WATER HAMMER By E. B. Strowger Definition Water hemer is defined as the change in pressure, above or Delow normal pressure, caused by sudden changes in the rate of flow of water. Because of sudden changes in the demand for water during load fluctuations, 1t occurs at all points in pipe lines between the forebay and the turbines, but to a less extent in the pipe ‘Line between the reservoir end the surge tank end toe greater extent in the penstock. Accompanying e rather sudden decrease in load on a hydro- electric plant, the turbine gates operate to close and the hydraulic gradient moves up from AJ to AB as shown on Figure 1A, This position is called the positive water hammer gradient. At the instent the ‘turbine gate movement ceases the supernormel pressure then existing decomes unstable and the gradient AB begins to swing to AC. The pres- sure then fluctuates between positive and negative until damped out by friction. Accompanying e rather sudden increase in load on a hydro- electric plant, the turbine gates operate to open and the hydraulic gradient moves down fron EJ to BG as shown on Figure 1B, This position 4s called the negative water hammer gradient. After the gate movement ceases, the negative pressure BG swings to positive pressure EF. The penstock should be designed to withstand, et every point, en internal pressure corresponding to the maximum positive water hammer Pressure AB. The negative vater hammer gradient AC or EG, whether -caused directly by gate opening or by the swing of pressure from positivebalcCmirad FSA Cla= temas sae ah ESS claims -- atlas ae ial iceaR ay2 to negative after gate closure, should not be below the top of the penstock at any point, as at K. If it is, a pertiel vacum will ocour within the pipe, with nrobability of collapse of the shell. Air inlet valves to prevent veoumm in this case are not recamended, as they may not. operate quickly enough to prevent collapse. General Discussion If the turbine gates of the installation shown in Figure 1 are at a fixed position, as when the governor is operating on load limit, the rate of flow through the turbine orifices is constant end the hydraulic grediont remins ine fixed position. If, hovever, the turbine gates are regulating, 1.e., causing the orifice area to al- ternately open and close, the colum of water 1s.accelerated and de- celerated and the hydraulic gradient changes in position. During this perturbed reginen of flow, the phencmenon of vater hammer occurs. During © closure or an opening of the gates, kinetic energy 1s con- verted to potential eneray or vice versa end the pressure existing at ny instent could readily be computed from Newton's laws of motion if it were not for the effect of elasticity of the pipe vells and of the water itself. As the pressure changes oceur, the water is compressed or relieved of pressure, the pipe is expanded or contracted end vater hammer waves travel along the pipe as the whole liquid colum vibretes. Velocity and pressure at eny instant thus are dependent upon the elas- tic characteristics of pipe and water, as well as upon the initial conditions of head and velocity, the length of pipe, the velocity change and the character of the gate motion. The first significent contribution tovard the presentEse “elastic water colum theory" appears to be that of Michaud (1)* published in 1878, where the author brought out the oscillating charec- ter of water hammer. Among the other treatises published in the latter part of the Nineteenth Century, the most important one is the descrip- tion of the experimental work of Joukovsky in St. Petersburg (2) in Which he developed the law for instantaneous water hammer in a water conduit. ‘The first complete analytical solution of the water hammer problem was given by Loremo Allievi (5) in 1902. Allievi presented simple charts for the determination of the mximm pressure rise for uniform closure in simple conduits. In 1919 N. R. Gibson developed @ detailed theory of water hammer based upon Joukovsky's equation but Anfependent of the work of Allievi, with results identical to those of the latter. Gibson developed his equations on the basis of a series of instantaneous water hammer waves. His work included two methods of computation, one using his form equations and the other employing simple arithmetic integration (4). Solution