Evolution of Percussion Instruments – From Vedic times to

Modern day – A Special Reference to Mridangam – Main

Percussion instrument of Carnatic Music of South India –By
Mridanga Vidwan Mannarkoil J Balaji

Special Lecture delivered at NCPA, Mumbai on 19-1-2017 at

the Annual Conference on Evolution of various instruments
organized by NCPA and Indian Musicological Society

At the outset I would like to express my sincere thanks to NCPA,

Mumbai and Shri Ganesh Kumar, Mumbai for inviting me to be a
part of this grand International Conference.

My name is Mannarkoil J Balaji, Mridangam Artiste having an

experience of over three decades in this field, having been
featured in over 3500 public appearances all over the world.

I would also like to sincerely thank Pappu Shri Venugopal Rao for
delivering the Keynote address and Shri Shriram Parasuram who
has kindly consented to Chair this proceedings.

Let me now delve into the subject.

Rhythm is the oldest impulse of man. The origins of various
instruments in India have been attributed to various gods and
goddesses. The Gandharvas, Kinnaras, Narada and Thumburu
were all connected with the Science and Art of Music and
Musical Instruments.

Today’s talk will have three segments:

First Segment will cover various Literary references to the

Instrument.

Second Segment will cover the structural developments from

Vedic to the modern times.

The Third Segment will cover the artistic developments from the
olden days till now.

Segment 1

Tharitha Mridangaodu Mathalam Salli

Perutha Karadigaiye Bheri –

Uratta Pathakam Kudamuzhavam Paangaya Yezhum

Adaive Mudarkaruviyam.

It is said “kal thondri MaN Thondra Kaalathey Mun thondri

Mootha Kudi Thamizh Kudi” which means even before the rocks
and sands were formed the Tamizh Civilisation started. The verse
I rendered now was from a very early work called “Santhana
Prakasham” which lists 7 of the foremost instruments namely:

Mridanga

Maddalam

Jhallari

Karadigai

Bheri

Pataaha

Kuda Muzha (Panchamukha Vadya)

The Name of the Instrument Mridanga has been taken from the
root words Mrit + Anga, meaning “Clay Body”. This definition has
been popularly accepted even though a different version was
given by Dr V Raghavan in an article entitled “Why is Mridanga
So Called” in the Journal of Music Academy, 1953. Dr V Raghavan
has opined that “Mridanga” gets its unique vibrating sound
because of the Black patch applied at the centre of the right side
drum head (for the normal right handed performer) and that is
why it is called “Mridanga” and not otherwise as being popularly
defined by many others. (Refer to segment 2 for detailed
description on this aspect).
Vinayavijaya, a commentator of Kalpa Sutra of Badrabahu says
that both Panava and Mridanga were made of Mud:

PaNavo Mrutpataha: Murajo MardaLa

Mrudango MruNmaya sa eva |

The term mridanga was originally applied by Bharatha to the

Drum called “Pushkara” as mentioned in Sangita Ratnakara, of
Sarngadeva (13th Century AD) VI-1025:

Proktam Mridanga Shabdena Sunina Pushkaratrayam |

Origin of this instruments have two or three different versions

which I will briefly state here.

One version is that Lord Shiva while dancing with his instrument
Damaru, made a lot of noise which made the Shiva Ganas
tremble in fear and hence the Lord Broke the Damaru into half
and reversed. Then he joined the Damaru’s drumheads. While
joining them the Primordial sound “OM” emerged and the sound
of the reversed Damaru softened, which was later played by
Nandi, the Bull God. Damaru was also called “Charma Vadya”,
the first instrument to be made out of Leather.

Another version given in an old Treatise named “Anuma

Bharatham” goes to show that there was a Demon named
Mridangan who was causing a lot of trouble to Vayu Bhagwan,
the Lord of Air. In order to punish the demon, Vayu cut
Mridangan into various pieces and threw him on Mount Kailash.
The head of Mridangan was then taken by Lord Nandikeshwara
and was covered with Tiger Hides which was later played by him
and then the instrument was named as “Mridangam”.

