Unit 2 Equipment Design
Unit 2 Equipment Design
➢ For an ideal thin wall (thickness to diameter ratio < 0.1) cylindrical process vessel (for low pressure
applications) or if the shell is thin,
➢ Assumption of an ideal thin walled pressure vessel:- uniform stress distribution throughout the pressure vessel
thickness
➢ Let a cylindrical vessel of length L, diameter Do (Di + 2t) and thickness t is subjected to an internal pressure p
DESIGN OF THIN-WALLED VESSELS SUBJECTED TO INTERNAL PRESSURE
1) Hoop stress or Circumferential stress or Membrane stress - a normal stress in the tangential
direction - The stress that builds up around the vessel's circumference (perpendicular to the axis) in
both directions on every particle in the cylinder wall when internal pressure is applied
Force pLDi pDi
➢Hoop stress or Circumferential stress = σθ or σc = = =
area 2tL 2t
2) Longitudinal stress or Axial stress - a normal stress parallel to the axis of cylindrical symmetry
➢Longitudinal stress or Axial stress = σz
➢FORCE balance:-
longitudinal forces acting on a transverse section of the cylinder = force at/against the end of
the cylinder
π(Di)2
πDit σz = p
4
pDi
σz =
4t
3) Radial stress - a normal stress in directions coplanar with but perpendicular to the symmetry axis
➢Radial stress = σr = p
DESIGN OF THIN-WALLED VESSELS SUBJECTED TO INTERNAL PRESSURE
➢For an ideal thin wall (thickness to diameter ratio < 0.1) spherical process vessel (for low
pressure applications) or if the shell is thin,
➢Let a spherical vessel of diameter Do (Di + 2t) and thickness t is subjected to an internal pressure p
➢For a thin sphere subject to internal pressure, the hoop and longitudinal stresses can be found out to
be equal to the longitudinal stress in a cylinder
pDi
σz = σθ =
4t
σr = p
❖NOTE 1:- In design of process vessels under internal pressure, the minimum absolute stress value is
given by a sphere: σz = σθ = σmin
❖NOTE 2:- Required thickness of a sphere for a given set of conditions is one half that necessary for a
cylinder
❖NOTE 3:- In case of cylindrical vessel, the circumferential stress, or hoop, is twice as great as the
axial stress, and the hoop stress should never exceed the maximum allowable stress
DESIGN OF THICK-WALLED VESSELS SUBJECTED TO INTERNAL PRESSURE
➢ For a thick wall (thickness to diameter ratio > 0.1) process vessel or if the shell is thick,
• the variation in the stress from the inner surface to the outer surface becomes appreciable
• previous formulae are not satisfactory
• Lame's analysis is used in this case
➢ Let a cylindrical vessel of length L, diameter Do (Di + 2t) and thickness t is subjected to an internal pressure p
➢ The expressions of various stresses are as follows:-
ri 2p ro 2
σθ = {1 + }
ro 2 − ri 2
r 2
ri 2p ro 2
σr = {1 - }
ro 2 − ri 2
r 2
ri 2p
σz =
ro 2 − ri 2
❖ NOTE 1:- The value of hoop stress (σθ) is the greatest among all and is the maximum at the inner periphery (r = ri) of the
cylinder
❖ NOTE 2:- For the design purposes, the hoop stress at r = ri should be taken as critical or allowable stress (f)
❖ NOTE 3:- The chemical process equipment is generally fabricated with sheet metals necessitating the end-joints, which
reduces the allowable strength of the material with a joint efficiency factor (J)
DESIGN OF THICK-WALLED VESSELS SUBJECTED TO INTERNAL PRESSURE
❖ NOTE 1:- The above equation is the basis for all design equations specified in the IS codes for internal pressure vessels
2𝑡
Do t 1+
Di
❖ NOTE 2:- If ≤ 1.5 or ≤ 0.25, then1.2 ≤ { 𝑡 } ≤ 1.0
Di Di 1+
Di
2𝑡
1+
Di
❖ NOTE 3:- As per the IS code: 2825-1969, { 𝑡 } = 1.0
1+
Di
DESIGN OF THICK-WALLED VESSELS SUBJECTED TO INTERNAL PRESSURE
2𝑡
1+ D
➢ Putting { 𝑡i } = 1.0 in the expression of p,
1+
Di
2fJt 2fJt
p= =
Di + 𝑡 Do − 𝑡
𝑝 Di 𝑝 Do
t= =
2fJ − 𝑝 2fJ + 𝑝
ri 2p
fJ =
ro 2 − ri 2
4𝑓𝐽𝑡 𝑝
= 𝑡
