College of

Engineering

EG-223 Basic
Soil Mechanics

6. Shear Strength
of Soils

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College of
November 2019
Engineering

£120m Swansea Central Phase One transformation

EG-223 Basic
Soil Mechanics

3,500-capacity digital indoor arena, a coastal park,

digital plaza, landmark pedestrian bridge, new car
6. Shear Strength
parking
of Soils and new homes and premises for retail, food
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 Go to bit.ly/engevents2019-2020
and register on Eventbrite

College of
November 2019
Engineering

£120m Swansea Central Phase One transformation

EG-223 Basic
Soil Mechanics

3,500-capacity digital indoor arena, a coastal park,

digital plaza, landmark pedestrian bridge, new car
6. Shear Strength
parking
of Soils and new homes and premises for retail, food
and drink

Buckingham Group

Employer talk: Tuesday 19th November 6pm EC B001

 College of
Engineering

EG-223 Basic
Soil Mechanics
Shear Strength of Soil: Part 1
6. Shear Strength
of Soils
Effective Stress and Consolidation

4
 EFFECTIVE STRESS: INTRODUCTION
• Soil = solid skeleton + water + air
College of
Engineering • Within the usual range of stresses, solid particles and water can
be assumed incompressible
EG-223 Basic
Soil Mechanics
• Changes in volume (compressibility) of a fully saturated soil can
only occur if water escapes from the voids
• In a dry or partially saturated soil, volume changes are possible
6. Shear Strength due to the compressibility of the air in the voids, provided the
of Soils
solid particles can be rearranged by rolling/sliding
• Shear stresses in the soil can be resisted only by the solid
skeleton
• Normal stresses can be resisted by the skeleton (by interparticle
contact forces)
• In a fully saturated soil, normal stresses are also resisted by an
5 increase in pore water pressure
 • The importance of forces transmitted through the soil skeleton
by contact between the solid particles was recognised by
Terzaghi in 1923, who formulated the Principle of Effective
Stress

College of
Engineering
• This Principle is the keystone of Soil Mechanics !

EG-223 Basic • It is the concept of effective stress that makes soils and rocks
Soil Mechanics fundamentally different from other engineering materials such
as steel, concrete, etc.
Karl von Terzaghi, (born Oct. 2, 1883, Prague—died Oct. 25, 1963, Winchester, Mass.,
6. Shear Strength U.S.), civil engineer who founded the branch of civil engineering science known as soil
mechanics, the study of the properties of soil under stresses and under the action of
of Soils flowing water.
He studied mechanical engineering at the Technical University in Graz. After visiting the
United States, he served in the Austrian Air Force during World War I, but in 1916 he
accepted a position with the Imperial School of Engineers, Istanbul.
Much research had been done on foundations, earth pressure, and stability of slopes, but
Terzaghi set out to organize the results and, through research, to provide unifying
concepts. The results were published in his most noted work, Erdbaumechanik (1925;
Introduction to Soil Mechanics, 1943–44).
In 1925 he went to the United States, where—as a member of the faculty of the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge—he worked unceasingly for the
acceptance of his ideas, serving also as consulting engineer for many construction projects.
In 1929 he accepted the newly created chair of soil mechanics at Vienna Technical
University. He returned to the United States in 1938 and served as professor of civil
engineering at Harvard University from 1946 until his retirement in 1956. His consulting
6 practice grew to encompass the world, including the chairmanship of the Board of
Consultants of Egypt’s Aswān High Dam project until 1959.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_von_Terzaghi
 College of
Engineering

EG-223 Basic
Soil Mechanics

6. Shear Strength
of Soils

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u-hsOTE_Zfg
 College of
Engineering

EG-223 Basic
Soil Mechanics

6. Shear Strength
of Soils

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a-6YbkZJ5UY
 THE PRINCIPLE OF EFFECTIVE STRESS
(applicable only to fully saturated soils)
College of
Engineering The Principle of Effective Stress relates the following stresses:

EG-223 Basic • Total normal stress, σ

Soil Mechanics
This is the force per unit area transmitted across a plane within the
soil, assuming the soil to be a single phase continuum
6. Shear Strength
of Soils • Pore water pressure, u
Pressure of the water filling the voids between the solid particles
• Effective stress, σ’
Force per unit of soil area transmitted across a plane through the
solid skeleton only
σ = σ’ + u
9
 • Remarks on approximation:
1) Water pressure acts on the entire surface of any particle.
The particle volume change induced by such a pressure is
College of
indeed very small and can be disregarded
Engineering 2) The error resulting from the assumption of point contact
between particles is also very small since, in practice, the actual
EG-223 Basic particle contact surface area is only 1-3% of the soil cross-
Soil Mechanics
sectional area

