CHAPTER TWO

COMPUTER NETWORKING CONCEPTS

What is Computer Network?

Computer network is interconnectivity of two or more computer system for purpose of
sharing data. A computer network is a communication system much like a telephone
system, any connected device can use the network to send and receive information. In
essence a computer network consists of two or more computers connected to each other
so that they can share resources. Networking arose from the need to share resources in
a timely fashion.
Sharing expensive peripherals is often promoted as the primary reason to network. But
this is not a sufficient reason. In considering the cost benefits of sharing, we find some
impressive arguments against networking. With today more affordable technology, we
can easily dedicate inexpensive peripherals and not bother with a network. Desktops and
laptops are getting less expensive as their capacities increase. As a result the local hard
disk is becoming common place and is frequently dedicated to a local desktop or laptop.
Flash drives and external hard disks now has enough storage for uses.

Why computer networking

These are serious considerations but only part of the picture. When viewed as a system,
networking has some powerful arguments in its favour. In most cases organizations with
multiple computer systems should network them for the following reasons:
1. Sharing of peripherals can be justified as a “shared resource”, with the result that
speed and quality are improved and Mean Time Between Failure (MTBF) is
increased. Sharing in a properly designed network improves the reliability of the
entire system. When a device fails, another one is ready to fill the void while repairs
are being made.
2. Better response time can be achieved through networking. The speed with which
a request is answered is a crucial factor in computing. After all, most jobs
performed by a computer can be done with pencil and paper. When you buy a
computer, you are buying speed more than capability. Better response time
through networking is in no way guarantee. In fact, inefficient use of the network
will quickly result in unacceptably poor response. The elements needed for
superior performance, however, are part of most networks. If properly
implemented, a computer network will be more efficient that stand-alone
computers or network terminals and will equal or surpass stand-alone computer
performance.
3. The peripherals attached to a network tend to be faster than those dedicated to
stand-alone computers. The bandwidth of all the local area network far exceeds
the speed capability of a stand-alone computer. For many applications the
computer, not the network, is the bottleneck. But since a local area network is by
definition a multiple processor system, the possibility exists for sharing the
processing load across several microprocessors, which is similar to parallel
processing. You may not be able to speed up the computer itself, but you can
speed up the results.
 4. Often overlooked in an evaluation of networking is its organization benefit.
Departments, companies, corporations, and institutions are all organizations,
which imply interaction and team work. Without networking, the personal
computer has been a powerful but isolated device. Its output has been difficult to
integrate into the organization mainstream, so its value has been limited. In some
instances the isolated personal computer has even created serious threats of data
loss.
Networking is a communications mechanism that ties the isolated computer systems into
the organization. In a networking environment, being able to communicate and share
data encourages continuity and compatibility so that administrative chores can be
systematized. For example, the task of backing up the data can be assigned to a particular
individual, rather than left as an afterthought to each employee.

Protocol and Standards In Networking

In computer networks, communication occurs between entities in different systems. An
entity is anything capable of sending or receiving information. However, two entities
cannot simply send bit streams to each other and expect to be understood. For
communication to occur, the entities must agree on a protocol.
A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It defines what is
communicated, how it is communicated, and when it is communicated. The key elements
of a protocol are syntax, semantics, and timing.
 Syntax. The term syntax refers to the structure of format of the data, meaning
the order in which they are presented. For example, a simple protocol might expect
the first 8 bits of data to be the address of the sender, the second 8 bits to be the
address of the receiver, and the rest of the stream to be the message itself.
 Semantics. The word semantics refers to the meaning of each section of bits.
How is a particular pattern to be interpreted, and what action is to be taken based
on that interpretation? For example, does an address identify the route to be taken
or the final destination of the message?
 Timing. The term timing refers to two characteristics: when data should be sent
and how fast they can be sent. For example, if a sender produces data at 100
Mbps but the receiver can process data at only 1 Mbps, the transmission will
overload the receiver and some= data will be lost.
Standards are essential in creating and maintaining an open and competitive market for
equipment manufacturers and in guaranteeing national and international interoperability
of data and telecommunications technology and processes. Standards provide guidelines
to manufacturers, vendors, government agencies, and other service providers to ensure
the kind of interconnectivity necessary in today's marketplace and in international
communications.
Data communication standards fall into two categories: de facto (meaning "by fact" or
"by convention") and de jure (meaning "by law" or "by regulation").
 De facto. Standards that have not been approved by an organized body but have
been adopted as standards through widespread use are de facto standards. De
facto standards are often established originally by manufacturers who seek to
define the functionality of a new product or technology.
  De jure. Those standards that have been legislated by an officially recognized
body are de jure standards

