3. Context-Free Languages and Pushdown Automata 3.4.

Pushdown Automata

Theorem 3.20
The language N(M) is context-free for each PDA M.

Proof.
Let M = (Q, Σ, Γ, δ, q0 , #, F ) be a PDA, and let L = N(M).
W.l.o.g. we can assume the following:
For all (q � , B1 B2 · · · Bk ) ∈ δ(q, a, A), we have k ≤ 2.
Otherwise, we replace (q � , B1 B2 · · · Bk ) ∈ δ(q, a, A) (k > 2)
by the following transitions:
(q1 , B1 B2 ) ∈ δ(q, a, A),
{(q2 , B2 B3 )} = δ(q1 , ε, B2 ),
..
.
{(q � , Bk −1 Bk )} = δ(qk −2 , ε, Bk −1 ),
where q1 , q2 , . . . , qk −1 are new states.

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Proof of Theorem 3.20 (cont.)

Idea: A grammar G that simulates the computations of M through
leftmost derivations.
Let G := (N, Σ, P, S), where
N := {S} ∪ [Q × Γ × Q],
P := { S → (q0 , #, q) | q ∈ Q }
∪ { [q, A, q � ] → a | (q � , ε) ∈ δ(q, a, A) }
∪ { [q, A, q � ] → a[q1 , B, q � ] | (q1 , B) ∈ δ(q, a, A), q � ∈ Q }
∪ { [q, A, q � ] → a[q1 , C, q2 ][q2 , B, q � ] |
(q1 , BC) ∈ δ(q, a, A), q � , q2 ∈ Q }.

Claim:
∀p, q ∈ Q ∀A ∈ Γ ∀x ∈ Σ∗ : [q, A, p] →∗lm x iff (q, A, x) �∗M (p, ε, ε).

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Proof of Theorem 3.20 (cont.)

Proof of Claim.
First we prove by induction on i that
(q, A, x) �iM (p, ε, ε) implies that [q, A, p] →ilm x.
For i = 1,
if (q, A, x) �M (p, ε, ε), then (p, ε) ∈ δ(q, x, A) and x ∈ Σ ∪ {ε}.
Hence, G contains the production [q, A, p] → x, and so, [q, A, p] →lm x.
Now assume that the above implication has been established for i − 1,
let x = ay , and let

(q, A, ay ) �M (q1 , B2 B1 , y ) �i−1

M (p, ε, ε),

that is, (q1 , B2 B1 ) ∈ δ(q, a, A).

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Proof of Theorem 3.20 (cont.)

Proof of Claim (cont.)

As M can only read and replace the topmost symbol on the pushdown,
it follows that y = y1 y2 , and that the above computation can be
factored as follows:

(q1 , B1 , y1 ) �kM1 (q2 , ε, ε) and (q2 , B2 , y2 ) �kM2 (p, ε, ε),

where q2 ∈ Q, and k1 + k2 = i − 1.
From the I.H. we obtain the leftmost derivations

[q1 , B1 , q2 ] →klm1 y1 and [q2 , B2 , p] →klm2 y2 .

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Proof of Theorem 3.20 (cont.)

Proof of Claim (cont.)

Because of the transition in step 1, we have

([q, A, p] → a[q1 , B1 , q2 ][q2 , B2 , p]) ∈ P,

and therewith we obtain the following leftmost derivation in G:

[q, A, p] →lm a[q1 , B1 , q2 ][q2 , B2 , p]

→klm1 ay1 [q2 , B2 , p]
→klm2 ay1 y2 = ay = x,

that is, we have [q, A, p] →ilm x.

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Proof of Theorem 3.20 (cont.)

Proof of Claim (cont.)

Now we prove the converse implication, again by induction on i.
For i = 1, [q, A, p] → x implies that x ∈ Σ ∪ {ε} and (p, ε) ∈ δ(q, x, A),
that is, (q, A, x) �M (p, ε, ε).
Now assume that the implication has been proved for i − 1, and
assume that

[q, A, p] → a[q1 , B1 , q2 ][q2 , B2 , p] →i−1

lm x ∈ Σ∗
.

Then x = ax1 x2 , where [q1 , B1 , q2 ] →klm1 x1 , [q2 , B2 , p] →klm2 x2 ,

and k1 + k2 = i − 1.
From the I.H. we obtain (q1 , B1 , x1 ) �kM1 (q2 , ε, ε) and
(q2 , B2 , x2 ) �kM2 (p, ε, ε).

