BT - Leading and managing

individuals and teams

Contents
Leadership, Management and Supervision........................................................................... 3
DEFINITIONS: ..................................................................................................................... 3
NATURE OF MANAGEMENT: ............................................................................................. 3
MANAGEMENT THEORIES: ................................................................................................ 4
APPROACHES TO LEADERSHIP: .......................................................................................... 6
Recruitment and Selection of Employees ........................................................................... 11
IMPORTANCE OF EFFECTIVE RECRUITMENT AND SELECTION: ....................................... 11
ROLES IN RECRUITMENT AND SELECTION PROCESS: ...................................................... 12
METHODS TO MEET RECRUITMENT NEEDS: ................................................................... 12
RECRUITMENT AND SELECTION METHODS: .................................................................... 13
DIVERSITY AND EQUAL OPPORTUNITIES: ........................................................................ 14
Team Management and Individual or Group Behaviour .................................................... 16
CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOUR:............................................................. 16
CHARACTERISTICS OF GROUP BEHAVIOUR: .................................................................... 17
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GROUPS AND TEAMS: ................................................................ 17
CONTRIBUTIONS OF INDIVIDUALS & TEAMS TO ORGANISATIONAL SUCCESS: .............. 17
INDIVIDUAL & TEAM APPROACHES TO WORK: ............................................................... 18
ROLE OF THE MANAGER: ................................................................................................. 18
BELBINS TEAM ROLE THEORY: ......................................................................................... 19
TUCKMAN’S THEORY OF TEAM DEVELOPMENT: ............................................................ 20
EFFECTIVE AND INEFFECTIVE TEAMS: ............................................................................. 21
TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES: ............................................................................................... 22
Motivating Individuals and Groups ..................................................................................... 24
MOTIVATING INDIVIDUALS AND GROUPS: ..................................................................... 24
THEORIES OF MOTIVATION: ............................................................................................ 24

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 REWARD SYSTEMS: .......................................................................................................... 27
Learning and Training at Work ............................................................................................ 28
IMPORTANCE OF LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT: ......................................................... 28
GENERAL APPROACH TO THE LEARNING PROCESS: ........................................................ 28
ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES IN THE LEARNING PROCESS: ........................................... 30
Review and Appraisal of Individual Performance ............................................................... 32
IMPORTANCE OF PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT: ............................................................ 32
PURPOSE OF PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL:....................................................................... 32
PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL PROCESS: ............................................................................. 33
BENEFITS AND BARRIERS OF EFFECTIVE APPRAISAL: ...................................................... 33

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Leadership, Management and Supervision
DEFINITIONS:

Leadership - activity in which one person seeks to influence others to pursue common
objectives or goals. Good leadership components:

 Energy and commitment;

 Exercise of interpersonal skills;
 Creating and setting direction;
 Managing changes and managing people through changes;
 Making key decisions.

Management - activity in which the key concern is the organisation of resources in such a
way as to ensure that current tasks and objectives are delivered on a consistent ongoing
basis.

Supervision - form of management of the first level (last management layer before the
employees actually producing the goods or services).

Typical responsibilities and features of supervisor:

 Review of actual production or technical work;

 Directly involved in front end operation activity;
 Not have ability to recruit people;
 No personal HR matters.

NATURE OF MANAGEMENT:

General principles of management:

 Organisation of resources is planned and scheduled properly;

 Tasks and objectives are prioritised;
 System of controls;
 Back-up plan or contingency arrangement exists.

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MANAGEMENT THEORIES:

Fayol’s 5 functions of management:

Function: Description:
Forecasting and Decisions on actions Planning to
planning  execute them
Ensuring existence of necessary
Organising  resources
Putting a structure in place Teams /
Coordinating  Information systems
Commanding  Instructing people
Monitoring progress Remedial
Controlling  actions

Taylor’s scientific management principles:

 Use scientific methods to study work process;

 People should be scientifically selected;
 Performance must be monitored and controlled;
 Spirit of mutual cooperation.