An authentic version could be that of Sage Swati, while going to

fetch water from the nearby pond, heard the sound of rain
falling on the lotus leaves. Lord Indra who created the rain drops,
made them fall on the leaves of different sizes, at different
intervals, thus creating different rhythmic movements. Sage
Swati, who listened to these rhythmic ideas, came to his
hermitage and sought the help of Vishwakarma, the Celestial
Architect and created three Pushkara Instruments, namely
Mridanga, Panava and Dardura. Sage swathi is also attributed to
have created three types of Mridanga such as Alingya, Aankya
and Urdva. After creating these instruments The Clouds helped
him to produce sounds on them. Vidyujjhiva produced the
sounds on the left side drumheads. The cloud named Taditvaan
produced sound on the Alingya Mridanga, The cloud named
Kokila Produced sound on the Aankya Mridanga and the cloud
named Airavata produced sound on the Urdva Mridanga.
Many Instruments were mentioned in various literary works as
percussion instruments. Sanskrit Texts give the list of various
Percussion instruments and some of them are given below:

Dhundhubi

Bhumi Dhundhubi

Dardura

Panva

Dindima

Mridanga

Maddalam

Bheri

Jhallari

Adambara

Lambana

Gargara

Godha

TaLava

Pinga
Bakura

Dhakka

Muraja

pataha

Pushkara

Karkari

Alaavu

Toorya

Manipur Mridanga called Pung.

In Tamil Sangam Literature also many percussion instruments

were mentioned and given below are some of the names:

Mridanga

Murasu

Nagara

Parai

Udukkai

Bheri

Mathalam
Pathakkam

Karadigai

Salligai.

Various Sculptures at various places in India depict different

types of Percussion instruments in all the three poses, Aalingya,
Aankya and Urdva.

Bharhut, Mathura, Gandhara, Amaravathi, Nagarjunakonda,

Sanchi, Konark, Ajantha, Chidamabaram, Mukteswara Temple,
Bhuraneswara of Badari near Mumbai are some of the famous
landmarks in this country which depict the different types of
vedic percussion instruments through iconography. Some Seals
of Mohenjodaro, pertaining to the Indus Valley Civilisation
contain depiction of Men Playing long Cylindrical Drums hung
around their necks, that is, in Aalingya Posture, placed
horizontally. These drums resemble the Assamese instrument
named “Kharrang” and another instrument called “Dhole” which
was famous in Andhrapradesh. Other drums depicted were
Castanets, Cymbals and Hudukka.

No Vedic ritual is complete without the playing of Percussion

instrument and Dhundhubi was one of the most favoured
instruments.
Let us see the textual references to mridanga in various literary
works.

Srimad Bhagavatham has a reference to Mridanga in its 70 th

Chapter Verse 20, which says

Mridanga Veena Muraja Venu Taladarasvnai hi ….

Bharatha’s Natya Sastra (200 BCE) classifies various instruments

to be fit into four groups of instruments Tatta, Sushira,
Avanadhdha and Ghana vadyas. The percussion instruments
come under the category of Avanadhdha vadyas as they are
covered with animal hides. They are also called Charma Vadya.

Bharata’s Natya Sastra also says that the Mridanga had three
different shapes that of Haritaki, Yava and Gopucha Types.
Haritaki is like the Tavil of South India, The Yava is like our
Present day Mridanga and the Gopucha type which looks broad
at one end and narrow at the other end resembles the Srikhole
of Bengal.

Kalidasa (4-5th Century CE) has a mention of this instrument in his

various works. Apart from this, Vaipulya Sutra, which is a
Buddhist text mentions explicitly about Mridanga. It was also
said that the Women of Yajurveda times were adept in playing
various kinds of Percussion instruments and they were also
adept in the Science of rhythm. The Flag of Yudishtira’s Chariot
carried the Mridanga as its emblem. In the Harivamsha Purana
(1st or 2nd Century CE), an addendum to Mahabharatha, there is a
mention of Mridanga, Toorya, Bheri and Panava.

Various scholars have opined that Nandi Played Maddalam and

since Lord Vishnu also played the Mridanga it was called Vishnu
Vadya. “Shiva Pradosha Sutra” says Lord Vishnu Plays mridanga
during the auspicious Pradosha Kaala.