of water hammer problems up to the year 1926 in- volved simple conduits of uniform diemeter ani thickness. The work of solving problems of complex conduits (variable thickness and diamster) and those of compound conduits (branch pipes) is tedious, using anlyti- cal methods, and it remined for Loewy (5), Schnyder (6), Bergeron (7), Angus (8) and others to develop the grephical method of solution in order to simplify the work. Fundamental Relations As the turbine gates start closing, 4 positive pressure wave starts to travel up the penstock to the forebay. A given motion of the * Numbers in parentheses refer to bibliogrerhy at end of chapter.gates may be considered to consist of a great number of small motions each one of which is instantaneous. Considering one of these small in- stantaneous motions of the gates in the closing direction, the positive wave resulting therefrom travels up the penstock to the forebay and upon reaching the forebay it is reflected back from the open end of the ripe a6 @ negative wave which travels back to the turbine and which has the same magnitude as the positive wave. The time of one round trip of the wave is designated as "p" end is called time of oue interval or the critical time of the pipe. (Note to Editor: Italicize words underlined) It is expressed (in seconds) as: 2b Q) where "L" is the length of the penstock in feet and “a” is the velocity of the pressure wave in feet per second. Joukovsky proved that the mximm water hammer produced in a pipe 1s equal to oo oe (2) ‘BX. & where h = maximm pressure rise in feet max. Av = velocity destroyed in fect per second end & * acceleration due to gravity in fect per secon’ per second This pressure rise is produced when a velocity of Av fest per second ie destroyed instentaneously or in @ time less than the critical time of the pipe. Bquetion (2) is the fundamental equation upon which all water hamor studies are based.Tf the pipe is of variable diameter, the fective velocity ¥ should be used in equation (2) and should be calculated as follows: ve fan +h ve tote | Fy (3) ‘The formila developed for the velocity of the pressure wave given by ‘A ele 4660 (4) ata { xa ~ a) re @ * diameter of pipe in inches os © = thickness of walls of pipe in inches xk = the voluminal modulus of elasticity of water, 294,000 1b. per sq. in. E = modulus of elasticity of the mterial of the pipe walls, approximately 29,400,000 for steel, Ibs. per sq.in. weight of 1 cu. ft. of water in pounds. For steel pipes commonly encountered in practice, thie forma becomes (s) Figure 2 shows values of "a" for various values of g for steel ripe in accordance with equation (4) and also for cast iron pipe. For a pipe concreted in solid rock the fraction X in equation (4) be- cones infinitesimal and the Limiting value of 4660 1s reached for "a", this being the velocity of sound in water. The value of "a" for wood stave pipes depends not only upon the modulus of elasticity of the wood mking up the staves and thet of300 250 m0} mare hada fo} i RATIO ele} CAST [noo 1 =a E : = (ol ota a re e.g 7a iC‘the steel of the bands but also upon the deflection of the staves be- ‘tween bands, the degree the bands have been embedded in the staves and perhaps other factora. In general, however, the value of "a" for wood stave pipes is low, how low 4t 16 impossible to foretell. This vould mike the problem of water hammer in such pipe indeterminate 1f it were not for the fact thet many times 1t mikes little difference what velue of "a" 4e selected since with a given time of closure of the turbine gates the higher the value of "a" the greater the number of intervals within the closure period which tends to lover the pressure rise and to more or less com pensate for the greater magnitude of the water hammer wave. Thus if "a" is increased the factor @) in equation (2), converting velocity change to pressure change, 1 increased but the mmber of intervals (see equation 9) increases due to a smeller value of a and these two factors tend to offset each other in the remilt. It 1s suggested that the following formula be used to determine a tentative value of "a" and that several lower values be used to investigate what effect a change in "a" has upon the result. me 4660 6) rae KD Rp +E, ay = velocity of pressure wave in wood stave pipe K = modulus of elasticity of