Taylor’s theory is focused on productivity and efficiency.

Mayo theory of human relations:

 Informal organisation existence - key principle;

 Relationships among people are important;
 Social motivators may be more important than financial ones and working
conditions;
 Managers need to fully understand the social groups inside the organisation.

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Mintzberg's Management roles:

Category Role Description

Social engagement, representing,
Figure head
inspiration
Interpersonal Motivating employees, demanding
Leader
(formal, authoritative role of strong performance from staff
leader)
Communication with contacts and
Liaison peers, networking outside the
immediate line
Regularly seeks information, assessing
Monitor possible impact, team performance
monitored closely
Informational
Communicates organisational
(processing and Disseminator
information to the team
dissemination of information)
Speaks on behalf of the organisation,
Spokesperson supplying information to the
interested parties
Entrepreneur Initiate and manage change
Disturbance Hits a major unexpected issue, solves
Decisional handler the challenge
(making decision using Resource
information available and Allocation of limited resources
allocator
authority he or she has)
Leads or takes part in negotiations
Negotiator with the team, organisation or
external parties

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Drucker’s components in the role of management:

1) Setting of objectives - creates objectives, expresses them in targets or measures;

2) Organising work - manageable activities, right people then selected;

3) Motivates and communicates - forms and motivates the team, communicating, a

critical activity;

4) Measuring of activities - converts objectives into targets, sets benchmarks, measures

performance;

5) Development of people - develops people, potential is reached.

Drucker’s theory in practice:

 Elements - every manager performs;

 Analysis of capability
 basis for development plan.

Important terms:

Managerial authority - power given to an individual in a management role to make

decisions. Note: Level of authority - amount of power.

Managerial responsibility - an obligation a manager has to execute tasks and deliver

objectives.

Managerial accountability - accountability of a manager to his or her line manager for the
quality of delivery.

APPROACHES TO LEADERSHIP:

 Contingency;
 Situational;
 Functional.

Note: There is no best approach to the leadership.

Leadership requirements:

 Function of the situation the leader is in;

 Function they must perform;
 Other contingent factors that can affect the leader.

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Functional models:
1) Adair Key variables and respective activities:
 Task needs - Initiating, evaluating,
monitoring; -Team needs - Conflict-
resolution, team motivation;
 Individual needs - Training, development,
coaching.
Assess the needs level - determine priorities 8
Activities - Actions centred leadership:
 Defining the task;  Evaluating results;
 Planning;  Motivating individuals;
 Briefing the team;  Organising people;
 Controlling what happens;  Setting an example.

2) Fiedler Assess leader orientation:

 Task orientated;
 People orientated;
Success depends on 3 contingent factors:
 Relationship;
 Task is clear and defined;
 Power;
Favourable and unfavourable situations - best
suited to task oriented leaders.
Medium situations - people oriented leaders.

3) Bennis Differentiators:
For managers: For leaders:

 Administers  Innovate
 Maintains  Focus on people
 Relies on control  Relies on trust
 Focuses on system  Develops
 Does right things  Does the right thing
 Imitates  Originates
 Asks how and when  Asks what and why
 Short run view  Long range view
Common leadership competencies:
 Management of attention - having a vision, dream, intention;

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  Management of meaning - communication of the dream or vision, but also creation
of meaning;
 Management of trust - being constant on what you stand for, being consistently
honest and truthful;
 Management of self - knowing yourself and your skills and developing them
effectively.

4) Kotter Differences between management and

leadership

Key roles of:

 Management  Leadership
 Planning and budgeting;  Establishing direction;
 Organising and staffing;  Aligning people;
 Controlling and problem solving;  Motivating and inspiring

5) Heifetz Formal leadership - exercised through authority because of official role or designated
authority Informal leadership - exercised without authority because of ability, passion and
respect from others.
Sometimes informal leader can be more effective.