Di + 𝑡 1+ 2
Di
DESIGN OF THICK-WALLED VESSELS SUBJECTED TO INTERNAL PRESSURE
t 𝑡
❖NOTE:- If ≤ 0.25, As per the IS code: 2825-1969, 1 + = 1.0
Di Di
𝑡
➢ Putting 1 + = 1.0 in the expression of p,
Di
4𝑓𝐽𝑡 4𝑓𝐽𝑡
p= =
Di + 𝑡 Do − 𝑡
𝑝 Di 𝑝 Do
t= =
4fJ − 𝑝 4fJ + 𝑝
❖NOTE:- The expressions of “t” do not include any extra allowances necessary to take care of corrosion. After
adding the appropriate allowances to the theoretically calculated wall thickness, the final value is to be chosen
from the standard thickness of the sheet metal available in the market and this should be equal to or higher
than the calculated value.
DESIGN EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE - A process vessel is to be designed for the maximum operating pressure of 500 kN/m2 . The vessel has the nominal
diameter of 1.2 m and tangent to tangent length of 2.4 m. The vessel is made of IS : 2002—1962 Grade 2B quality steel having
allowable design stress value of 118 MN/m2 at working temperature. The corrosion allowance is suggested to be 2 mm for the
life span expected for the vessel. The vessel is to be fabricated according to class 2 of Indian Standard specifications which
stipulate the weld joint efficiency of 0.85. (a) What will be the standard plate thickness to fabricate this vessel ? (b) If a
spherical vessel having the same diameter and thickness is fabricated with the same quality steel, what maximum internal
pressure the sphere will withstand safely ?
SOLUTION – For a cylindrical vessel,
t 𝒑 𝐃𝒐
Assuming ≤ 0.25, t =
Di 𝟐𝐟𝐉 + 𝒑
Symbols
t – thickness
ri – knuckle radius
Ri – crown radius
Sf – straight flange height
ho – dished height outside
Do – outside diameter
DESIGN OF HEADS
Flat Heads
1. Flat covers are generally used for manholes in low pressure vessels or to blind any flanged
opening
2. They can also be used as closures for small diameter vessels operating at low pressure
3. For larger vessels or at higher pressure, the flat head cover will be too bulky; otherwise, it
will tend to collapse
4. The discontinuity stresses at the junction of head and shell are high
5. From fabrication point of view, this is the simplest type head to construct just cutting a
circular piece from a flat plate
6. For a particular diameter and operating conditions, material cost for flat head is maximum,
though, fabrication cost is very low
DESIGN OF HEADS
Flanged-only Head
1. This is also a type of flat head in which the gradual change in the shape at the corner results in reduced local stresses
2. This head is very economical to fabricate and finds its widest application in closing the ends of horizontal storage vessels
at atmospheric pressure to store liquids having low vapor pressures, such as, fuel oil, kerosene, etc.
3. It is also used as bottom heads of vertical cylindrical vessels that rest on concrete slab
Flanged Shallow Dished and Flanged Standard Dished Heads
1. While pressing into dished shape, such heads consist of two radii, namely, 'crown' radius and 'knuckle' radius
2. Flanged Shallow Dished Head - crown radius > shell outside diameter (equal to 150% of outside diameter)
3. Flanged Standard Dished Head - crown radius (Ri) ≤ shell outside diameter (Do)
4. Shape-wise difference between Flanged Shallow Dished Head & Flanged Standard Dished Head – the former head is less
deeper; i.e., not much distance between top and bottom compared to the latter one
5. Flanged Shallow Dished Head - it can save money and room on the overall height or length of the vessel you're building
6. To increase the pressure rating of flanged and dished heads, the local stresses at the inside corner of the head must be
reduced. This can be achieved by forming the head with inside corner (knuckle) radius not less than three times the metal
thickness and also not less than 6 per cent of the inside diameter.