water in compression = 42,400,000 #/eq.ft. D = dianster of pipe in feet Ey =uodulus of elasticity of wood staves Db = stave thickness in ft. By =nodulus of elasticity of steel bends in tension = 4,230,000,000 #/aq. ft. @ =totel cross sectional area of steel banda in eq. ft. per lineal ft. of pipede For concrete pipe and buried pipe the value of "a" usually rms high with a possible upper limit of 4660 feet per second. Claseification of Water Hamer Problems in Connection with Hydro-Blectric Plants ‘The A.S.M.E. Committee on Water Hamer has classified the various problems in this field as follows (9): Gase 1 - Pipes of Uniform Thickness and Diameter (Simple Pipes) This case covers many hydro-electric plants existing today end sso same of the more involved problems which are reducible to simple con- duits and is susceptible of solution by the Allievi charts. Gase 2 Pipes of Variable Thicimess and D: ‘Complex Pipes A reflection of the pressure wave occurs at pointe where there is a change in thickness or in diameter, and in general the water hammer conditions in this type of conduit can be divided into the following two classifications: (a) Closures taking plece in times equal to or less than & 3 in this case the pressure reflections of the waves at points where changes in thickness or dismeter ocour, result in a piling up of these reflected waves to such an extent that the pressure rise after the gate closure 1s completed, i.0., at ‘the end of the second or third intervals after closure starts, may be appreciably greater than that which would result in a simple conduit. (12) For this case the graphical mothod(b) 8. should be used.. Values of closure close to the critical time however are seldom used in practice. (See Section 8). Closures in times appreciably greater than SE - A rigid solution of this case would require a consideration of the reflected waves using the graphical method. However, the maximm pressure rise will usually occur near the end of the gate movement for relatively slow closures. Should the closure in the case of complex penstocks of hydro-clec- tric plants occur in a time greater than, say, 5 intervals and provided the gate motion 1s approximtely uniform, the use of the Allievi Charts my, in gener#l, be considered ac- curate enough for preliminary investigations. However, in general, for final calculations, the unexperienced engineer should always use the graphical method. As his experience Amoreases he will be able to tell when the Allievi Charts will be accurate enough for the final design. To apply the Allievi Charts the complex conduit mst be reduced to an equivalent simple conduit of uniform thickness end diameter. In this case = value of "a" should be determined for each section of constant diameter and thickness (including the etani-pipe of the surge tank, if any, and draft tube, as @iccussed hereinafter) and the effective value of "a" should de determined from the following equation: mB el ag 8g + ete. @Gase 3 - Pipes with Branches (Compound Pipes) The reflection of waves from branch pipes must be considered in most all cases to determine the true maximm pressure rise at any point in ‘the hydraulic system for either rapid or slow closures. The graphical method is best adapted to the solution of these problems and reference is made to two treatises in the bibliography at the end of thie chapter. See references (11) end (12). Case 4 - Surge Tanks ‘A surge tank ie installed in a pressure conduit for one or more of the following purpose flow and (3) obtaining the desired speed regulation from the hydro- (1) relief of water hammer; (2) regulation of electric unit or mits installed. Surge tanks act as a point of lief and materially reduce the pressure rise in the pipe line above the surge tank. Where the length of the riser of the surge tank is @ relatively small percentage of the length of the penstock and where the gate closure is slow, one approximate method for computing water hammer is to consider that the tenk acts as a forebay end that the penstock is a simple conduit extending from the turbine to the tank. For simple surge tanks the length of the penstock vould in this case ‘be assumed to extend to the bovl of the tank and for differential tenks to the static water level. For relatively fast closures, how- ever, the penstock, pipe line and surge