In Tamil Literature Mridanga was called “Thannummai”. Also

many literary works including Silappadikaaram (2-3rd Century CE;
Author – Ilango Adigal) claim that the instrument Thannummai
was much older than Maththalam. The singers used
Thannummai to a great extent to express the rhythmic varieties.

“Muzhavu” was a term used in Tamil Literature to collectively

address the Percussion Instruments as a whole of which
Thannummai, Bheri, Pathakkam etc were part of.

The Tamil Literature Seevaga Chinthamani (10th Century CE by

Tiruthakka Devar) says “Thannummai, Muzhavam, Mondai,
KuNicham Piravyum Osai”.
Silappadikaaram says “Maththalam, Thannummai, Idakkai, Salli
Ena Vaitha Naangum Uthamakkaruvi” which means these four
are highly rated instruments.

Mridanga is also said to be an embodiment of Pancha Bhootas or

the five elements, since its right head signifies fire, the left head
signifies water, the wooden barrel signifies earth, the sound
vibration of the instrument signifies Air and the hollow space
inside the instrument signifies the Space.

Segment 2

In this segment we shall see the development of Mridanga as an

instrument, its evolution and its development in structure.

As Dr Raghavan Pointed out in the Journal of Music Academy in

the year 19531 the name Mridanga would have gotten its name
by application of the Black Powder as paste, which is referred to
as Maarjana in Sanskrit and Maarchanai in Tamil. The maarjana is
the fine bluish black mud deposited at the water brink of rivers.
This mud was then made into a paste and was applied on the
right side drumhead of the Mridanga which gave the special
sound to it and hence it was called Mridanga. Dr Raghavan
opines that without this “black patch” Mridanga wouldn’t have

1
“Why is Mridanga So-Called?”, Dr V Raghavan, The Journal of the Music Academy, Madras, Vol.XXIV, 1953,
pp135-136.
become a unique instrument as there were many other Mud-
bodied instruments in vogue. What gave Mridanga its unique
tone was the application of this fine powder and hence the name
Mridanga would be appropriate in this sense and he also quotes
Bharatha who says that Mrittika which was used as Maarjana for
this instrument made it unique and hence it was appropriately
called Mridanga.

In Tamil literature also we find references to this application of

paste on the drumheads under the name of Maarchanai, which
was referred to as “MaN Maarchanai” meaning sand application.
The Tamil literary works such as “Pancha Marabu 2” and
“MaththaLaviyal3” talk at length about the features of
Thannummai and Mathalam.

We find a phrase called “EerndhaN Muzhavu” in Tamil works the

meaning of which is nothing but application of water on the raw
hides of these instruments to the desired tonal levels. This was
probably the first stage of development of the instrument in its
experimental stages.

The second stage saw application of special sand on the

drumheads. This has references in Aganaanoru (1-2 nd Century CE)
as “MaNNaar Muzhavu”, Paripaadal (Sangam Literature and part
2
Arivanar, Pancha Marabu (Tamil Work), Editor : Vidwan Ve.Ra Deivasigamani Gownder, Erode, 1973, 1975
3
The Art of Drumming (maththaLaviyal); Commentary by Dr.V.P.K. Sundaram, 1988
of Ettuthokai) as “maNkaNai Muzhavu” and in Balakaandam of
Kamba Ramayanam (12th Century CE) as “MaNNuru
Muzhavadira”. Also there are references that this paste dried
faster and fell off the instruments too soon, thus paving way for
the next stage of application of powdered “Kittam” stone mixed
with cooked rice and applied on the Mridanga drumhead in
concentric layers, until the desired tone is obtained.

The precise height, weight, circumferences have also been

mentioned in various works.

In Sambandar’s period (7th Century CE), (who was one of the 63

Saiva Saints) the Muzhavu had only 8 ropes but we find it
developed into 16 ropes as of now. The other dimensions
mentioned in the texts have also undergone considerable
changes and the current dimensions of the Mridanga are
explained below for a proper understanding:

The length varies between 18 to 24 inches and the right

side drum heads vary between 6 to 7 inches. The left side
Drumheads vary between 7 to 8 inches. The thickness of the
drum varies between 3/4th of inch to 1-1/4 inches.
 The credit for standardization of the size of the instruments
goes to Pudukkottai Dakshinamurthy Pillai (1875-1936), a doyen
Mridanga and Khanjira vidwan.