7. IS code:- inside corner radius (ri) should preferably be not less than 10% of inside diameter and also inside crown radius
(Ri) should not be greater than outside diameter (Do)
8. Heads of this type are used for pressure vessels in the general pressure range of from 0.1-1.5 MN/m2
DESIGN OF HEADS
Hemispherical Heads
1. A sphere is the ideal shape for a head because the stresses are distributed evenly through the material of the
head
2. The radius of the head equals the radius of the cylindrical part of the vessel
3. For a given thickness, this type of heads is the strongest among the formed heads
4. These heads can be used to resist approximately twice the pressure rating of an ellipsoidal dished head or
cylindrical shell of the same thickness and diameter
5. The degree of forming and the accompanying costs are greater than for any of the commonly used heads
6. Also the available sizes formed from single plates are more limited
7. Small heads are made by spinning
8. Large hemi-spherical heads are fabricated by welding or by forging
9. This type of head is the most expensive but it is widely used in heavy duty high pressure vessels due to the
fact that the most efficient use of the material is achieved
10. Since the hemispherical head has complete curvature over the cylindrical shell, it does not require flanges
❑ Metal spinning is a metalworking process that
transforms a workpiece into axially symmetrical
round shapes
❑ It is accomplished by the application of lateral force
by a roller positioned against the surface of the
workpiece and a mandrel that is spinning on its axis
at high speed
❑ The mandrel serves as support for the workpiece
and gives it its final shape.
❑ The process of metal spinning deforms a circular
metal sheet such that it achieves various shapes
without stripping away material from the workpiece.
❑ Mandrel - It is a forming die that gives shape to the metal
workpiece and has the interior shape of the finished part. It
supports the workpiece as it is rapidly spun. Continuous
rotation and spinning of the workpiece ensures that it is
deformed evenly.
❑ Roller - it is a rigid tool that applies localized force referred
to as the partial work zone where plastic deformation takes
place. The force causes the workpiece to flow over the
mandrel in order to transform it to the desired shape.
❑ Spindle - The spindle of the headstock is a shaft where the
mandrel is mounted. It is responsible for rotating the
mandrel and the workpiece during forming.
DESIGN OF HEADS
where,
t = thickness in mm
De = effective diameter of the flat head in mm = Di = inside diameter of shell = Do – 2 x ts
p = design pressure in MN/m2
f = allowable stress of material in MN/m2
C = a factor depending upon the method of attachment of flat head to shell
❖NOTE:- The above expression of “t” is given in IS : 2825—1969 for calculating the flat head
thickness
DESIGN EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE - If the process vessel of Previous Design Example is to be provided with a flanged flat cover, determine the thickness of
the head. Assume that the same material is used for the construction of head and shell.Take C = 0.45.
