TCP/IP MODEL

 The TCP/IP model consists of five layers: the Application layer, Transport layer, Internet
layer, Data link layer and Physical layer.
 The first four layers provide physical standards, network interface, internetworking, and
transport functions that correspond to the first four layers of the OSI model. These four
layers are represented in TCP/IP model by a single layer called the application layer.

Network Access Layer

 A network Interface layer is the combination of the Physical layer and Data Link layer
defined in the OSI reference model.

 This layer is mainly responsible for the transmission of the data between two devices
on the same network.

 The functions carried out by this layer are ..

-Encapsulating the IP datagram into frames transmitted by the network and
-Mapping of IP addresses into physical addresses.

Ethernet
 Ethernet is a widely used LAN standard. Ethernet used in local area networks (LANs) to
connect computers.
 Ethernet communication systems divide data streams into packets, which are referred to
as frames. Frames contain information on the source and destination addresses and
systems for detecting data mistakes and retransmission requests.
Token Ring
In the token ring a token ring passes over a physical ring. In token ring, there is a station and a
special frame called token. A station in token ring can transmit data frame if it contains a token.

Frame relay
Frame relay is a protocol that defines how frames are routed through a fast-packet network
based on the address field in the frame.

Frame relay is commonly used to connect two or more LAN bridges over large distances.
Frame relay is used to connect local area networks (LANs) and to transmit data between
endpoints in wide area networks (WANs).

Bursty data – Frame relay used to bursty data ( not a fixed data). The user can use different
bandwidths allocation at different times. The bandwidth on demand. For Ex: user want to send
data at 6mbps for 2 seconds.

Working Procedure of Frame Relay

Frame relay uses packet switching technology. This means that it breaks data into smaller
packets, also known as frames, to transmit it through a shared frame relay network. These data
packets are then reassembled at the data’s destination
Asynchronous transfer mode (ATM)
 ATM uses ATM cells for data transmission between source and destination.
 Asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) is a switching technique to encode data into small,
fixed-sized cells. These are 53 bytes which consists of header (5 bytes) and data (48
bytes).
 ATM is connection oriented which uses virtual packet switching.

Synchronous – transmission data sent in the form of frames or blocks

Asynchronous – transmission data sent in the form of bytes or characters.

Internet Layer
The main responsibility of the internet layer is to send the packets from any network(LAN-LAN,
LAN-WAN, LAN-WAN-LAN), and they arrive at the destination irrespective of the route they
take.

Following are the protocols used in this layer are:

IP Protocol:

IP Addressing: This protocol implements logical host addresses known as IP addresses. The IP
addresses are used by the internet and higher layers to identify the device and to provide
internetwork routing.

Host-to-host communication: It determines the path through which the data is to be transmitted.

Fragmentation and Reassembly: The limit imposed on the size of the IP datagram by data link
layer protocol is known as Maximum Transmission Unit (MTU). If the size of IP datagram is
greater than the MTU unit, then the IP protocol splits the datagram into smaller units so that they
can travel over the local network. Fragmentation can be done by the sender or intermediate
router. At the receiver side, all the fragments are reassembled to form an original message.

Routing: Routing is the method to send the data packets from sender system to receiver system
in a path.
Strict source routing – routing of packets already fixed from source to destination. In
between S to D there are no intermediate devices in a network.

Loose source routing – routing of packets sending from source to destination through
intermediate devices.
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
ARP is a network layer protocol which is used to convert logical(IP) address to physical address.

ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol)

 The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) is a network layer protocol used by
network devices to error report and diagnose network communication issues.

 ICMP is mainly used to determine whether or not data is reaching its intended
destination in a timely manner.

 ICMP protocol is used on network devices, such as routers. ICMP is crucial for
error reporting and testing, but it can also be used in distributed denial-of-service
(DDoS) attacks.

Source quench message:

Source quench message is a request to decrease the traffic rate for messages sending to the
host(destination). When receiving host detects that the rate of sending packets (traffic rate) is too
fast ICMP sends the source quench message to the source to slow down so that no packet can be
lost.
Then SOURCE computer will reduce the speed of transmission so that router will be free from
congestion.
ICMP error message by router/destination host
In figure, There is no necessary condition that the only the router gives the ICMP error
message some time the DESTINATION computer also can sends an ICMP error message
when any type of failure (link failure, hardware failure, port failure, etc) happens in the
network.