6. Shear Strength • Why is this principle so important ?

of Soils
1) It is the effective stresses that cause the soil to deform
(strain) or settle
2) It is the effective stresses (and not the total stresses) that
control the strength of the soil

10
 Two-dimensional stresses
• In a two dimensional situation, we consider the total stresses
College of σx σz σxz
Engineering
σx is the total normal stress on a vertical plane
EG-223 Basic
Soil Mechanics
σz is the total normal stress on a horizontal plane
σxz is the total shear stress on a vertical or horizontal plane
6. Shear Strength
of Soils • The total stresses are decomposed as
σx = σ’x + u
σz = σ’z + u
σxz = σ’xz

• This is because water has no shear strength

11
 Effective vertical stress due to self-weight
• Consider a horizontal layer of fully saturated soil with water table at
the surface. The layer of soil extends horizontally to an indefinite
College of extent. Note this is a one-dimensional problem
Engineering
• The total vertical stress (i.e., the total normal stress on a horizontal
EG-223 Basic
Soil Mechanics
plane, σz) at a depth z is the total weight per unit area of the soil
above that depth
σz = γsat z
6. Shear Strength
of Soils
• At depth z we have the static pore pressure
us = γw z
• The effective stress in this case is
σ’z = σz - us = (γsat - γw) z = γ’ z

12
where γ’ = γsat - γw is the buoyant unit weight of the soil
 Consolidation: Firstly an analogy
VALVE

PISTON BORE
SPRING
College of
Engineering WATER

EG-223 Basic
Soil Mechanics
a) A spring is inside a cylinder with water and a piston. There is
valve in the piston. It is assumed there is no leakage or friction.
6. Shear Strength The spring represents the soil skeleton, the water is the soils
of Soils pore water and the bore of the valve as the permeability of the
soil.
b) A load is now applied on the piston with the valve closed. As
water is incompressible, the piston will not move as the load is
being carried by the water alone. The increase in the water
pressure will be equal to the load applied divided by the piston
area. This is similar to the “undrained condition” in the soil.

14
 Consolidation: Firstly an analogy
VALVE

PISTON BORE
SPRING
College of
Engineering WATER

EG-223 Basic
Soil Mechanics

c) Now the valve is opened and water is allowed to escape as a rate

6. Shear Strength allowed by the bore of the valve. The piston will now be gradually
of Soils loaded and move as load is applied to it. The load on the spring at
any time will correspond to reduction in pressure of the water.
d) Eventually all the load will be carried by the spring and the piston
will come to rest. This is an analogy of the “drained condition” of
the soil. At any time the load carried by the spring represents the
effective stress of the soil, the water pressure as the pore pressure
in the soil and the load as the total normal stress. Piston
movement represents the change in volume of the soil and is
15 governed by the compressibility of the spring, in reality the
compressibility of the soil skeleton.
 Consolidation: Firstly an analogy!!

College of
Engineering

EG-223 Basic
Soil Mechanics

6. Shear Strength
of Soils

16
 Consolidation. Drained and undrained states

Let us see now what happens to the effective stress when there is
College of a rise in total stress (this is of extreme importance when, for
Engineering example, a foundation is built):

EG-223 Basic
Soil Mechanics
• Again consider a horizontal layer of fully saturated soil with water
table at the ground surface. The layer of soil extends horizontally
to an indefinite extent
6. Shear Strength
of Soils
• The effective vertical stress is σz’ = σz - us (us is the static pore
pressure)

• Now, if a load (stress Δσz) is suddenly applied on this soil layer,

what happens to the total stress, effective stress and pore water
pressure ?
17
 • When the total vertical stress is increased, the solid particles
immediately try to take up new positions closer together. However,
water is incompressible and if it is not allowed to escape, it prevents
College of the soil skeleton to deform and soil grains to rearrange. The load is
Engineering
therefore entirely taken by the water at this initial stage. The pore
pressure rises above the static pore water pressure:
EG-223 Basic
Soil Mechanics
u = us + ue
6. Shear Strength where ue is the excess pore water pressure.
of Soils

• Before the load was applied, we had: σ = σ’ + us . Now, we have

σ = σ’ + us + ue; Δσ = ue

The effective stress is unchanged !!