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Proof of Theorem 3.20 (cont.)

Proof of Claim (cont.)

Hence, we have
(q1 , B2 B1 , x1 ) �kM1 (q2 , B2 , ε).
As (q1 , B2 B1 ) ∈ δ(q, a, A), this yields the following computation:

(q, A, x) = (q, A, ax1 x2 ) �M (q1 , B2 B1 , x1 x2 )

�kM1 (q2 , B2 , x2 ) �kM2 (p, ε, ε),

that is, we have (q, A, x) �iM (p, ε, ε).

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Proof of Theorem 3.20 (cont.)

For all x ∈ Σ∗ we have the following equivalent statements:
x ∈ L(G) iff S →∗lm x
iff S → [q0 , #, q] →ilm x for some q ∈ Q and i ≥ 1
iff (q0 , #, x) �iM (q, ε, ε).
It follows that L(G) = N(M).

Corollary 3.21
For each language L ⊆ Σ∗ , the following statements are equivalent:
(1) L ∈ CFL(Σ), that is, L is generated by a context-free grammar.
(2) L is generated by a context-free grammar in CNF.
(3) L is generated by a context-free grammar in Greibach NF.
(4) There exists a PDA M such that L = N(M).
(5) There exists a PDA M such that L = L(M).
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3.5. Closure Properties

Theorem 3.22
The class of context-free languages CFL is closed under the
operations of union, product, Kleene star, and morphism.

Proof.

(a) Let G1 = (N1 , Σ, P1 , S1 ), G2 = (N2 , Σ, P2 , S2 ), N1 ∩ N2 = ∅.

For G3 := (N1 ∪ N2 ∪ {S}, Σ, P1 ∪ P2 ∪ {S → S1 |S2 }, S),
we have L(G3 ) = L(G1 ) ∪ L(G2 ).
(b) For G4 := (N1 ∪ N2 ∪ {S}, Σ, P1 ∪ P2 ∪ {S → S1 S2 }, S),
we have L(G4 ) = L(G1 ) · L(G2 ).
(c) W.l.o.g.: S1 does not occur on the right-hand side of P1 .
For G5 := (N1 ∪ {S}, Σ, P1 ∪ {S → ε|S1 |SS1 } � {S1 → ε}, S),
we have L(G5 ) = (L(G1 ))∗ .

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Proof of Theorem 3.22 (cont.)

(d) Let h : Σ∗ → Γ∗ be a morphism.

For G6 := (N1 , Γ, { A → h(r ) | (A → r ) ∈ P1 }, S1 ), where h is
extended to a morphism h : (N1 ∪ Σ)∗ → (N1 ∪ Γ)∗ by taking
h(A) = A for all A ∈ N1 , we have L(G6 ) = h(L(G1 )).

Theorem 3.23
The class CFL is not closed under intersection nor under complement.

Proof.
L1 := { ai bj c j | i, j > 0 } ∈ CFL and L2 := { ai bi c j | i, j > 0 } ∈ CFL,
but L1 ∩ L2 = { ai bi c i | i > 0 } �∈ CFL, that is,
CFL is not closed under intersection.
L1 ∩ L2 = (L1 ∪ L2 ), that is,
CFL is not closed under complement, either.
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Theorem 3.24
The class CFL is closed under intersection with regular languages,
that is, if L ∈ CFL and R ∈ REG, then L ∩ R ∈ CFL.

Proof.
Let M = (Q, Σ, Γ, δ, q0 , Z0 , F ) be a PDA, and
let A = (P, Σ, η, p0 , G) be a DFA.
We define a PDA M � := (Q × P, Σ, Γ, δ � , (q0 , p0 ), Z0 , F × G) by taking

δ � ((q, p), a, A) = { ((q � , p� ), α) | (q � , α) ∈ δ(q, a, A), p� = η(p, a) },

δ � ((q, p), ε, A) = { ((q � , p), α) | (q � , α) ∈ δ(q, ε, A) },

where q, q � ∈ Q, p, p� ∈ P, a ∈ Σ, A ∈ Γ, and α ∈ Γ∗ .
Then it is easily seen that L(M � ) = L(M) ∩ L(A).

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Theorem 3.25
Let L ⊆ Σ∗ be a context-free language, and let w ∈ Σ∗ . Then the
left quotient w \ L := { u ∈ Σ∗ | wu ∈ L } is a context-free language.