tank become a pipe with branches and the theory as outlined under Case 3 above applies. (See reference (7) of bibliography). Allievits Water Hemmer Charte Allievi's chart for the solution of the maximm pressure of water hammer when the velocity is destroyed st a uniform rate to zero~10- is reproduced in Figure 3. Tho uniform rate of velocity decrease assumes a uniform speed of closure of the gate and a straight line relation between @ischarge and gate opening. The chart is also based upon the assumption of uniform wall thickness of the pipe anf uniform diameter in order to eliminate the consideration of wave reflections from pointe of change in thickness and change in diameter and thus applies to simple conduits as described above. ‘The lines on the chart converge at low values of P and © and because of this only a few have Deen camried through to the P axis. Figure 4 has been prepared to show the detail of the chart at low values of P and Oe Allievi's chart for the minimm pressure due to uniform in. crease in velocity 1s shom in Figure 5. Here also simple coniuits are assumed. The chart is mde for opening the turbine gates froma closed Position to any desired degree of opening and at any speed of operation. The ordinates of the charts are @imensionless mmbers or rer- ameters and are designated as P end © . the peranctor ? is called ‘the characteristic of the conduit, and is expressed by the equation - ay P= vate 2 where Ho = static head at lower end of pipe, in feet (of water), measured from forebay level or from elevation of water in surge tank at beginning of gate movement to tail-race level, and other symbols are as given hereinbefore. ‘The parameter © is called the "time parameter" anf 1s the ratio of the totel time of gate operation to the time of one interval’ a Kt Z wreamsnnnen Keune meas MusGnEuase Zee re zte] ez eee coor| coos coo 03! oo! oo? oo? oot ov oe se SPLITS GRRASRAKTK RELATE Qo ETO Peden on gdh CEN 8 Tage voInz S68 lo% «Ra amine a ae Pee, oe r @ x Ocha pe a % aeCECE ses as7s ose SEU BOUIUAsnNauaceszogre 1nd | oe 0 é Me S80 S042 lo RIP IFQRLAKLRRIK RG HEH OOH Ye OHee as given by equation (1) i.e., it 1s the time of gate operation ex- pressed in intervels and may be written - (9) ° « BB Fi aS) where ‘T = time of gate operation as obtained in Article 6. ‘The symbol Z is a measure of the water hammer. 2° is defined as the ratio of the maximum total head to the initial head, 1.0, ® pane ae (a9) ‘The curves S in the chart Figure } indicate the time, in ‘terms of Va » Which elapses from the beginning of closure to the instant of the occurrence of the maximum pressure. An example giving the use of Allievits charts 1s given later. 6. Gate Motion It should be noted that the time of governor action is not necessarily proportional to the percentage of gate motion, oving to tho fact that certain time elements enter into the problem caused by thele physical limitations of the governor itself. A typical curve of per- centage of time of full stroke, corresponding to the percentage of gate trevel obtained on the test of a modern turbine, is shown in Fig- ure 6. The penstock velocity at any particular gate opening may be expressed by an oquation in the form of one representing the velocity ‘through an orifice as follows: toe Ge ee (a) P where Vo = penstock velocity in feet per second at the gate opening Ay C = the coefficient of discharge of the turbine Ap = the area of the penstock in sq.ft., and Hy = the head opereting on the turbine. ‘This equation my be written: Vo = BoV Ho (2) where Bo= c $2 yrEé ° Ap (3) Knowing the characteristics of the turbine the value of By my be readily determined ani for any gate opening, A, and any head, H, we my write Ae Ss Wes Gian NOS) eee os Be a (ae) Where uniform motion of the turbine gates is assumed the relation between time and the gate opening factor B my be expressed by B= (1-§) Bo (5)Frere) FIG.6 INITIAL. GATE OPENING — % [a Eo = co) i; i} i Ey horse ent UAB Me Aa eed ° COTE fO Bah eel cane eo iss ane eetiem cae ia cee | Ba ae con) ON TN Ene)Where T is the total time of closure and Bo the initial gate opening factor. The usual movement of the turbine gates with respect to time however is not uniform as the mechanism has an inertia effect at the Deginning of the stroke and at the end of the stroke ® cushioning ef- fect my be present. A