SOLUTION – We have,
p = 525x1000 N/m2 = 0.525 MN/m2
f = 118x106 N/m2 = 118 MN/m2 (since same material is used for the construction of head and shell)
C = 0.45
De = Di = Do – 2 x ts = 1200 – 2 x 5 = 1190 mm
Putting all these values in following expression,
𝑝
t = C De√
𝑓
0.525
t = 0.45 x 1190 x √ = 35.9 mm
118
t = 35.9 + 2 = 37.9 mm (2 mm corrosion allowance)
t = 1.06 x 37.9 mm = 40.2 mm (adding 6% for the reduction in thickness at the torus section)
Theoretically calculated required minimum thickness of flanged flat cover = 40.2 mm
Standard plate thickness for the head = 45 mm
❖ NOTE:- If reduction of thickness during forming is less, then a 40 mm plate can also be recommended/used
DESIGN OF HEADS
➢ Design equation for the calculation of thickness of various heads
Conical Head
➢ Geometry of a cone may be compared with that of a cylinder in which the diameter is continuously changing
➢ For a cone, the radius of curvature at any section is not same as the radius of curvature of the element at that section in
the hoop direction, while for a cylinder both are same
➢ If diameter is appropriately modified incorporating the conical shape for
a cylinder, the cylindrical shell equations may be applied in this case
➢ To do so, a relationship between radius of a cone and the radius of
curvature in the hoop direction is necessary
➢ In the Figure,
R - radius of curvature of the element in the hoop direction
r - radius of cone at the same reference point
α - half the apex angle
r
R= (trigonometry)
cosα
DESIGN OF HEADS
➢ A cone of radius r will experience the same stress effect as will be observed in an equivalent cylinder of radius
r/cosα
➢ If Dk is the inside diameter of cone at the position under consideration,
➢ Design equation for the thickness of the cylindrical thick-shell:-
𝑝 Di
t=
2fJ − 𝑝
➢ To develop a design equation for the thickness of the conical head, substituting Di by Dk/cosα
𝒑 𝐃𝐤 𝟏
t= x
𝟐𝐟𝐉 − 𝒑 cosα
❖NOTE:- The above expression of “t” is applicable for the region away from the junction or knuckle
➢ At the junction of the conical head and the cylindrical shell, a compressive force is exerted by the cone on the
1 D t
cylinder which remains effective up to a distance, √( e ), from the junction or knuckle [De - outer diameter
2 cosα
of the conical section = D𝑜]
➢ Due to internal pressure shell tries to expand radially outward and this results in a bending moment and shear
at the junction (these moment and shear at the junction cannot be ignored while designing a conical head)
DESIGN OF HEADS
➢ Since cone always tends to deflect inward, and the shell outward under the influence of internal pressure,
discontinuity stresses develop at the junction or knuckle
➢ The influence of this discontinuity stresses must be taken into account while determining thickness of the cone
at the junction or knuckle by introducing a factor (Z)
➢ Design equation for the thickness of the cylindrical thin-shell:-
𝑝 𝐷𝑖
t=
2𝑓𝐽
1 D t
➢ To develop a design equation for the thickness of the conical head up to a distance, √( e ), from the
2 cosα
junction or knuckle, introducing Z
𝒑 𝐃𝐞 𝐙
t=
𝟐𝐟𝐉
❖NOTE:- The value of Z depends upon apex angle
The value of C should be determined first; but, C is a function of t - Solution of the above equation will require iteration
For compensated opening in the head - C depends on hE/Do and t/Do
D r
Value of hE – least of ho or Do2/4Ro or √( o o)
2
Do Do
ho (excluding straight flange) = Ro – [{Ro - } – {Ro + - 2ro}]1/2
2 2
As the first approximation, assuming Ri = Do = Ro
ro = 0.06 Do = 0.06 x 1.2 = 0.072 m
DESIGN EXAMPLE
Ro = Do = 1.2 m
Putting these values in the expression of ho , we get, ho = 0.203 m
Do2 1.2
= = 0.3 m
4Ro 4
D r 1.2 x 0.72
√( o o) = √( ) = 0.209
2 2
The least among above three is of ho which is equal to 0.203 m
Hence, hE = ho = 0.203 m
hE
Now, = 0.17
Do
𝑝 Do C t 𝑝C 0.525 x C
We have t = or = = = 2.225x10-3C
2fJ Do 2fJ 2 x 118 x 1
hE t
USE THE TABLE TO PERFORM THE ITERATION FOR = 0.17 AND = 2.225x10-3C
Do Do
t
Iteration gives = 0.005 and C = 2.26
Do
the corroded head thickness = t = 0.005Do = 0.005 x 1.2 = 6x10-3 m = 6 mm
t = 6 + 2 = 8 mm (2 mm corrosion allowance)
Standard plate thickness = 9 mm (6% allowance is given for the thinning of the torus section)
DESIGN EXAMPLE
INTRODUCTION
➢ Any process vessel must have some openings of various dimensions at different parts
➢ Necessity for the openings in process vessel – to give inlet and outlet connections, to provide sight glasses,
manholes, drainage, to insert shaft of the stirrer, etc.