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THEORIES OF LEADERSHIP STYLES:
Ashridge model:
Style Description

1) Tells - autocratic Key features:

- Quite dictatorial;
- Makes all decisions - without involving or
consulting;
- Get the job done;
- Instructing employees;
Advantage - quick decisions
Disadvantages:
- No feedback allowed;
- Does not encourage or motivate;

2) Sells - persuasive Key features:

- Leader makes all decisions;
- Does inform employees;
- Motivating and persuading people;
- Sells his or her decision;
Advantages:
- Understanding the decision by employees
- More motivation to execute than instruction alone
Disadvantages are the same.

3) Consults - Key features:

participative - Confirm with the team;
- Takes the team view into account;
- Final decision - by leader;
- Encouraging and motivating;
- Drive higher commitment;
- Team buyin to what has to be done;
- Extended amount of time;

4) Joins - democratic Key features:

- Makes the decision jointly - consensus;
- High motivation and commitment;
- Undermines the authority of the leader;
- Dilutes quality of the decision;
- Extended amount of time.

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Blake and Mouton management grid:

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 Recruitment and Selection of Employees
IMPORTANCE OF EFFECTIVE RECRUITMENT AND SELECTION:

Recruitment and selection is critical because people are ordinarily a major resource for an
organisation and critical to the delivery of its objectives. An organisation must ensure that it
has the right types of people and the right skillsets.

Role of effective recruitment and selection: to ensure that the organisation can source and
retain the people it needs (people of right calibre, attitude, skills and experience).

RECRUITMENT AND SELECTION PROCESS:

A typical recruitment and selection process has 10 key steps:

1) Resources planning - the organisation will draw up its resources requirements in response
to its objective or activities;

2) Gap analysis - the organisation will determine what gaps it has, given its current available
staff;

3) Job description/Person specification - the organisation will draw up job description or

person specification for gaps identified;

4) Recruitment approval - a formal approval process where the organisation approves the
role and costs involved;

5) Advertising - recruitment team will start advertising the role outlining the job and form of
application (CVs or online applications);

6) Filtering and shortlist - the organisation will filter the applications received based on the
specified criteria and disregard any applications that don’t meet this criteria, producing a
final shortlist of candidates;

7) Interviews - candidates will be called in for interview (or several) and other selection tests;

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 8) Final selection - the final selection is made and the desired candidate is picked;

9) Offer and acceptance - the candidate will be offered a role and asked to accept it;

10) Start - the candidate will sign a contract and agree a start date with the organisation.

ROLES IN RECRUITMENT AND SELECTION PROCESS:

There are three main groups of people involved:

1) Recruiting manager:

 Performs resources planning;

 Identifies the recruitment need;
 Brings it forward for approval;
 Selects a list for interview and makes the final choice;

2) Senior management:

 Performs budgetary sign off for new recruits;

 Considers the recruitment proposal and ensures it is valid;
 Checks available budget and signs it;

3) Human resources:

 Assists manager in producing a full job description/person specification;

 Produces a marketing advert and puts it through various recruitment channels;
 Filters the initial batch of applications and draws up a shortlist for manager review;
 Arranges the interviews and testing process;
 Manages offer and acceptance and agrees start date.

METHODS TO MEET RECRUITMENT NEEDS:

There are three primary methods used:

1) Promotion of existing staff:

Advantages:

 Boost to morale;
 Individual will know the organisation;
 Recruitment process is low cost; Disadvantages:
 There has to be a backfill of the role;
 Capability risk;
 Few new thoughts and ideas;

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2) Advertised internally:
Advantages:

 The same as for promotion of existing staff, but cost will be somewhat higher;
Disadvantages:
 The same as for promotion of existing staff, but capability risk will be lower and
impact of not having new ideas may be higher;

3) External recruitment:
Advantages:

 New ideas and experience from external candidate;

 No backfill required; Disadvantages:
 Individual does not know the organisation;
 Elevated departure risk;
 Morale of internal staff can be damaged;
 May be very expensive given advertising and recruitment costs.

