Frequency Analysis of Sound Waves

THEORY
Sound waves can be analyzed in terms of their amplitude and frequency. The loudness of a
sound corresponds to the amplitude of the wave, and is measured in decibels. The frequency of
a sound wave affects the pitch of the sound we hear. Most musical sounds are composed of a
superposition of many frequencies called partial tones, or simply partials. The lowest frequency for
a given sound is called the fundamental frequency. For a vibrating object like a tuning fork, this
is also the natural resonant frequency of the sound source. Partial tones that are whole multiples
of the fundamental frequency are called harmonics. A tone that has twice the frequency of the
fundamental is called the second harmonic, which is one octave higher than the fundamental. For
example, middle C in the equal-tempered chromatic scale has a pitch of 262 Hz, and the same note
one octave higher has a frequency of 524 Hz. The combination of multiple frequencies is what gives
a sound its characteristic quality. In this lab, you will analyze the sounds from several different
sources and examine the qualities that make each sound unique.

Figure 1

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 Note Letter name Frequency (Hz) Frequency ratio Interval

9
do C 264 8 Whole
10
re D 297 9 Whole
16
me E 330 15 Half
9
fa F 352 8 Whole
10
sol G 396 9 Whole
9
la A 440 8 Whole
16
ti B 495 15 Half
do C0 528

Table 1: Diatonic C Major scale

Note Frequency (Hz) Frequency ratio Interval

√
12
C 262 √2 Half
12
C] or D[ 277 √2 Half
12
D 294 √2 Half
12
D] or E[ 311 √2 Half
12
E 330 √2 Half
12
F 349 √2 Half
12
F] or G[ 370 √2 Half
12
G 392 √2 Half
12
G] or A[ 415 √2 Half
12
A 440 √2 Half
12
A] or B[ 466 √2 Half
12
B 440 √2 Half
C0 440 12
2

Table 2: Equal-tempered chromatic scale

Resonance

When two waves of the same wavelength encounter each other by traveling in opposite directions
in the same medium, they combine under certain conditions to yield standing waves. Standing
waves are patterns whose points of maximum and minimum (zero) amplitude are fixed so that,
apart from a rapid vibration of the medium, the pattern appears to be standing still.

If a string is fixed at both ends, each wave on the string will be reflected every time it reaches
either end of the string. In general, the multiply-reflected waves will not all be in phase, and the
amplitude of the wave pattern will be small. However, at certain frequencies of oscillation, the
reflected waves are in phase with the incoming waves, resulting in a standing wave with a large
amplitude. These frequencies are called resonant frequencies.

Standing Waves on a String

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 As stated earlier, if a string is fixed at both ends, then each end must be a node (a point
of no displacement). The simplest standing wave pattern that occurs is shown below (called the
fundamental mode of oscillation), along with two other modes. The wavelength of the fundamental
mode is twice the string length.

Figure 2

Standing Waves in a Half-Open Tube

The standing waves produced by sound waves in air in a half-open tube are longitudinal waves
with a node at the interface between media where reflections take place (between water and air
in this experiment) and an antinode at the open end of the tube. Patterns of the fundamental
(first harmonic) and third harmonic modes of oscillation are shown in the figure below. (Only odd
harmonics appear in a half-open tube due to the conditions that there must be a node at the closed
end and an antinode at the open end.) From the figure, we see that in the length L from the open
end of the tube to the reflective surface, there are an odd number of quarter wavelengths. This can
be expressed as:

L = (n/4)λ, where n = 1, 3, 5... (1)

Figure 3

PROCEDURE
Part A. Waveform Analysis with the computer interface

Throughout this lab, you will use a microphone and Vernier LabPro interface connected to your
CCI laptop to collect sound data, and the Vernier LoggerPro software to analyze the sound waves
with frequencies that range from 20 Hz to 16,000 Hz (approximately the range that humans can

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hear).