➢ While the openings are essential for operating the vessels, these weaken the vessel parts due to development
of discontinuities
➢ Experimental observation 1:- stress concentration at the edge of the openings in pressure vessels becomes as
high as 500% that of the unpierced shell under the similar operating conditions - the magnitude of the resultant
stress value is much higher than the allowable stress limit for unpierced shells
➢ Experimental observation 2:- stress concentration is maximum at the edge of the openings and decreases
sharply with the distance from the edge of the opening
➢ Risk:- failure of the vessels in the regions near the edge opening
➢ Solution:- provide/add adequate material in the regions near the edge of the opening
➢ The additional material provided is referred to as reinforcement or compensation
➢ Compensation provides both stiffness and strength - it is assumed that the added material added adjacent to
the opening has the same load carrying capabilities as the material removed for the opening
COMPENSATED AND UNCOMPENSATED OPENINGS IN HEADS
INTRODUCTION
➢Solution No. 1:- provide compensation by increasing the entire shell thickness so that the
maximum anticipated stress at the edge of the opening is less than, or equal to, the allowable
stress of the shell material - easy method, but, not economical
➢Solution No. 2:- if a sufficiently thick-walled nozzle is welded to the opening, the magnitude
of the stress gets reduced to the safety limit - quite efficient and economical as well
➢Other commonly used methods are welded ring plate, combination of ring plate and nozzle,
etc.
➢Caution:- over-reinforcing the openings with heavy ring plates causing stress concentration
at the outer edge of the ring due to a stiffening effect
➢Caution:- excess use of reinforcing material may reduce flexibility and thus the radial growth
characteristic of that region may be changed with respect to the rest of the vessel. This will
again induce discontinuity stresses.
COMPENSATED AND UNCOMPENSATED OPENINGS IN HEADS
TYPES OF COMPENSATION
(a) Flued-in type
➢ quite common in pressure vessels
➢ efficient compensation
➢ fabrication is difficult and costly
(b) Flared-out
➢ provides large transition radii to avoid the stress raising effect of sharp corners
➢ if too large a radius is selected, opening diameter becomes much larger than actual nozzle diameter - amount of
compensation requirement increased
➢ radiographic tests are possible in nozzle connections
(c) Ring plates or pads
➢ a cheap method of compensation
➢ outer diameter of the pad is usually 1.5 —2 times the opening diameter
➢ ring pad thickness should not be less than 5 mm
(d) Protruding type
➢ nozzle protrudes inside the shell
➢ this type of compensation provides rigidity to the protruded nozzle
COMPENSATED AND UNCOMPENSATED
OPENINGS IN HEADS
TYPES OF COMPENSATION
❖At the vessel's juncture with the nozzle radiographying is
difficult
❖It may be noted that ring plate type compensation causes
a reduction in life by 30%, with respect to the fatigue life
of the unpierced vessel, while protruding nozzles about
10%
COMPENSATED AND UNCOMPENSATED OPENINGS IN HEADS
COMPENSATED AND UNCOMPENSATED OPENINGS IN HEADS
➢Area to be compensated = basic area removed from the shell during opening = A
A = (dn,i + 2c)tr [in the figure on previous slide, dn,i = d]
where,
dn,i = inside diameter of nozzle = outside diameter of nozzle – 2 x nozzle wall thickness
c = corrosion allowance
tr = minimum shell wall thickness without corrosion allowance
➢Reinforcement area available from shell and nozzle = area of compensation = A’ = As + An
where,