18
 What happens next ?

• The excess pore pressure now sets up a hydraulic gradient and the
water starts flowing out of the soil. After some time (depending on
College of
Engineering permeability) the excess pore water pressure is dissipated, i.e.

EG-223 Basic ue = 0
Soil Mechanics

and, since the total stress must remain constant, the effective stress
6. Shear Strength is now
of Soils
σ’ + Δσ
• In summary, immediately after the application of the load, we have
an increase in pore water pressure at constant effective stress.
This is followed by a decrease of pore pressure over time
(accompanied by an increase of effective stress by the same
amount) until the applied load is completely taken by the solid
19 skeleton.
 Consolidation, drained and undrained states

• The extreme situation when the pore pressure equals the

applied stress is called the undrained state of the soil
College of
Engineering
• The other extreme situation, when all excess pore water
EG-223 Basic
has dissipated and the increase in effective stress is equal
Soil Mechanics to the appliedstress is called the drained state of the soil

• The process during intermediate states when pore

6. Shear Strength
of Soils
pressure is decreasing and effective stress is increasing is
called consolidation

Note: At both drained and undrained states the soil is fully

saturated !

20
 Worked Example (b). Calculate the total and effective
vertical stress at the bottom of the clay layer immediately after the
fill is placed (assuming the fill is placed quickly) and, then, after
consolidation.
College of
Engineering

Ground Level
EG-223 Basic
Soil Mechanics
fill
4m
γ = 17 kN/m 3 W.T.
6. Shear Strength
of Soils
5m sand

γsat = 19 kN/m 3

6m
clay

21
γsat = 20 kN/m 3
 Influence of capillary rise on stresses

Within the capillary rise zone, the pore water is held at negative
College of pressures (i.e., below atmospheric pressure). Hence, capillary
Engineering water does not contribute to the pore pressure below the water
table. The only effect of the capillary rise is to increase the unit
weight of the soil within the capillary zone to its saturated value.
EG-223 Basic
Soil Mechanics
This will cause an (equal) increase in both total and effective stress
below the water table.
6. Shear Strength
of Soils
… back to Worked Example (b):
Assume that a capillary rise of 1m occurs after the fill is
placed.
The saturated unit weight of the fill material is 20 kN/m3.
Calculate the total and effective vertical stress at the bottom
of the clay layer (after consolidation).
22
 Past Exam Paper

College of
Engineering

EG-223 Basic
Soil Mechanics

6. Shear Strength
of Soils

23
 Consolidation: Oedometer Test

The oedometer test enables the one-dimensional

consolidation characteristics of a soil to be determined,
College of
which allows the amount of settlement and the rate at which
Engineering
it proceeds to be predicted.
EG-223 Basic
Soil Mechanics

6. Shear Strength
of Soils

24
 Consolidation: Oedometer Test

From oedometer test results, a number of parameters can be

determined:
College of
Engineering 1) The initial moisture content, initial void ratio, bulk
density, dry density and degree of saturation
EG-223 Basic
Soil Mechanics

6. Shear Strength
of Soils

2) Void ratio at the end of each pressure increment

EG-223

25
 Consolidation: Oedometer Test

From oedometer test results, a number of parameters can be

determined:
College of
Engineering
3) Coefficient of volume compressibility, mv, for each loading
increment
EG-223 Basic
Soil Mechanics

6. Shear Strength
of Soils

4) Compressibility Index, Cc

26
 Consolidation: Oedometer Test

5) Coefficient of consolidation, cv, for each loading increment

College of - 2 main methods, root time* and log time methods
Engineering 6) Permeability, k.
𝑘 = 𝑐𝑣 𝑚𝑣 γ𝑤
EG-223 Basic
Soil Mechanics Root time method (Taylor method):
• A curve of dial gauge readings (settlement) is plotted
6. Shear Strength
against the square root of time. This produces a curve
of Soils with a straight portion and curved sections at the
beginning and end. These sections correspond to initial
compression of the sample, primary and secondary
consolidation (creep).

27

Uv is degree of consolidation
 Consolidation: Note on degree of consolidation, UV

For an element of soil at a particular depth z in a layer of soil, the

progress of the consolidation process under a certain total stress
can be expressed in terms of void ratio as follows:
College of
Engineering 𝑒0 − 𝑒𝑡
𝑈𝑣 =
𝑒0 − 𝑒𝑓
EG-223 Basic Where e0 = initial void ratio
Soil Mechanics
et = void ratio at time t
ef = final void ratio
6. Shear Strength
of Soils A value of zero (Uv = 0) implies consolidation has not yet started (et
= e0) while a value of one (Uv = 1) implies that consolidation has
completed (et = ef) , at least at that applied stress level.