As we have already seen that the drum heads are covered

with animal hides and there are three concentric layers on the
right side and two layers on the left side.

Basically there are no differences on the right side as till

date the application of black patch is being continued, even
though there are some experiments going on with synthetic
material.

On the left side which is also the Bass head of the Mridanga
has the soothing effect and compliments the sharp tone of the
right side rhythmic varieties. On the left side also various
applications are done to improve the Bass tonal qualities of the
instrument which are enumerated here:

1) Application of Ash with cooked rice

2) Application of Semolina or the Bombay Rava (Still in vogue)
3) Application of Black paste just like the right drumhead – a
method popularized by Dr T V Gopalakrishnan
4) Application of Play-doh – an improvisation made by the
author.
 5) Application of Silicone-Gum – again an improvisation of Shri
T V Gopalakrishnan
6) Application of german water based gum called “Fermit”
which is very popular among mridangists of present day
generation.

The body of the Mridanga has evolved from Clay to Wood and
has stayed there for many centuries. Texts prescribe the
following woods suitable for Mridanga.

Ebony

Rose Wood

Neem Wood

Jackwood

Out of the above Jackwood has the quality to produce the best
quality sound and is still widely used. Extensive researches have
been done to replace the body with Fibreglass and recently Dr
Umayalpuram Sivaraman even made the real “Glass” Mridanga,
but all these have very few takers.

Dr Varadarangan of Bangalore, has done extensive research on

the Mridanga based on scientific experiments and have come up
with an entirely new type of Mridanga without wood and
without animal hides replacing them with fiberglass and
synthetic rubberized material. This Mridanga is called “Sri
Mridanga”.

The leather ropes which are used to tie both drumheads have
been replaced with Nylon ropes which are either flat or rounded.
Many mridangists prefer the Nut-Bolt type of Mridanga which
has a separate tuning for the sides and are easily replaceable.
This has replaced the Nylon Ropes also and if the mridangist has
some 5 or 6 drumheads of the same measurement then then he
can replace them without the help of the Artisan.

Segment 3

Syllables as mentioned in Scriptures:

The sound of the Mridanga has a unique mention in many texts

and there are 10 types of Nada mentioned in Hamsopanishad :

ChiNithi Prathamaha

ChiNi ChiNithi Dvitiya

Ghantanadas tritheeya ha

Shankha nadash chaturtha ha

Panchamas tantrinaada ha

Shashtas tala nadaha

 Saptamo veNunadaha

Ashtamo bheri nadaha

Navamo mridanga nadaha

Dashamo megha nadaha.

Natya Shastra mentions 16 consonats ka, kha, ga, gha, ta,

tta, dda, tha, ttha, dda, ddha, Na, ma, ra la, ha. All these
consonants are later joined with vowels a, e, i, o u, and am to
form various jatis. It was also mentioned that all the jatis were
formed out of the 5 faces of Lord Shiva namely Sadyojaata,
Vaamadeva, Aghora, Tapurusha and Eeshanya. Each of these
faces have produced 7 mnemonics which are listed in “The
Indian Concept of Rhythm” by A K Sen4.

Sangita Ratnakara also lists 16 mnemonic syllables called

Lola, Paanyantara, Nirghosha, Khandakartari, Dandahasta,
Samanakha, Bindu, Yamalahasta, Recita, Bhramara,
Vidyutvilaasa, Ardhakartari, Alagna, Rejhepha, Samapaani and
Parivrtta. In addition to these Sarngadeva also mentiones 21
more syllables.

4
Sen, Arunkumar; Indian Concept of Rhythm, Kanishka Publishing House, New Delhi, 2008
 Apart from there four mnemonic syllables are mentioned
by Nandikeshwara which are Konhahata, Sambharaantha,
Vishama and Ardhasama.

Basically, the syllables are Tha Dhi Thom Nam and Jham and
according to playing strokes there are 7 strokes which are Tha
Dhi Thom Nam Dhin Ta and Chaapu.