RECRUITMENT AND SELECTION METHODS:

Various recruitment and selection methods are used:

1) Interview - a candidate is interviewed either in a one to one interview or in a

panel/board interview where a

number of people interview the candidate.

Advantages:

 They fully engage the candidate, allowing the interviewer to really see what the
candidate is like;
 They allow a very flexible form of discussion given that the interviewer can asked a
wide range of questions;
 Board interviews allow various different people to see the candidate;
 Board interviews lower the risk of any bias;

Disadvantages:

 Interviews can be a poor way of making sound predictions of future performance

because limited

opportunity and time does not allow capabilities and competence to be properly assessed;

 They rely too heavily on the skills of the interviewer;

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  Good candidates may be overlooked because of a non-material error in questioning;
 Risk of dominance by a specific individual on board interviews;
 Board interviews are stressful and may favour candidates who are better at
interview stress management rather than better at the job;

2) Selection tests (aptitude tests, personality tests, intelligence tests). Aptitude tests may
examine areas such as reasoning, perception, physical capability and general suitability.
Personality tests will focus on areas such as conflict management, emotional stability
and stress management. Intelligence tests will examine mental processing capability,
ability to learn and general intellectual ability (IQ).

Advantages:

 Results are free from bias as they are standardised;

 Output is generally in the form of measurements which makes it easier to compare
candidates;
 Such tests may more deeply test the technical ability to complete certain tasks;
Disadvantages:
 Individual can be coached for tests and this may favour truly weaker candidates over
stronger ones;
 It is difficult to directly link any selection test to a specific job;
 Results will still be quite general given that most tests are standardised;
 Risk of dominance by a specific individual on board interviews;
 It is difficult to test for less tangible abilities such as judgement and creativity.

DIVERSITY AND EQUAL OPPORTUNITIES:

An Equal opportunity means that anyone who works for the organisation or has applied to
work in the organisation has an equal opportunity to have access to roles, promotions and
fair treatment regardless of race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, disability, religion or
politics.

Diversity means that organisations should accommodate, and not discriminate against,
anyone who might be different. This includes all of the equal opportunity classifications but
can also include other differences: individual style, working methods, personal interests etc.

Note: Equal opportunities are enforceable through national law whereas the additional
diversity classifications tend to be internal policy.

Purposes of diversity and equal opportunities are:

1) To ensure compliance with national equal opportunities law;

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2) To ensure that in a modern society the organisation is fair to all people.

Benefits of having these policies are:

1) The organisation will be legally compliant and not at risk of legal action compliance;

2) The organisation will not lose out on high calibre individuals who may be different;

3) Good public perception of the organisation in the eyes of public stakeholders;

4) Modern day customers will be encouraged to buy.

Practical steps that an organisation should take to ensure the effectiveness of these policies:

1) It must formulate a strong policy that complies with national laws;

2) It should have an organisational working group to draft the policy which will be signed
by the lawyers and manager to ensure compliance with laws and organisational ethos;

3) A working group should remain in place and monitor the organisation’s compliance with
policy on an ongoing basis;

4) A working group should ensure that it stays up to date in accordance with changes in
the law and changes in organisational ethos and must take account of additional
national laws or new cultural practices;

5) All stages of recruitment and selection process must be built in accordance with
policies;

6) Additional diversity policies must be taken into account (flexible hours policy, dress
policy, positive discrimination).

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Team Management and Individual or Group Behaviour
CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOUR:

An individual’s behaviour is dependent on the type of individual they are and the personality
they have. Typically we describe an individual’s behaviour based on whether they have:

1) Introvert personality. An introvert is someone who is in the state of, or has a

tendency towards being wholly or predominantly concerned with and interested
in one's own mental life.

 Introverts tend to muster mental and physical energy from their own
thinking and reflection rather than through dealing with others;
 They enjoy being left alone to pursue solitary activities;
 They have no fear of social gatherings, but they are not shy.