Standards Organizations
Standards are developed through the cooperation of standards creation committees,
forums, and government regulatory agencies.

Standards Creation Committees

While many organizations are dedicated to the establishment of standards, data
telecommunications in North America rely primarily on those published by the following:
 International Organization for Standardization (ISO). The ISO is a
multinational body whose membership is drawn mainly from the standards
creation committees of various governments throughout the world. The ISO is
active in developing cooperation in the realms of scientific, technological, and
economic activity.
 International Telecommunication UnionTelecommunication Standards
Sector (ITU-T). By the early 1970s, a number of countries were defining national
standards for telecommunications, but there was still little international
compatibility. The United Nations responded by forming, as part of its International
Telecommunication Union (ITU), a committee, the Consultative Committee for
International Telegraphy and Telephony (CCITT). This committee was devoted to
the research and establishment of standards for telecommunications in general
and for phone and data systems in particular. On March 1, 1993, the name of this
committee was changed to the International Telecommunication Union
Telecommunication Standards Sector (ITU-T).
 American National Standards Institute (ANSI). Despite its name, the
American National Standards Institute is a completely private, nonprofit
corporation not affiliated with the U.S. federal government. However, all ANSI
activities are undertaken with the welfare of the United States and its citizens
occupying primary importance.
 Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). The Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers is the largest professional engineering society
in the world. International in scope, it aims to advance theory, creativity, and
product quality in the fields of electrical engineering, electronics, and radio as well
as in all related branches of engineering. As one of its goals, the IEEE oversees
the development and adoption of international standards for computing and
communications.
 Electronic Industries Association (EIA). Aligned with ANSI, the Electronic
Industries Association is a nonprofit organization devoted to the promotion of
electronics manufacturing concerns. Its activities include public awareness
education and lobbying efforts in addition to standards development. In the field
of information technology, the EIA has made significant contributions by defining
physical connection interfaces and electronic signalling specifications for data
communication.
Types of Network
There are several different types of computer networks. Computer networks can be
characterized by their size as well as their purpose. The size of a network can be
expressed by the geographic area they occupy and number of computers that are part of
the network. Networks can cover anything from a handful of devices within a single room
to millions of devices spread across the entire globe.
Personal Area Network
A personal area network (PAN) is the interconnection of information technology
devices within the range of an individual person, typically within a range of 10
meters. For example, a person traveling with a laptop, a personal digital assistant
(PDA), and a portable printer could interconnect them without having to plug
anything in, using some form of wireless technology. Typically, this kind of
personal area network could also be interconnected without wires to the Internet
or other networks. PANs can be used for communication among the personal
devices themselves (intrapersonal communication), or for connecting to a higher
level network and the Internet (an uplink). However, it is possible to have multiple
individuals using this same network within a residence. If this is the case we can
refer to the network as Home Area network (HAN). In this type of setup, all the
devices are connected together using both wired and/or wireless. All networked
devices can be connected to a single modem as a gateway to the Internet. See
figure 5.

