Types of errors and statistical

analysis of errors
Types of errors:
1. Gross errors
2. Systematic errors
3. Random errors
Gross errors:
This class of errors mainly covers human mistakes in reading
instruments and recording and calculating measurement
results.
They can be avoided by adopting two means:
1. Great care should be taken in reading and recording the data.
2. Two, three or even more readings should be taken at different
reading point to avoid re-reading with the same error.
Systematic errors:
1. Instrumental errors
2. Environmental errors
3. Observational errors
1. Instrumental errors
a) Due to inherent shortcomings in the instruments
b) Due to misuse of the instruments
c) Due to loading effects of instruments
Due to inherent shortcomings in the instruments
These errors are inherent in instruments because of their
mechanical structure. They may be due to construction,
calibration or operation of the instruments or measuring
devices.
To reduce them:
 Procedure of measurement must be carefully planned.
Substitution methods or calibration against standards may be
used for the purpose.
 Correction factor must be applied after determining the
instrumental errors.
 The instrument may be re-calibrated carefully.
Due to misuse of instruments:
Slight bending of the
vernier member will
give a too low reading
of diameter d,

Reading of height h
will be low due to
deformation of both
stylus and workpiece.

These are due to contact forces

(a) Wrong use of vernier, (b) Wrong use of dial gauge.
Incorrect measurement may result from misalignment, such as when
using micrometer to measure a diameter, strain gauge to measure the
axial strain in a bar.
Due to loading effects of instruments:

One of the most common errors committed by beginners, is the

improper use of an instrument for measurements work. For
example, a well calibrated voltmeter may give a misleading
voltage reading when connected across a high resistance circuit.
The same voltmeter, when connected in a low resistance circuit,
may give more dependable reading. These examples illustrate that
voltmeter has a loading effect on the circuit, altering the actual
circuit conditions by measurement process.
2. Environmental errors:
These errors are due to conditions external to the measuring
device including conditions in the area surrounding the
instrument. These may be effects of temperature, pressure,
humidity, dust, vibrations or the external magnetic or electrostatic
fields. The corrective measures employed to eliminate or to
reduce these undesirable effects are:
1. Arrangements should be made to keep the conditions as nearly
as constants as possible. For example temperature can be kept
constant by keeping the equipment in a temperature controlled
enclosure.
2. Using equipment which is immune to these effects. For
example, variations in resistance with temperature can be
minimised by using resistance materials which have a very low
resistance coefficient.
2. Observational errors:

Errors due
to parallax
There are many sources of observational errors. As an example,
the pointer of a voltmeter rests slightly above the surface of the
scale. Thus an error on account of PARALLAX will be incurred
unless the line of vision of the observer is exactly above the
pointer. To minimized parallax errors, highly accurate meters are
provided with mirrored scales.
Since the parallax errors arise on account of pointer and scale not
being in the same plane, we can eliminate this error by having the
pointer and scale in the same plane.
These are human factors involved in measurement. The sensing
capabilities of individual observers affect the accuracy of
measurement. No two persons observe the same situation in
exactly the same way where small details are concerned.
Random errors:
The quantity being measured is affected by many happenings
throughout universe. We are aware of and account for some
factors influencing the measurement, but about the rest we are
unaware. The happenings or disturbances about which we are
unaware are lumped together and called Random or Residual.
Hence the error caused by these happenings are called Random
errors.
Statistical treatment of data
The experimental data is obtained in two forms of tests:
(1) Multi-sample test (2) Single-sample test
(1) Multi-sample test
In this test, repeated measurements of a given quantity are
done using different test conditions such as employing
different instruments, different ways of measurement and
by employing different observers.
(2) Single-sample test
A single measurement done under identical conditions except for
time is known as single sample test.
In order to get the exact value of quantity under measurement,
tests should be done using as many different procedures,
techniques and experimenters as practicable. It should be borne in
mind that statistical means which help us to arrive at correct
results are only valid for multi-sample tests.
Histogram: When a number of multi-sample observations are
taken experimentally there is a scatter of data about some central
value one of the methods, presenting the results is in the form of a
histogram.
 20
S. No. Lengt Numb
18
h er of
(mm) readi 16