2) Extravert personality. An extravert is someone who is in the act, state, or habit

of being predominantly concerned with obtaining gratification from what is
outside the self. Extraverts tend to:

 Be sociable;
 Be enthusiastic;
 Be talkative;
 Enjoy working with others;
 Less prefer time alone
 Become bored or unproductive when left on their own.

Note: Many people are somewhere in between these two definitions.

There are some other behavioural characteristics that go beyond personality types and
apply to everyone:

1) Attitude. Some people will have a good attitude to everything they do. However, some
will have a poor attitude, such that no matter what they do, they view it negatively and
bring negative energy to it.

2) Aptitude. Some people will find numerical and academic roles more interesting whereas
others may prefer active or outdoor roles.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF GROUP BEHAVIOUR:

A group is a collection of individuals but a group need not necessarily be a team. However, a
group is more than a crowd. A group is defined in terms of those who identify themselves as
members of the group:

 Groups will display a common sense of group identity and purpose;

 Groups show a sense of unity and loyalty;
 Groups build some interdependence through the exchange of ideas but still retain
core independence.

Groups can be formal and informal, set up by anyone, with varying membership and
movable agendas.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GROUPS AND TEAMS:

A team is a special type of group ordinarily not formed by the members in it but by the
organisation for some single purpose. It will have a set of objectives that are assigned to the
team by the organisation to be delivered by the team which will be held accountable for
that delivery.

Purpose: Teams are created in order to deliver an objective or set of objectives in a way
either not deliverable by individuals or in a way that results in an outcome which is superior
to the outcome if managed by individuals.

 Having a team enables deeper discussions of issues from different perspectives

which will then improve the quality of decisionmaking;
 It allows a broader set of skills to be combined than can be found in an individual
boosting the ability to solve problems more quickly and effectively;
 It allows for better and more efficient work organisation of larger tasks;
 It enables simulation of more ideas;
 Being part of a team may generate a sense of loyalty to others in the team.

CONTRIBUTIONS OF INDIVIDUALS & TEAMS TO ORGANISATIONAL SUCCESS:

Contributions of individuals:

 Specific individual skill sets;

 Individual passion and enthusiasm;
 Energy and drive;
 Individual ideas and perspective;
 Personal experience.

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Contributions of teams:

 A broad range of skill sets and experience;

 Different perspectives;
 Broader set of ideas;
 Group dynamic;
 Large projects/tasks; - Sense of belonging/loyalty;
 Organisation and coordination.

INDIVIDUAL & TEAM APPROACHES TO WORK:

An individual approach to work involves management and delivery of a personal set of goals
and objectives accountable to the individual’s direct line manager. With such approach the
individual must:

 Figure out how to deliver these objectives;

 Plan their delivery;
 Seek the resources;
 Execute and deliver them.

Individual is solely concerned with their own performance and personal deliverables.

The team approach demands a set of objectives and deliverables for the team, delivery by
the team for which the team is accountable. The approach will require the organisation of
the contributions of individuals in the team such that the overall team objective is delivered.

Individuals will be given a subtask or subset of objectives to deliver in a coordinated way

with the rest of the team.

Example: If there is a large project to be delivered, one individual may be tasked to manage
the planning, another to acquire and manage resources, another to build external
stakeholder interface and so on. Each individual in the team will, therefore, have a particular
role to play as part of the overall picture.

ROLE OF THE MANAGER:

The Role of the manager is critical in the successful operation of any organisation:

1) Communicates a clear vision and mission to the team;

2) Clearly defines the expectations and responsibilities for each role;
3) Ensures that the person in the role is fit for that role;
4) Ensures that the person is given responsibility and accountability to deliver;

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 5) Ensures that support is provided for an individual ensuring that any issues are
resolved;
6) Ensures that the team works together to solve problems quickly.
7) Maintains team solidarity and shows self confidence and enthusiasm;
8) Encourages clear communication, collaboration and cooperation within the team;
9) Listens carefully to the team, ensuring that all concerns are taken on board;
10) Ensures that team workload is allocated carefully and kept on track to ensure proper
delivery of objectives;
11) Ensures that the team is rewarded and given recognition for each delivery.