Local Area Network

A local area network (LAN) is usually privately owned and links the devices in a
single office, building, or campus. Depending on the needs of an organization and
type of technology used, a LAN can be as simple as two desktops and a printer in
someone‟s home office; or it can extend throughout a company and include audio
and video peripherals. Currently, LAN size is limited to a few kilometers. In addition
to the size, LANs are distinguished from other types of networks by their
transmission media and topology. In general, a given LAN will use only one type
of transmission medium. LANs are designed to allow resources to be shared
between personal computers or workstations. Early LANs had data rates in the 4
to 16 mega-bits-per-seconds (Mbps). Today, however, speeds are normally
100Mbps or 1000Mbps. Wireless LANs (WLAN) are the newest evolution in LAN
technology. See figure 6.

Metropolitan Area Network

A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a network with a size between a LAN and a
WAN. It normally covers the area inside a town or a city. It is designed for
customers who need a highspeed connectivity, normally to the internet, and have
endpoints spread over a city or part of city. A good example of a MAN is part of
the telephone company network that can provide a high-speed DSL line to the
customer.
 Wide Area Network
A wide area network (WAN) provides long-distance transmission of data, image,
audio, and video information over large geographic areas that may comprise a
country, a continent, or even the whole world. A WAN can be as complex as the
backbones that connect the Internet or as simple as a dial-up line that connects a
home computer to the internet. We normally refer to the first one as a switched
WAN and to the second as a point-to-point WAN. The switched WAN connects the
end systems, which usually comprise a router (internetworking connecting device)
that connects to another LAN or WAN. The point-to-point WAN is normally a line
leased from a telephone or cable TV provider that connects a home computer or
a small LAN to an internet service provider (ISP). A good example of a switched
WAN is X.25, the asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) network. See figure 8.

Network Topologies
The term topology in computer networking refers to the way in which a network is laid
out physically. Two or more devices connect to a link; two or more links form a topology.
The topology of a network is the geometric representation of the relationship of all links
and linking devices (usually called nodes) to one another. The cost and flexibility of a
network installation are partly affected by as is system reliability. Many network
topologies are commonly used, but they all have certain similarities. Information is carried
either through space (wireless) or cable. The cable must control the movement of
information on the network so that data can be transmitted in a reliable manner. There
are four basic topologies possible: mesh, star, bus, and ring. See Figure 9.
 Bus Topology
The Bus topology consists of a single cable that runs to every work-station. See
figure 10. The bus topology is also known as linear bus. In other words, all the
nodes (computers and servers) are connected to the single cable (called bus), by
the help of interface connectors. This central cable is the back bone of the network
and every workstation communicates with the other device through this bus.

Computers on a bus topology network communicate by addressing data to a particular

computer and putting that data on the cable in the form of electronic signals. To
understand how computers communicate on a bus you need to be familiar with three
concepts:
i. Sending the signal: Network data in the form of electronic signals is sent to all
of the computers on the network; however, the information is accepted only
by the computer whose address matches the address encoded in the original
signal. Only one computer at a time can send messages.
Because only one computer at a time can send data on a bus network, network
performance is affected by the number of computers attached to the bus. The more
computers on a bus, the more computers there will be waiting to put data on the bus,
and the slower the network. There is no standard measure for the impact of numbers
of computers on any given network. The amount the network slows down is not solely
related to the number of computers on the network. It depends on numerous factors
including:
 Hardware capacities of computers on the network
 Number of times computers on the network transmit data
 Type of applications being run on the network
 Types of cable used on the network
 Distance between computers on the network
The bus is a passive topology. Computers on a bus only listen for data being sent on
the network. They are not responsible for moving data from one computer to the
next. If one computer fails, it does not affect the rest of the network. In active
topology computers regenerate signals and move data along the network.
ii. Signal Bounce: Because the data, or electronic signal, is sent to the entire
network, it will travel from one end of the cable to the other. If the signal were
allowed to continue uninterrupted, it would keep bouncing back and forth along
the cable and prevent other computers from sending signals. Therefore, the
signal must be stopped.
The Terminator: To stop the signal from bouncing, a component called a terminator
is placed at each end of the cable to absorb free signals. Absorbing the signal clears
the cable so that other computers can send data. Every cable end on the network
must be plugged into something. For example, a cable end could be plugged into a
computer or a connector to extend the cable length. Any open cable ends-ends not
plugged into something – must be terminated to prevent signal bounce.
In bus topology nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps. See
figure 11. A drop line is a connection running between the device and the main cable.
A tap is a connector that either splices into the main cable or punctures the sheathing
of a cable to create a contact with the metallic core. As a signal travels along the
backbone, some of its energy is transformed into heat. Therefore, it becomes weaker
and weaker as it travels farther and farther. For this reason there is a limit on the
number of taps a bus can support and on the distance between those taps.

