it occurs is known as resonant frequency. It is denoted by fr such that

1 1 1
X L = X C ; ωL= ; 2 π f rL = ; fr =
ωC 2 π f rC 2 π √ LC
From the above expression it is obvious that the value of resonant frequency depends on
the parameter of the two energy-storing elements.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

84
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
A non-inductive resistor R, an inductor L and a Capacitor ‘C ‘are connected in
series, connect a voltmeter and an ammeter, as shown in figure above , such that
the current (I= V/R) does not exceed the safe value and with a small capacitor the
supply is switched on and all readings are recorded. The frequency is gradually
increases.

reading being noted at several intervals. The curves are plotted for current and
frequency capacitance, which is shown in fig below.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

85
 Resistance R= -------- ohms Supply voltage V =------------Volts (A.C.)

Inductance L = ------- H Capacitance C =-----------------F

S.No. Frequency F (in Hz) Current I (in mA)

CACULATION:
The resonant frequency fr = --------------------Hz

RESULT:
The phenomenon of resonance has been studied for RLC series circuit and
resonant frequency is observed at Hz.

PRECAUTION & SOURCES OF ERROR:

1. Connect the voltmeter and ammeter as per the circuit diagram.
2. Take readings accurately.
3. Do not touch the live wire during practical.

86
 EXPERIMENT NO-11
IMPLEMENTATION OF HALF AND FULL
ADDER USING LOGIC GATES

87
AIM: Implementation of Half and Full Adder using logic gates.

1. 2 Bit Binary Half Adder.

2. 3 Bit Binary Full Adder.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No. Name of Apparatus Type Range/Rating Quantity

1. Bread Board, - 1

2. DC Power Supply +5V from D.C - 1

Digital Lab board.

3. Patch cords - 1

4. IC 7486, 7408, 7432 1Each

88
THEORY:
HALF ADDER: The combinational circuit that performs the addition of two bits is
called a Half Adder. This circuit has two binary inputs and two binary outputs. The
input variable A, B designate the augends and addend bits, the output variables Sum,
Carry produces the sum and carry. The logic diagram and Truth Table are shown in
experiment section.

The Boolean equation is

Sum =A B + B A

Carry = A . B

2 -bit binary half adder

FULL ADDER: The circuit that performs the addition of three bits (two significant
bits and a previous carry) is called a full adder. It consists of three inputs A, B, C ¿.
Two of the input variable, denoted by A and B, represents the two significant bits to be
added. The third inputC ¿, represents the carry from the previous lower significant
position. The output S(sum) gives the value of the least significant bit of sum and
C(carry) gives the output carry. The logic diagram for 3-bit full adder is shown in
experiment section.
The Boolean equation is
Sum = A B C ¿ + A B C ¿ + A B C ¿ + AB C ¿

Carry = A.B + A.C ¿ + B.C ¿

89
 3 Bit binary full adder

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
HALF ADDER:
1. Connect +5 V and ground to the 14th pin and 7th pin of IC From the external
DC Power Supply or from DC power block of Digital lab board
2. Switch on the Power Supply.
3. Connect inputs A, B as per Truth Table to 2 bit binary Half Adder.
4. Observe output Sum, Carry on multi meter or on LED display of Digital Lab
board and prove Truth Table.
5. Switch Off the Power Supply.

FULL ADDER:

1. Connect input A, B, C ¿ to 3 bit binary Full Adder as per Truth Table shown.
2. Observe output Sum, Carry on multi meter or on LED display of Digital
Lab board and prove Truth Table.
3. Repeat above steps and prove Truth Table.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

2- bit half adder – Table -1

A B CARRY SUM

90
 0 0

0 1

1 0

1 1

3- bit full adder – Table – 2

A B C¿ CARRY SUM
0 0 0

0 0 1
0 1 0

0 1 1

1 0 0

1 0 1

1 1 0
1 1 1

RESULT:…………………………..

PRECAUTIONS & SOURCE OF ERROR:

1. Connect the voltmeter and ammeter as per the circuit diagram.

2. Take readings accurately.
3. Do not touch the live wire during practical.

91
92
 EXPERIMENT NO -12
TO STUDY THE PHENOMENON OF
RESONANCE IN LCR PARALLEL
CIRCUITS AND TO PLOT THE SAME

AIM: To study the phenomenon of resonance in LCR parallel circuits and to plot the same.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO Name of Apparatus Type Range/Rating Quantity

1 LCR Kit AC - 1
2 Audio frequency AC - 1
Oscillator model-712.
3 Ammeter A.C. - 1
4 Voltmeter A.C. - 1

93
THEORY :
Resonance: An AC circuit is said to be in resonance when the applied voltage and the
resulting current are in the phase. A parallel resonant circuit consists of an inductor L in
parallel with a capacitor C as shown in figure. R is a small resistance associated with
the coil. The capacitor C is assumed to be lossless. The tuned circuit is driven by a
voltage source V. Such a parallel-tuned circuit is commonly used in tuned amplifiers,
oscillators, etc.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:

 Connect Voltmeter to ‘V’ sockets and Ammeter to ‘mA’ sockets.

 Connect output terminals on function generator to sockets marked signal output.
 Keep function generator selector switch at sine wave.
 Keep dial at minimum i.e. 100c/s and with amplitude control set voltmeter
reading 3 to 4 volt.
 Note frequency from the dial and current from the Ammeter.
 Change the frequency from the dial in steps of 100 or so and note down the

94
 corresponding current till the characteristics of parallel resonance is
obtained.
 Plot a graph between frequency and current in mA.
 Repeat the steps 4 to 7 for different values of R & L.

OBSERVATIONS TABLE:
Resistance R= -------- ohms Supply voltage V =------------Volts (A.C.)

Inductance, L = ------- H Capacitance, C =-----------------F

Sl.No. Frequency (Hz ) Current(mA)

CACULATION:

95
RESULT: The phenomenon of resonance has been studied for RLC parallel
circuit and resonant frequency is observed at Hz.

PRECAUTION & SOURCES OF ERROR:

1. Connect the voltmeter and ammeter as per the circuit diagram.

2. Take readings accurately.
3. Do not touch the live wire during practical.

96