Role of the manager in developing individuals:

Managers have a huge direct impact on an individual’s personal and career development.
They should:

1) Help to determine what individuals need to ensure that their potential is reached;
2) Give constructive feedback as to their performance and what they can do better;
3) Offer advice and support in helping them to deliver objectives;
4) Find the budget, and organise suitable courses;
5) Arrange suitable development experiences such as secondments;
6) Seek out development or promotional opportunities.

BELBINS TEAM ROLE THEORY:

Each team should have a series of specific roles which, when they work together, maximises
the effectiveness of the team. There are 9 role types that a manager could create in a team:

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Note: A manager should consider these role types and think about whether the team needs
these role types, how many of each role type is needed, how to organise them to maximum
benefit and which individuals are best suited to them.

TUCKMAN’S THEORY OF TEAM DEVELOPMENT:

Four stages of development were identified in Tuckman’s theory of team development:

1) Forming (of the team):

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  Individuals want to be recognised, want to get to know others and impress each
other;
 There will be little conflict as there will be an initial conservative phase where team
members are reluctant to share and challenge ideas;

2) Storming:

 Plenty of trust has been developed to the point where individuals feel okay with
having conflict and challenge;
 This is a key stage when workable approaches can be agreed and committed to by
the team and in this manner, the team can work successfully;
 Great care by managers is necessary as the conflict could result in a risk of damage;

3) Norming:

 How the team works tends to settle down with agreed procedures as to how things
are done;
 Methods and processes become normalised and standardised and individual ideas
become less prominent;
 Members are happy to accept the blended approach of the team;
 Standardisation of approach may lead to a return of conflict avoidance and new
issues arising may not be challenged;

4) Performing:

 This stage is about execution and delivery;

 The team is settled, motivated and confident in their ability to get the job done;
 Supervision becomes less important as team members work autonomously;
 Appropriate conflict is expected and required in order to push the performance limit
without endangering the smooth running of the team;
 Growing pains are no longer evident and goals and objectives are achieved in
accordance with planning.

Note: A team manager should be aware of what phase of team development his/her team is
at in order to understand the activity in the team, and manage risks and issues in an
appropriate way, so that the team can develop and move to the next phase.

EFFECTIVE AND INEFFECTIVE TEAMS:

Effective teams have the following characteristics:

1) Real common purpose and a set of objectives. Every team member must clearly
understand what objectives are and commit to them fully;

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2) Clear performance targets and measures. The overall purpose and objective must be
broken down into measures and targets which can be clearly aligned to the team’s
efforts;

3) Wide range of people and skills. There should be sufficient skills and resources to
deliver the objectives but also the right mix of people types to create a strong team
dynamic;

4) Superior communication. A strong team will communicate well by sharing challenges

and help each other out through collaboration;

5) Commitment. Team members will be committed to and motivated by the goals and
objectives of the team;

6) Personal trust. Team members will get on, trust each other’s opinion and trust others to
help them out.

Note: A team could also be measured by operational effectiveness, delivery of objectives

and overall team ethos.

Ineffective teams have the opposite characteristics:

1) Poor delivery, operating functionality and team morale ethos;

2) Have no real common purpose and no clear performance targets;

3) Limited range of people and skills with a narrow range of people types;

4) Communication is poor and members will show low commitment and low motivation;

5) Poor trust levels between team members and little willingness to help each other.

TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES:

There are a number of common approaches to be found:

1) Creating a team identity. This can be done by giving the team a name, creating an
image, building external reputation, dressing in a similar way or decorating workspaces
in an individualistic way;

2) Shared set of goals and objectives. Team objectives must be clear, communicated
properly and achievable. The team should be committed to goals and objectives, which
can be achieved by:

 Involving the team in setting objectives;

 Taking feedback on objectives delivered to them;

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  Getting each team member to sign up to the final set of objectives;
 Constructing an ongoing feedback loop in the team;

3) Team integration. This can be achieved by:

 Re-emphasising team goals;

 Encouraging in together thinking;
 Ensuring that there is a conflict resolution process in place;
 Creating external competition;
 Ensuring that there is plenty of social interaction;
 Operating mini working groups within the team;
 Having a team reward system.

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 Motivating Individuals and Groups
MOTIVATING INDIVIDUALS AND GROUPS:

Motivation - process that initiates, guides and sustains behaviour towards achievement
of a particular goal or set of goals.

Importance of motivation for:

Organisation Teams Individuals

 Reaching of  Assisting the transition  Job satisfaction:
organisational goals; - from group of
individuals to the team;
 Engaged and  Focusing on team  Less work stress:
committed workforce; rewards rather than on
individual ones.
 Increased productivity.  More stable working
environment:
 Professional
development.

THEORIES OF MOTIVATION:

Content theory - Maslow’s hierarchy of needs:

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Importance of Maslow’s hierarchy:

Content theory - Herzberg’s two factor theory:

Types of factors:

1) Motivator factors cause job satisfaction;

2) Hygiene factors cause job dissatisfaction.

Key statements of Herzberg’s two factor theory:

 Both factors act independently;

 Employees have the need to have job satisfaction;
 Employees don’t need to have job dissatisfaction.

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McGregor theory X and theory Y - two potential motivational possibilities:

<= Two extremes

X Y
=>
People do not like work Work is natural and effortless
Would prefer not to be there Self-motivating Rewarding
Ordered or coerced

Managerial activities may be

Natural state - Preferred
unproductive. => Reality <=
belief
Employees’ behaviours may be
indicators of managerial activities
failure

Vroom’s expectancy theory:

Individual chooses to behave in a certain way for obtaining more desirable result and for
reaching his/her goals or objectives.

MF = E * I * V, where:

E: Expected outcome I: Instrumentality V: Valence

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REWARD SYSTEMS:

Rewards - something of monetary or non-monetary nature given to an individual or team in

recognition of something being achieved.

Reward systems designing:

Step 1 - Job specification analysis (what an individual sees as motivation drivers);

Step 2 - Determine pay reward (primary reward mechanism);

Step 3 - Include other rewards.

Type Definition Examples

- Flexible working hours;

Reward given which is separate - Working conditions;

Extrinsic performance of the role. - Organisation wide bonus schemes;
- Health benefits;

- Salary;
Reward given as a result of the - Performance bonuses;
Intrinsic performance of the role. - Promotion and advancement;

Elements of pay reward:

 Increases for individuals based on their performance;

 Increments for individuals based on overall organisational performance.

Importance:

 Focuses the individual on their own job;

 Encourages focus on team objectives;
 Encourages focus on contribution across the organisation.

Examples of other rewards:

- Christmas parties; - Conferences;

- Shares; - Any other unless prohibited by laws, regulations or

code of ethics

- Educational grants;

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Learning and Training at Work
IMPORTANCE OF LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT:

Learning and training help in:

1) Performing of roles;

2) Reaching goals and objectives;

3) Stretching beyond current role;

4) Over-performance;

5) Helps individuals work towards promotion;

6) Motivation factor;

7) Enables the organisation to plan;

8) Encourages employee loyalty.

GENERAL APPROACH TO THE LEARNING PROCESS:

Elements and requirements of the learning process are the following:

 There is a person who wants and is motivated to learn;

 There is a structured approach to the learning in the organisation;
 Personal objectives which identify required standards, measures and learning
requirements;
 Guidance from the organisation on what should be done to achieve the next level
and how that is to be achieved;
- There is a suite of learning targets;
- Developed structured programme - courses;
- Ongoing teaching and feedback.