Network diagnostics by ICMP - traceroute and ping

The traceroute utility is used to display the routing path between two Internet devices. The
routing path is the actual physical path of connected routers. The route of the packets between
one router to another router is known as a ‘hop,’

The ping will test the speed of the connection between two devices and report exactly how long
it takes a packet of data to reach its destination and come back to the sender’s device. The ping
command test to see if a networked device is reachable. The ping utility uses the echo request,
and echo reply messages.

Ex: ping 104.16.182.252

Transport Layer
 The transport layer used to transport the data from source to destination.
 It uses service point address (port address) to deliver the complete process from one
system to another system in a network. Transport layer involves process-to-process
delivery.
 The two protocols used in the transport layer are User Datagram protocol and
Transmission control protocol.

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

 It provides a full transport layer services to applications.

 TCP is a reliable protocol as it detects the error and retransmits the damaged frames.
Therefore, it ensures all the segments must be received and acknowledged before the
transmission is considered to be completed and a virtual circuit is discarded.
  At the sending end, TCP divides the whole message into smaller units known as segment,
and each segment contains a sequence number which is required for reordering the
frames to form an original message.

 At the receiving end, TCP collects all the segments and reorders them based on sequence
numbers. Ex: The protocol working under TCP is HTTP, HTTPS, FTP, SFTP
User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
 UDP un-reliable protocol. The segments are reached to the destination taken different
path. There is no guarantee the segments are reached to the destination. The data may be
corrupted whiling reached to the destination.
 UDP provides connectionless service and it perform end-to-end delivery of transmission.
 It is an unreliable protocol as it discovers the errors but not specify the error.
 User Datagram Protocol discovers the error, and ICMP protocol reports the error to the
sender about the user datagram has been damaged.
 Ex: The protocol working under UDP is TFTP,SNMP
Application Layer
 It enable user interface, the human or software access the network and support all types
distributed information services.

 It connect local system to remote system. Ex: AnyDesk is one of the application remote
system is controlling the local system for solve troubleshooting problems.

 An application layer serves as a window for users and application processes to access
network service.

 It handles issues such as network transparency, resource allocation, etc.

Network transparency – It is a process of sending & accessing data over a network
the information is not visible to the users.
Resource allocation- buffer, bandwidth, processors and peripheral devices like
printers, scanners, etc.

Following are the main protocols used in the application layer:

HTTP: Port Number 80. HTTPS: Port Number 443.
HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. This protocol allows us to access the data over
the world wide web. It transfers the data in the form of plain text, audio, video. It is known
as a Hypertext with interlinked documents. Hypermedia interlinked with audio and video
files.

SNMP: Port Number 161.

SNMP stands for Simple Network Management Protocol. It is a framework used for
managing the devices on the internet by using the TCP/IP protocol suite. It any errors
found in device automatically send report to the sender.
SMTP: Port Number 25.
SMTP stands for Simple mail transfer protocol. The TCP/IP protocol that supports the e-mail
is known as a Simple mail transfer protocol. This protocol is used to send the data to
another e-mail address.

DNS: Port Number 53.

DNS stands for Domain Name System. An IP address is used to identify the connection of a
host to the internet uniquely. DNS maps the name(domain name) to the address(IP
address) is known as Domain Name System.

DNS resolves names to numbers(IP address), to be more specific it resolves domain names
to IP addresses. So if you type in a web address in your web browser, DNS will resolve the
name to a number because the only thing computers understand numbers.
TELNET(Terminal Network): Port Number 23.
It establishes the connection between the local computer and remote computer in such a way
that the local terminal appears to be a terminal at the remote system.

TELNET is used for remote connection and communication between the systems.
TELNET is send the un-secure data in the form of plain text.

SSH: Secure Shell Port Number: 22

SSH is used for remote connection and communication between the systems. SSH is
send the secure data with encrypted manner.

FTP: Port Number 20 for Data, 21 for Connection.

FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. FTP is a standard internet protocol used for
transmitting the files from one computer to another computer. FTP uses two commands
i.e. PUT and GET. The PUT command is used for PUT (upload) the data to the server. GET
command used for (download) the data from server.

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