New for 2019 In previous slide this was written in terms of %, so Uv = 1 was shown
on the graph as 100.

Degree of consolidation can also be thought of in terms of

consolidation settlement:
28 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑎 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡
𝑈𝑣 =
𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
 Consolidation: Oedometer Test

College of
Engineering

EG-223 Basic
Soil Mechanics • On the dial gauge reading v root time plot, draw a best fit line through the
straightest portion and extrapolate it back to the corrected origin, Ro to eliminate
the initial compression
6. Shear Strength • Draw the straight line from Ro at a gradient 1.15 times the gradient of the straight
of Soils portion of the experimental plot. Where the line cuts the experimental curve is
considered to be the point at which 90% degree of consolidation, (reading is R90)
• Determine the value of √t90 and hence t90
• The coefficient of consolidation, cv, is then given as:

29
R0 is the initial reading for primary
consolidation, R90 is the reading for
90% of primary consolidation
 Consolidation: Worked Example (c)

An oedometer test on a specimen of a fully saturated clay gave the

following results for the pressure increment from 100 to 200 kN/m2.
College of
the initial thickness of the specimen under no pressure was 19mm.
Engineering
Determine the values of mv, cv and k.
EG-223 Basic Time from √t Dial gauge
Soil Mechanics start of reading
loading (min) (mm)
0 0 0.61
0.25 0.5 0.96
6. Shear Strength 0.5 0.71 1.06
of Soils 0.75 0.87 1.16
1 1 1.24
1.5 1.22 1.35
2.25 1.5 1.45
4 2 1.60
5 2.24 1.66
7 2.65 1.73
Beyond this, is
11 3.32 1.79
creep which is
16 4 1.82 not needed for
calculations,
30 30 5.48 1.86
hence red values
90 9.49 1.92 not plotted
 Consolidation: Worked Example (c)

An oedometer test on a specimen of a fully saturated clay gave the

following results for the pressure increment from 100 to 200 kN/m2.
College of
the initial thickness of the specimen under no pressure was 19mm.
Engineering
Determine the values of mv, cv and k.
Time from √t Dial gauge
start of reading (mm) √t90 = 1.85
EG-223 Basic
loading [Or specimen
Soil Mechanics (min) compression] R0 = 0.69

0 0 0.61*
0.25 0.5 0.96
0.5 0.71 1.06 R0 is the initial
6. Shear Strength reading for
of Soils 0.75 0.87 1.16 primary
1 1 1.24 consolidation, R90
1.22 1.22 x 1.15 = 1.4 is the reading for
1.5 1.22 1.35 90% of primary
2.25 1.5 1.45 consolidation
4 2 1.60
R90 = 1.55
5 2.24 1.66
7 2.65 1.73
11 3.32 1.79
16 4 1.82
30 5.48 1.86
31 If R0 = 0.69 and R90 = 1.55,
90 9.49 1.92
𝑅90 − 𝑅0 1.55 − 0.69
𝑅100 = + 𝑅0 = + 0.69 = 1.645𝑚𝑚
0.9 0.9
 Consolidation: Worked Example (c)
Coefficient of consolidation, cv

College of
Engineering

EG-223 Basic
Soil Mechanics

6. Shear Strength
of Soils

33
 Consolidation: Worked Example (c)
Coefficient of volume compressibility, mv

College of
Engineering

EG-223 Basic
Soil Mechanics

6. Shear Strength Permeability, k

of Soils

34
 Worked Example

An embankment for a highway, 5m high above existing ground level, is to be

College of placed on a deposit of clay, which is 8m thick with mv = 0.5m2/MN and cv =
10m2/year. If the final road pavement on top of that layer can tolerate 50mm
Engineering
of settlement after its construction, calculate how soon the pavement can be
placed.
EG-223 Basic Bulk density of the embankment fill is 2200kg/m3. Assume permeable
Soil Mechanics boundaries top and bottom of the clay.
The amount of consolidation settlement (sc) can be found by:

sc = mvΔσH
6. Shear Strength
of Soils
For 5m of the fill material, this change in stress is:

9.81
Δσ = 5 𝑥 2200 𝑥 = 107.9 kN/m2
1000

New for 2019 The consolidation settlement is:

0.5
𝑠𝑐 = 𝑥107.9 𝑥 8 = 0.432𝑚
1000

If only 5m worth of fill were to be placed, the finished road level would be (5.0-
35 0.432)m about existing ground level. As the embankment must be 5m above the
existing ground level, we have to take this 0.432m settlement into account. We need
to repeat the above calculation with the settlement value in mind.
 Worked Example

The amount of consolidation settlement (sc) can be found by:

College of sc = mvΔσH
Engineering
For 5.432m of the fill material, this change in stress is:

EG-223 Basic 9.81

Δσ = 5.432 𝑥 2200 𝑥 = 117.2 kN/m2
Soil Mechanics 1000

The consolidation settlement is:

6. Shear Strength 0.5

𝑠𝑐 = 𝑥117.2 𝑥 8 = 0.469𝑚
of Soils 1000

To calculate the time for this settlement, we use a rearranged form for the cv
equation:

New for 2019 𝑇𝑣 𝑑 2

𝑡=
𝑐𝑣
At this point we can determine the degree of consolidation, Uv, to which 50mm
corresponds.

36
469 − 50
𝑈𝑣 = = 0.893
469
 Worked Example

We now need to find the Tv value for a degree of consolidation on 0.893

College of
Engineering
𝑇𝑣 = −0.933 log 1 − 0.893 − 0.085

EG-223 Basic Tv = 0.82

Soil Mechanics
To calculate the time for this settlement:

𝑇𝑣 𝑑2
6. Shear Strength 𝑡=
of Soils 𝑐𝑣
Permeable

Longest distance for d

the water to travel to Clay layer = 8m
New for 2019 drain = d = 4m d
Permeable

(0.82) 4 2
𝑡= = 1.312 years = 15.7 months (approx.)
10
37
 Worked Example

We now need to find the Tv value for a degree of consolidation on 0.893

College of
Engineering
𝑇𝑣 = −0.933 log 1 − 0.893 − 0.085

EG-223 Basic Tv = 0.82

Soil Mechanics
To calculate the time for this settlement:

𝑇𝑣 𝑑2
6. Shear Strength 𝑡=
of Soils 𝑐𝑣
Permeable

Longest distance for d

the water to travel to Clay layer = 8m
New for 2019 drain = d = 4m d
Permeable

(0.82) 4 2
𝑡= = 1.312 years = 15.7 months (approx.)
10
38
Long time to wait to place a pavement!
 Speeding up the consolidation process
Sometimes it may not be feasible to wait the required time for consolidation
to finish. There are methods that can accelerate the process, the two most
common being:
College of
Engineering
1. Preloading
EG-223 Basic To accelerate the consolidation process, and to have the majority of the
Soil Mechanics
settlement occur before construction, preloading of the ground could be
carried out. This is normally in the form of building a temporary embankment.
Once the majority of the settlement has occurred, the preload is removed,
6. Shear Strength the soil may swell slightly, but the construction can proceed.
of Soils

2. Vertical Drains
The slow rate of consolidation in saturated clays of low permeability may be
New for 2019 accelerated by means of vertical drains which shorten the drainage path
within the clay. These drains are often in the form of a “sandwick” (a filter
stocking, usually of woven polypropylene, filled with sand, placed in the
ground, or band drains, a flat plastic core indented with drainage channels,
surrounded by a layer of filter fabric.
39
As the objective is to reduce the length of the drainage path, the spacing of
the drains is a crucial calculation at the design stage.
 College of
Engineering

EG-223 Basic
Soil Mechanics

6. Shear Strength
of Soils

New for 2019

40
 HOMEWORK LIST 4

(a) The North sea is 200m deep. (c) The soil on a site is found to be
College of The sea bed consists of a made of a 20m layer of sand
Engineering depth of sand of saturated unit (saturated and dry unit weights,
weight 20 kN/m3. Calculate the respectively, 19 and 16 kN/m3)
effective vertical stress 5m followed by a 7m layer of clay
EG-223 Basic
below the top of the sand. (saturated weight 20 kN/m3), in
Soil Mechanics
this order starting from ground
level. The water table is 4m
(b) In a deposit of sand, the water below ground level. An office
6. Shear Strength table is 3.5m below ground block which extends over a large
of Soils horizontal area is rapidly built on
level and sand to a height of
0.5m is saturated by capillary this site. It imposes a uniform
water. The saturated and dry load of 180 kN/m2 on the
unit weights of the sand are 20 foundation. Calculate the
and 16 kN/m3, respectively. effective stress at the centre of
Calculate the effective vertical the clay layer:
stress in the sand 5m below (i) Immediately after
ground level. construction;
(ii) Several years after
41 construction.