As = area available from shell for reinforcement = (dn,i + 2c)(ts - tr - c)
An = area available from nozzle for reinforcement = Ao + Ai
COMPENSATED AND UNCOMPENSATED OPENINGS IN HEADS
where,
ts = actual shell wall thickness
Ao = area of the nozzle external to the vessel available for compensation
Ao = 2H1(tn - tr’ - c)
Ai = area of the nozzle inside the vessel (i.e. protruding nozzle) available for compensation
Ai = 2H2(tn - 2c)
❖NOTE:- For inside protrusion tr’ is zero, as there is no pressure difference ; but corrosion is from
both the sides
where,
tn = actual nozzle wall thickness
tr’ = minimum nozzle wall thickness without corrosion allowance
H1 = outside protrusion
H2 = inside protrusion
COMPENSATED AND UNCOMPENSATED OPENINGS IN HEADS
where,
p = design pressure = 1.05x3.5 MN/m2 = 3.68 MN/m2
Do = outer diameter of the vessel = 2 m
f = allowable design stress for the material = 96 MN/m2
J = weld joint efficiency factor = 1
Putting all these values in expression of tr,
𝑝 𝐷𝑜 3.68 x 2
tr = = = 0.0377 m
2𝑓𝐽 + 𝑝 2 x 96 x 1 + 3.68
A = (dn,i + 2c)tr = (0.218 + 2 x 3x10-3) x 0.0377 = 8.443x10-3 m2
As = area available from shell for reinforcement = (dn,i + 2c)(ts - tr - c) = (0.218 + 2 x 3x10-3) x (0.05 – 0.0377 – 0.003)
As = area available from shell for reinforcement = 2.083x10-3 m2
An = area available from nozzle for reinforcement = Ao (no inside protrusion)
An = Ao = 2H1(tn - tr’ - c)
DESIGN EXAMPLE
where,
tn = Nozzle-wall thickness = 0.016 m
𝑝 dn,o 3.68 x 0.25
tr’ = 2𝑓𝐽 + 𝑝 = 2 x 96 x 1 + 3.68 = 0.0047 m
NOTE:- if ring pad is used, H1 is measured from the surface of the ring pad. If actual length of nozzle is more than
H1 + tp, full value of H1 should be used for calculating An. Otherwise, H1 should be substituted by actual nozzle
length minus tp.
IN THIS EXAMPLE:- actual length of nozzle = 0.1 m > H1 + tp = (0.054 + 0.025) m = 0.079 m. Therefore, H1 =
0.054 is used for calculating An.
COMPENSATED AND UNCOMPENSATED OPENINGS IN HEADS
Ring pad compensated nozzle opening showing effective area for compensation
COMPENSATED AND UNCOMPENSATED OPENINGS IN HEADS
UNCOMPENSATED OPENINGS
➢ If A < A’ or A < As + An
Openings can be left uncompensated
➢ It is not always necessary that any opening is to be externally reinforced. This is because, the wall thickness of
the vessels finally decided is larger than the theoretically required. This extra thickness provides strength to the
vessel walls to withstand stress concentration due to opening to some extent.
➢ Parameters influencing the size of the opening diameter that can be left uncompensated:-
a) diameter of the vessel Do
b) thickness of the shell ts
c) pressure p and allowable stress value of the material
➢ As per IS: 2825 - 1969,
𝑝 Do
K' =
1.82f(ts− 𝑐)
where, K’ is a factor based on the parameters influencing the size of the opening diameter that can be left
uncompensated
K' = 1 or a little over 1, an opening diameter up to 50 mm need not be compensated
K' < 1, larger opening diameter up to 200 mm can remain unreinforced
DESIGN EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE - Examine the possibility of making one 0.05 m diameter uncompensated opening in the shell of
previous Design Example.
𝑝 Do
➢ SOLUTION – K' =
1.82f(ts− 𝑐)
where,
p = design pressure = 1.05x3.5 MN/m2 = 3.68 MN/m2
Do = outer diameter of the vessel = 2 m
f = allowable design stress for the material = 96 MN/m2
ts = wall thickness for the shell = 0.05 m
c = corrosion allowance = 3x10-3 m
Putting all these values in expression of K',
𝑝 Do 3.68 x 2
K' = = = 0.8925 m
1.82f(ts− 𝑐) 1.82 x 96 x (0.05 −0.003)
Since K' < 1.0, a 0.05 m diameter uncompensated opening can be made as per IS : 2825 -1969