ngs 14

1 99.7 1 12

2 99.8 4 10

3 99.9 12 8

6
4 100.0 19
4
5 100.1 10
2
6 100.2 3
0
7 100.3 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Histogram
 Histogram is also called a frequency distribution curve.
Arithmetic mean: The most probable value of measured
variable is the arithmetic mean of the number of reading taken.
The best approximation is made whe

n the number of readings of the same quantity is very large.

X 
x1  x2  .........  xn

x
n n
X  arithmetic mean

x1 , x2 ,............, xn  readings or variates or samples

n  no. of readings
Measure of dispersion from the mean: The property which
denotes the extent to which the values are dispersed about the
central value termed as dispersion.

Curve 1 greater precision

Curve 2 lower precision

x3 x1 x2 x4
Range:
The simplest possible measure of dispersion is the range which is
the difference between greatest and least value of data. For
example the range of curve 1 (x2-x1) and that of curve 2 is (x4-x3).
Deviation:
Deviation is departure of the observed reading from the arithmetic
mean of the group of readings. Let the deviation of reading x1, d1
and x2, d2 etc. d  x  X
1 1
d 2  x2  X
.
.
.
d n  xn  X

X 
(x n  dn )
n
algebraic sum of deviations  d1  d 2  .........  d n
 (x1  X)  (x2  X)  .......  (xn  X)
 (x1  x2  ...........  xn )  nX
0
Average deviation: The average deviation is an indication of the
precision of the instruments used in making the measurements.
Highly precise instruments yield a low average deviation
between readings.
d1  d 2  ........  d n
D
n

 d
n
Standard deviation:
Another important term in the analysis of random errors is the
standard deviation or root mean square deviation. The S.D. Of
an infinite number of data is defined as the square root of the
sum of the individual deviations squared, divided by the
number of readings.
 d12  d 22  ..........  d n2
S .D.   
n

 d 2

In practice, however, the number of observations is finite.

When n  20
S .D.  
n  20
d12  d 22  ..........  d n2
S .D.  s 
n 1
Variance: The variance is the mean square deviation.

V  Standard deviation 
2

d 2
 d 2
 .......  d 2
 ( S.D.) 2   2  1 2 n
n
n  20

V  s2
d12  d 22  .......  d n2

n 1

Ex. A circuit was tuned for resonance by eight different students,

the values of resonant frequency in kHz were recorded as 532,
548, 543, 535, 546, 531, 543, 536. Calculate (a) arithmetic mean
(b) deviations from mean (c) average deviation (d) standard
deviation (e) variance.
 (a) X 
 x
 539.25 kHz
n
(b) d1  x1  X  7.25 kHz
. .
. .
. .
d 8  x8  X  3.25 kHz
(c) D 
 d
 5.75 kHz
n
(d) s 
 d 2

 6.54 kHz
n 1
(e) Variance V  s2  42.77(kHz) 2

Q. The following ten observations were recorded when measuring a

temperature 41.7, 42.0, 41.8, 42.0, 42.1, 41.9, 42.0, 41.9, 42.5 and
41.8 oC. Find (i) the mean (ii) the standard deviation and (iii) range.
 Q. In a test temperature is measured 100 times with variations in
apparatus and procedures. After applying the corrections, the
results are:
Tempe 397 398 399 400 401 402 403 404 405
rature
oC

Freque 1 3 12 23 37 16 4 2 2
ncy of
occurre
nce
Calculate (a) arithmetic mean, (b) mean deviation, (c) standard
deviation (d) variance and (e) range. Plot histogram also.

Mean Temperatur e X 
 fx
f
Mean deviation D 
 fd
f
Standard deviation  
 fd 2

f