Advantages of Linear Bus Topology

1. It is easy to set-up and extend bus network.
2. Cable length required for this topology is the least compared to other
networks.
 3. Bus topology very cheap.
4. Linear Bus network is mostly used in small networks.
Disadvantages of Linear Bus Topology
1. There is a limit on central cable length and number of nodes that can be
connected.
2. Dependency on central cable in this topology has its disadvantages. If the
main cable (i.e. bus) encounters some problem, whole network breaks
down.
3. Proper termination is required to dump signals. Use of terminators is must.
4. It is difficult to detect and troubleshoot fault at individual station.
5. Maintenance costs can get higher with time.
6. Efficiency of Bus network reduces, as the number of devices connected to
it increases.
7. It is not suitable for networks with heavy traffic.
8. Security is very low because all the computers receive the sent signal from
the source.

Ring Topology
The ring topology connects computers on a single circle of cable. There are no
terminated ends. A ring topology connects one host to the next and the last host
to the first. The signal travels around the loop in one direction and pass through
each computer. Unlike the passive bus topology, each computer acts like a
repeater to boost the signal and send it on to the next computer. Because the
signal passes through each computer, the failure of one computer can impact the
entire network.

One method of transmitting data around a ring is called token passing. The token
is passed from computer to computer until it gets to a computer that has data to
send. The sending computer modifies the token, puts an electronic address on the
data, and sends it around the ring.
Advantages of Ring Topology
1. This type of network topology is very organized. Each node gets to send
the data when it receives an empty token. This helps to reduces chances
 of collision. Also in ring topology all the traffic flows in only one direction
at very high speed.
2. Even when the load on the network increases, its performance is better
than that of Bus topology.
3. There is no need for network server to control the connectivity between
workstations.
4. Additional components do not affect the performance of network.
5. Each computer has equal access to resources.
Disadvantages of Ring Topology
1. Each packet of data must pass through all the computers between
source and destination. This makes it slower than Star topology.
2. If one workstation or port goes down, the entire network gets affected.
3. Network is highly dependent on the wire which connects different
components.
4. MAU‟s and network cards are expensive as compared to Ethernet cards
and hubs.

Star Topology
In the star topology, computers are connected by cable segments to centralized
component, called a hub or switch. Signals are transmitted from the sending
computer through the hub or switch to all computers on the network. This topology
originated in the early days of computing with computers connected to a
centralized mainframe computer. It is now a common topology in microcomputer
networking. Each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a central
controller, usually called a hub. The devices are not directly linked to one another.
Unlike a mesh topology, a star topology does not allow direct traffic between
devices. The controller acts as an exchange: If one device wants to send data to
another, it sends the data to the controller, which then relays the data to the other
connected device (see Figure 11)