1 Connect the LabPro interface to a USB port on your CCI laptop computer.
2 Make sure the power cable is connected to the LabPro interface.
3 Connect the microphone to one of the ports (i.e. CH 1) on the LabPro interface.
4 Start the LoggerPro software. (If this program is not already installed on your computer, it
can be downloaded from the Physics 24 lab website.) An experiment window with a graph of
Sound Pressure versus Time should appear automatically.
5 Click on the Collect button to begin recording data. Hum into the microphone while the
computer collects data. A sound wave should appear if everything is working properly.
6 To examine the frequency spectrum of this data, Insert an FFT Graph from the Additional
Graph menu. Use the cursor to identify the most prominent frequencies. The frequency (in
Hz) is indicated by the first number in the lower left-hand corner of the graph.
7 Depending on the frequencies that you are examining, you may need to adjust the Sampling
Rate or the length of time that data is collected. These settings can be modified by clicking
on the stopwatch icon in the experiment window or by selecting Data Collection under the
Experiment menu. A setting that should work for analyzing most sounds is 10,000 samples/sec
for a period of about 0.05 seconds. Note: If the settings require more than 12,000 data points,
the interface will be overloaded.

Part 1. Tuning Fork

1 Strike a tuning fork on the green rubber holder or with a rubber mallet. Hold the fork up to
the microphone and adjust the software settings to observe the sound waveform, which should
look like a sine wave. Describe what happens to the amplitude and frequency of the wave as
the sound fades away.
2 Repeat the sound analysis using the frequency spectrum that should show a distinct peak at
the fundamental frequency. Record this value and compare with the frequency that is stamped
on the fork. Do they agree? Which do you think is more accurate? (The frequency on the fork
should be accurate to within one or two Hertz, which is about the smallest difference in pitch
that our ears can distinguish, and the software should be accurate to within 1%.)
3 Gently strike the tuning fork with the plastic mallet and observe the sound wave and FFT
graphs. Record the frequencies of any higher peaks that appear and compare with the funda-
mental frequency. Describe the quality of the sound produced by striking the tuning fork with
the plastic mallet versus the rubber holder. Why does the fork sound different depending on
how it is struck?

Part 2. Mono chord

1 Set up the mono chord apparatus and observe the sound waveform and frequency spectrum
when the chord is plucked versus hammered.
2 Tune the mono chord to the same note as a guitar or violin string and record any differences
you observe. How does the body of the guitar or violin affect the quality of the sound? What
evidence do you have to support your claim?

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Part 3. Human voice
1 Observe the waveform produced by singing a sustained “ah” and “oh” into the microphone.
2 Observe changes in frequency while increasing the pitch of your voice.
3 Speak or make other sounds in the microphone and observe the results.
Part 4. Theme and Variations
1 Analyze sounds from other musical instruments that are available, or create your own experi-
ment to further investigate the different properties of sound waves.
2 Discuss your findings with other students in the class.
Part B. Standing Waves in an Open Tube

In this investigation, a tuning fork will be used to produce a standing wave in a half-open tube
that can be varied in length. The resonance tube will consist of a tall vertical cylinder whose
effective length can be changed by changing the depth of water in it. When the vibrating fork is
held over a tube of the proper length, the incident waves and those reflected at the opposite end
will establish a standing wave. When this situation occurs, an observer nearby will detect a marked
amplification of the sound.
1 Find a tuning fork with a fundamental frequency (stamped on the fork) of approximately 500
Hz.
2 Strike the tuning fork on a rubber holder or your knee. Hold the vibrating fork perpendicular
to the tube and about an inch above it, but do not allow the fork to touch the glass
tube to avoid breaking it!
3 Raise the smaller diameter inner tube along with the vibrating fork and listen for the sound to
become louder when resonance is achieved. Record the length of the inner tube that is above
the water reservoir. Repeat this procedure to find at least one more resonance length.
Calculate the wavelength using equation 1. From your calculated wavelength of the wave pro-
duced, and the known frequency of the fork, compute the velocity of the sound wave using v = f λ.
Compare with the value predicted by the equation for the velocity of sound waves in air:

v = (1.4RT /M )1/2 (2)

where R is the universal gas constant (8.31 J/mol · K), M is the approximate molecular weight of
air (0.029 kg/mol for dry air, ∼0.0287 kg/mol for humid air) and T is the absolute temperature of
the air in Kelvin. Record the room temperature.

DISCUSSION
What differences in waveforms did you observe for the monochord and tuning forks? For the
human voice? The complexity of the waveform for the voice reveals why it is so difficult to re-
produce. How did your empirical value for the speed of sound compare with the predicted value?
What other phenomena did you observe?

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