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Honey / Mumford theory of learning styles: Different types of people will learn differently.

Types of learner:

Real problems, case studies, hands-on, on the job training, new challenging
1) Activists
environments.

Observe firstly, decide how to best learn, way that works for them, take their
2) Reflectors
time, learn at a steady pace.

Theoretical and intellectual standpoint, understand the principles on

3) Theorists
paper,structured approach to onboarding.

Only learn what is required, get the job done, unlikely to be concerned with
4) Pragmatists background information, only interested in doing the specifics of the role
better.

An organisation should:

- Understand what type of learners their employees are - questionnaire;

- Adapt individual learning and development programmes.

Kolb's experiential learning model - real experiences / self-learning:

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ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES IN THE LEARNING PROCESS:

Individual HR Line manager

- Design and manage central - Identify learning and
- Desire to learn;
learning and development development needs;
programme methods and - Review progress plan is
- Honestly self-identify;
resources; one track;
- Clear on the position / - Work towards longer
- Toolkits to manager;
article this effectively; term career goals
- Personal drive to success; - Scheduling / feedback;
- Broader career paths beyond
current role;
- Organisation wide course;

OVERALL TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT PROCESS:

Broad approach:

1) Identification of needs;

2) Setting of objectives;

3) Design of programme;

4) Delivery of the programme;

5) Validation and evaluation.

Training - systematic teaching and instruction given to individuals and teams that imparts
the knowledge and skill necessary to modify their abilities in such a way that will enable
them to perform a task or perform a role. Note: Training should be objective, task or role
specific.

Development - process by which an individual experiences personal growth and increased

capability through broad range of experiences including direct training / secondments /
engagements on projects outside a direct role.

Note: Also includes softer skills such as leadership and communication.

Education - acquisition of knowledge and skills.

Note: May not be directly related to the individual's role.

Benefits of effective training and development:

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 Organisation will have the skills necessary;
 Delivery of organisational objectives;
 Elevated performance;
 Motivated employees;
 Up-skilling managers of the future.

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Review and Appraisal of Individual Performance
IMPORTANCE OF PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT:

Assessing performance:

1) Determine from its business plan what it requires in terms of people, skills and
performances;

2) Determine the set of objectives / desired performance roles - assessing achievability;

3) Review throughout the year;

4) Appraised at the end of the year.

PURPOSE OF PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL:

1) Ensure the organisation is performing optimally:

 For those who have performed: recognise and receive rewards;

 For those who have not performed: action plan to to prevent repeating poor year
again.

2) Continued poor annual appraisals:

 Pause for thought;

 Is person suited for the role?
 Drag on the team.

3) Current state of development:

 Training and development needs;

 Reach the potential;
 Maximise the return;
 Assess individuals for potential promotion - succession plan.

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PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL PROCESS:

1) Individual submitting a report;

2) Appraisal meeting with manager to discuss the year, individual performance,

employee’s submission and manager’s opinion;

3) Individual and manager agree on a position as a result of discussion;

4) Agree action plan for the future as a result of agreed position: training and
development, remedial actions and objectives for the year ahead with agreed names
and dates.

BENEFITS AND BARRIERS OF EFFECTIVE APPRAISAL:

Effective appraisal has the following benefits:

 Properly appraise holistically;

 Motivator for an individual to perform;
 Opportunity to assess correctness of individual roles and promotion prospects;
 Preventing non-performing employees from slowing the performance of the
organisation.

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Barriers to effective appraisal and how to overcome them:

Not having a clear set of agreed achievable Objectives and performance levels are achievable
and
objectives agreed

If viewed or executed as a confrontation Clear at the outset as to the purpose of the appraisal
Following code of conduct

Non-constructive feedback Training how to give constructive feedback

Employee demonstrating poor attitude

Purpose of the meeting constantly communicated
Bureaucratic process

Planning, objective, agenda, action oriented, names

Appraisal lacking structure and dates

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