curve of typical gete motion with reepect to ‘ime ie compared with uniform movement in Figure 7. This curve my be considered sufficient for preliminary examination but the final curve should be furnished by the turbine manufacturer. Also the relationship between gate opening ani discharge in practical cases 1s not a straight Line relationship, as ie illustreted by the curve of Figure 8. To sim- plify the solution of water hammer problems (see Section 4), by moans of the Allievi chart, 1t is possible to secure a value of "equivalent time" for cutting off the flow to represent the time which would be required to close the gates from the wide open position 1f they moved uniformly ot the mxtmm rete existing at any portion of the entire movement. Figure 9 11lustrates one method of obtaining "equivalent time". If the variation of discharge, with respect to gate opening, is leo non-uniform, @ correction mst be applied to the gate opening to s cure the “equivalent gate opening" for full quantity being cut off unt- formly. This equivalent gate opening mst then be used as a percentage of full gate opening and e corresponding additional reduction mst be made in the "equivalent time", resulting in the net equivalent time "I", for use in equation (9) as shown in Figure 9. (See reference 9). The results thus obtained are approximte ani if an exact solution is desired, the arithmetic integration method or the graphical method as described in Sections 10 and 11 should be employed.8 ny te) 4o cor CaN 4 Pays es rc t | { | fo} Dy Cy s Pa TIME IN SECONDS tahoeTe Critical Governor Mme Although the total time of closure of the ordinary hydraulic ee ere ee eee from an intermediate gate to zero involving a timing approximting the critical time. The pressure rise from such a gate closure is obtained fron equation (2) ani may be greater than the pressure rise occurring when closure from full gate to zero is mide. Consequently, it is de- sirable to investigate also martial closures to zero as well as full gate closures to zero to obtain the maximum pressure rise to which the Penstock may be subjected. (15) Pressure Conditions Along the Pipe If closure occurs instantaneously, the pressure wave will travel undiminished up the conduit to the intake or point of relief. For closures which take place in a time greater than zero but less than one interval (T> o< = the mximm pressure rige will be transmitted along the pipe to a point where the distance to the intake te oqual to J. From that point to the intake the pressure reduces unt - formly to zero. When the duration of uniform closure is equal to or ram greater than the critical time [+ the maximm rise of pressure occurs and thickness fat the gate, and in the case of @ pipe of constant diameter, from there to the forebay, reduces to zero uniformly along the length of the pipe. If the pipe is of varying diameter, as shown in Figure 10, then it is sufficiently exact to assum for design that the mgnitude of the maxinnm enyer-pressure or depression found at the gate diminishes from the gate to the point of open water and has a value at any point, k, equal to that given in the following equation:9. ee alas Nowra aioe Mule vay eee (36) Wy Ty hy = the water hammer at point k h = the vater hammer at the turbine V_ = the effective velocity for the whole pipe fron equation (2) L =the total length of the pipe, and A, Noa ort eet Aare succameialiee eeien pice having constant velocity values of v1) Vp) V5 respectively. ory. By means of equation (3) equation (16) may also be written as follows: Bil 2 aa Arithmetic Integration Method of Computation The arithmetic integration method as considered here applies ine (7) ‘to simple pipes and is included herein for the purpose of bringing out certain fundementel concepts of the subject which will facilitate the esentation of the graphical method of computation. The water hamer resulting fron a gate movement can readily be calculated by using equation (2) to determine and tabulate the pressure rise (or fall) dus to the velocity change during each interval of time of 2 seconds and by properly combining theso tabulated values of pressure rise (cr fall) considered as supernormal and subnormal, pressure waves. Considering a gate closure and letting /\V, be the velocity destroyed during the first interval, AV the velocity