The star network offers centralized resources and management. However, because
each computer is connected to a central point, this topology requires a great deal
of cable in a large network installation. Also, if the central point fails, the entire
network goes down.
Advantages of Star Topology
1. As compared to Bus topology it gives far much better performance,
signals don‟t necessarily get transmitted to all the workstations. A sent
signal reaches the intended destination after passing through no more
than 3-4 devices and 2-3 links. Performance of the network is dependent
on the capacity of central hub.
2. Easy to connect new nodes or devices. In star topology new nodes can
be added easily without affecting rest of the network. Similarly
components can also be removed easily.
3. Centralized management. It helps in monitoring the network.
4. Failure of one node or link doesn‟t affect the rest of network. At the
same time it is easy to detect the failure and troubleshoot it.
Disadvantages of Star Topology
1. Too much dependency on central device has its own drawbacks. If it
fails whole network goes down.
2. The use of hub, a router or a switch as central device increases the
overall cost of the network.
3. Performance and as well number of nodes which can be added in such
topology is depended on capacity of central device.
Mesh Topology
In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point-topoint link to every other
device. The term dedicated means that the link carries traffic only between the
two devices it connects. In a mesh topology, Node1 must be connected to n1
nodes, node2 must be connected to (n – 1) nodes, and finally node n must be
connected to (n – 1) nodes. We need n(n - 1) physical links. In other words, we
can say that in a mesh topology, we need n (n  1) / 2 .
To accommodate many links, every device on the network must have (n – 1)
input/output (I/O) ports to be connected to the (n – 1) stations as shown in Figure
above. For these reasons a mesh topology is usually implemented in a limited
fashion, as a backbone connecting the main computers of a hybrid network that
can include several other topologies. One practical example of a mesh topology is
the connection of telephone regional offices in which each regional office needs to
be connected to every other regional office.
Advantages of Mesh topology
1. Data can be transmitted from different devices simultaneously. This
topology can withstand high traffic.
2. Even if one of the components fails there is always an alternative
present. So data transfer doesn‟t get affected.
3. Expansion and modification in topology can be done without disrupting
other nodes.
Disadvantages of Mesh topology
1. There are high chances of redundancy in many of the network
connections.
2. Overall cost of this network is way too high as compared to other
network topologies.
3. Set-up and maintenance of this topology is very difficult. Even
administration of the network is tough.

Hybrid Topology
Before starting about Hybrid topology, we saw that a network topology is a
connection of various links and nodes, communicating with each other for transfer
of data. We also saw various advantages and disadvantages of Star, Bus, Ring,
Mesh. Hybrid, as the name suggests, is mixture of two different things. Similarly
in this type of topology we integrate two or more different topologies to form a
resultant topology which has good points (as well as weaknesses) of all the
constituent basic topologies rather than having characteristics of one specific
topology. This combination of topologies is done according to the requirements of
the organization.
For example, if there is an existing ring topology in one office department while a
bus topology in another department, connecting these two will result in Hybrid
topology. Remember connecting two similar topologies cannot be termed as
Hybrid topology. Star-Ring and Star-Bus networks are most common examples of
hybrid network. (see figure 12).

Advantages of Hybrid Network Topology

1. Reliable: Unlike other networks, fault detection and troubleshooting is easy
in this type of topology. The part in which fault is detected can be isolated
from the rest of network and required corrective measures can be taken,
WITHOUT affecting the functioning of rest of the network.
2. Scalable: It‟s easy to increase the size of network by adding new
components, without disturbing existing architecture.
3. Flexible: Hybrid Network can be designed according to the requirements of
the organization and by optimizing the available resources. Special care can
be given to nodes where traffic is high as well as where chances of 45 fault
are high.
4. Effective: Hybrid topology is the combination of two or more topologies, so
we can design it in such a way that strengths of constituent topologies are
maximized while there weaknesses are neutralized. For example we saw
Ring Topology has good data reliability (achieved by use of tokens) and
Star topology has high tolerance capability (as each node is not directly
 connected to other but through central device), so these two can be used
effectively in hybrid star-ring topology.
Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology
1. Complexity of Design: One of the biggest drawbacks of hybrid topology is
its design. It is not easy to design this type of architecture and it‟s a tough
job for designers. Configuration and installation process needs to be very
efficient.
2. Costly Hub: The hubs used to connect two distinct networks, are very
expensive. These hubs are different from usual hubs as they need to be
intelligent enough to work with different architectures and should be
function even if a part of network is down.
3. Costly Infrastructure: As hybrid architectures are usually larger in scale,
they require a lot of cables; cooling systems, sophisticate network devices,
etc.