In tamil literature 52 syllables have been given for

Muzhavu. They are Ka, Ki, Ku, Ke, Sa, Sey, Cha, Chey, Ta, Ti, Tu,
Te, Tha, Thaa, thi, thee, thu, thoo, the, they, tho, pa, pe, ra, ri, ru,
re, rai, gna, gni, gnho, gya, gyi, gyo, na, naa, Na, Naa, na, ni, nu,
ney, ma, mi, mu, mey, na, ni, nu, ne, ra, raa, ri, ru and ak.
Additionally we use Ja and La also as in thkajonu and Thalaangu.

Next we shall deal with evolution of Mridanga as a concert

instrument.

This has about 200 years of evolution as the professional music

recitals came into vogue during the 19 th Century only.
Maharashtrians who domiciled to Tanjore during the Mahratta
Rule developed a special style of playing for Harikatha. The
developed many varieties of Chaapu, Arai Chaapu, Gumukki,
Theka etc. Before the 19th Century Mridanga was used mainly for
Devotional music and Dance programmes in the Temples and
Palaces. After the advent of Harikathas, Mridanga assumed the
role of a competent accompanying instrument capable of
producing varied patterns suitable and apt for the musical
renditions.

According to records Coimbatore Raghava Iyer (1825-1876) was

the first to usher music onto concert platform as mentioned by
Dr B M Sundaram in one of his articles on Evolution of Mridanga.

As per Tanjore Palace records Heeroji Gopala Rao was supposed

to be the first Mridanga artiste in Tamil Nadu. He was a Palace
artiste and a composer of many Lavanis. After this we have the
first Female Mridanga artiste named Kamakshi Bai.

There were a few other 19th Century Mridanga artistes like Siva
Swamy Appa, Gopala Rao Appa and Guruvappa, who ushered in
a new era of Mridanga as a main accompaniment in Concerts. It
was Narayanaswamy Appa, a disciple of Sivaswamy Appa and
Gopala Rao Appa who brought Mridanga to the status we know
of it today. He was rightly named the “Father of Mridanga”.

The galaxy of artistes include Thukkaram Appa, Das Swamigal,

Sethu Rama Rao, Tanjore Pakkiri, Tanjore Babu Rao, Tanjore
Ramadasa Rao, Mylattoor Krishna Iyer, Alaga Nambia Pillai,
Pudukkottai Dakshinamurthy Pillai who all were responsible for
its evolution and development in the late 19th and 20th Centuries.

Various rhythmic forms like Mora, Arudi, Theermanam,

Mukthayees, Korvais, Kuraippu etc were framed for Mridanga.

We also saw an emergence of two prominent Mridanga Schools

during the mid-20th Century namely the Tanjore Style and the
Pudukkottai Style.

Tanjore Style of Mridanga playing was pioneered by Tanjore

Vaidyanatha Iyer and from this style we have doyens like Palghat
T S Mani Iyer and living Legends like Dr T K Murthy, Dr T V
Gopalakrishnan and Dr Umayalpuram Sivaraman, Kamalakar Rao
and Tajore Ramadoss among others.

Pudukkottai style of Mridanga playing was pioneered by

Pudukkottai Manpundia Pillai, who was also credited to have
made the Khanjira a concert worthy instrument by modifying its
size and shape. He was also the foremost among the Pudukkottai
style of Mridanga accompaniment which was followed by
Pudukkottai Dakshinamurthy Pillai, Pazhani Muthiah Pillai,
Sankaradas Swamigals, Seithru Zamindar, Ramanathapuram
Sankara Siva Bhagawathar (Brother of Ramanathapuram C S
Murugabhoopathy). Palani Subramania Pillai, son of Palani
Muthiah Pillai, was the torch bearer of this tradition and was
ably continued through his disciples Ramanathapuram M N
Kandaswamy, Pallathur Lakshmanan, Udumalai Mayilsamy Pillai,
Pattukkottai Shanmukhanandam and many others. Living legends
of this school are Dr Trichy Sankaran, Shri Guruvayur Dorai and
various others.

The trinity of the Mridanga are Palghat T S Mani Iyer, Palani

M Subramania Pillai and Ramanathapuram C S
Murugabhoopathy.

Mridanga has been elevated to the stage where it is today

through the constant efforts of all these doyens and I bow in
deep reverence to all those persons.