Proof.
Let M = (Q, Σ, Γ, δ, q0 , Z0 , F ) be a PDA without ε-transitions,
and let w ∈ Σ∗ . Actually, we only consider the special case that
w = b ∈ Σ.
We define a PDA M � := (Q ∪ {p0 }, Σ, Γ, δ � , p0 , Z0 , F ) by taking

δ � (p0 , ε, Z0 ) = δ(q0 , b, Z0 ) and

δ � (q, a, A) = δ(q, a, A) for all q ∈ Q, a ∈ Σ, and A ∈ Γ.

Then N(M � ) = b \ N(M).

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Remark:
We saw in Section 3 that the language
L := { ai bj c k d � | i, j, k , � ≥ 0, and i > 0 implies j = k = � }
satisfies the Pumping Lemma for context-free languages.

Claim:
L is not context-free.

Proof.
Assume that L is context-free. Then also the language
L� := L ∩ a · b∗ · c ∗ · d ∗ = { abn c n d n | n ≥ 0 }
is context-free, and so is the language a \ L� = { bn c n d n | n ≥ 0 },
which, however, is not context-free by the Pumping Lemma,
a contradiction!
Thus, it follows that L is not context-free.
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Theorem 3.26
The class CFL is closed under inverse morphisms, that is,
if L ∈ CFL(Δ), and if h : Σ∗ → Δ∗ is a morphism, then
h−1 (L) = { w ∈ Σ∗ | h(w) ∈ L } ∈ CFL(Σ).

Proof.
Let h : Σ∗ → Δ∗ be a morphism, and
let M = (Q, Δ, Γ, δ, q0 , Z0 , F ) be a PDA s.t. L(M) = L.
We construct a PDA M � = (Q � , Σ, Γ, δ � , q0� , Z0 , F � ) for
L� := h−1 (L) = { w ∈ Σ∗ | h(w) ∈ L } :
– Q � := { [q, x] | q ∈ Q, and x is a suffix of h(a), a ∈ Σ },
– q0� := [q0 , ε],
– F� := { [q, ε] | q ∈ F }, and
– δ � is defined by:

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Proof of Theorem 3.26 (cont.)

(1) δ � ([q, ax], ε, A) = { ([p, x], γ) | (p, γ) ∈ δ(q, a, A) }
∪ { ([p, ax], γ) | (p, γ) ∈ δ(q, ε, A) },
(2) δ � ([q, ε], a, A) = {([q, h(a)], A)} for all a ∈ Σ.

The second component of the states of M � is used as a “buffer” for

storing the word h(a) for a letter a ∈ Σ read. This word is then
processed through a simulation of a computation of M.
It follows that h−1 (L) ⊆ L(M � ).
Concersely, let w = a1 a2 · · · an ∈ L(M � ).
A transition reading a letter a ∈ Σ can only be applied if and when the
buffer is empty, that is, each accepting computation of M � on input w
can be written as follows:

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Proof of Theorem 3.26 (cont.)

([q0 , ε], Z0 , a1 a2 · · · an )
�∗M � ([p1 , ε], α1 , a1 a2 · · · an ) (simulating ε-transitions of M)
�M � ([p1 , h(a1 )], α1 , a2 · · · an ) (h(a1 ) is “read”)
�∗M � ([p2 , ε], α2 , a2 . . . an ) (for (p1 , α1 , h(a1 )) �∗M (p2 , α2 , ε))
..
.
�M � ([pn , h(an )], αn , ε) (h(an ) is “read”)
�∗M � ([pn+1 , ε], αn+1 , ε) (for (pn , αn , h(an )) �∗M (pn+1 , αn+1 , ε)).

It follows that
(q0 , Z0 , h(a1 a2 · · · an )) = (q0 , Z0 , h(a1 )h(a2 ) · · · h(an )) �∗M (pn+1 , αn+1 , ε).
As M � accepts, pn+1 ∈ F , which implies that M accepts, too.
Thus, L(M � ) = h−1 (L), which yields h−1 (L) ∈ CFL(Σ).

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In analogy to Corollary 2.29 we have the following closure property.

Corollary 3.27
The class CFL is closed under finite transductions, that is, if
T ⊆ Σ∗ × Δ∗ is a finite transduction, and if L ∈ CFL(Σ), then
T (L) ∈ CFL(Δ).

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