destroyed during the second interval, ete., the pressure rise during the first interval is Am «2 An (38)a16s end the pressure existing et the end of the first interval is by = ho + Ahi (19) During the second interval the pressure rise due to the velocity change AYe ts : Aly =2AYp (20) ‘but during this interval the pressure wave formed during the first interval is reflected and starts to travel fron the velve or gate as @ eubnormal wave. At the end of the second interval the magnitude of this subnormal wave is - Ah instead of + Ah; and the pressure oxist- ing at this time is ho =hy + Ata - 2Am (2a) At the end of the third interval Ahg has become subnormal and /\ hy has became supernormal so thet at this time the pressure existing at the turbine 1s hs = he + Abs - 2 Ata +2 Am (22) Accordingly the pressure existing at the end of the nth interval is tn = tn-l + Abn - 2 Atm-1 +2 Alma, ote. (23) rom these relations the ordinary water hammer problem may be solved by means of arithmetic integration. To illustrate the method the solution of the following problem is presented. Assuming a penstock area of 55.66 sq ft and the following conditions: L = 1000 ft @ = 32.2 ft per sec. per sec. Vo= 10.78 ft per sec. fT = 2.66 sec. Hox 200 ft. a = 3005 ft per sec. calowlate the maximm pressure rise at the turbine for a gate closure to zero at a rate as shown by the gate-time curve of Figure 16. Assume that the turbine gate-discharge relation is as shown in Figure. 16.ete Pho time of one interval (equation 1) ted = see = 0.665 sec. ‘The computation is shown by the following tabulation. The following procedure is used: 1. The time in terms of intervals and seconds is recorded in the first tvo colums. 2. The initial gate opening factor Bo is calculated 10.78 from equation (12) or Vo = 0.7625 and recorded in ‘the first line of the third colum. 3. The initial values of head and velocity are set down in the fourth end fifth colums respectively. 4, ‘Tho remaining values of B in the third colum sre then set down using Fig. 16 as follows. Entering curve A (Pig. 16) with the value of time at the end of the first e@ interval, i.e. 0.665 sec. the gate opening position of 80% is fom. Entering ourve B with a gate opening value of 806 a discharge of 5Ii1 ofs 1s fom. This corresponds to a vel- ocity of 2s = 9.72h fps and therefore the value of B at 0.6876. Similarly the end of the first interval is Fone the values of B at the end of the 2nd, 3rd, ete. intervals are obtained. 5. The change in'velocity during the first interval is then estimated. Since there are four intervals in the closure this velocity change would be not greater than 29,78 _ 2,695 2ps due to the slow motion of the gate at the start. Accora- ingly the value selected would be sonevhere between 0 and 2.695. Eetinating this change at 0.350 the pressure rise during the @ firat interval would be 203 x 0.330 = 93.52 x 0.350 = 30.79 ft. 52.2 ‘This is entered in the seventh colum as hy.-18- e : 6. The total head at the turbine at the end of the first interval is then calculated as 200 + 30.79 = 250.79 and entered in the ith colum,. 7+ The velocity remaining at the end of the Ist interval 4s 10,780 - 0.350 = 10.450 which is entered in the 5th colum. 8. The value of B corresponding to a heed of 230.79 and @ velocity of 10.150 is then calovlated fram equation (14), B = 10-450 . 0.6876 and if this value checks the one already [250.19 recorded in column 3 the estimate of velocity change i.e. 0.330 is correct. If this value of B does not check the one slready recorded © new estimate of velocity chenge is then made and the sbove steps are again taken until a satisfactory check is obtained. e 9. Similarly the remaining figures in the table are filled out remembering that equation (25) should be used to obtain ht 4.0. the hy at the end of the 3rd interval is calculated as follows hy = 175.36 + 481.00 - 2 x 206.15 +2 x 30.79 = 505.64 ARTTEMEDTC Derecrarron Q) (2) (5) (4), (5) (6) (7) ‘Time Gate Head Velocity Intervala Seconds _B x Vend AY An =93.32AV bt ° 0 0.7623 200.00 10,780 ° 0.330 30.79 1.0 0,665 0.6876 250.79 10.150 30.79 2.209 206.15 2.0 1.33 044255 375.36 B.2h1 175.36 ® 5.155 481.00 3.0 2.00 0.1372 505.64 3.086 305.64 3.086 287.90 4.0 2.66 0.0000 182.26 0.000 -17-Th10. 292 Grephical Method of Analysis ‘The graphical method of determining the water hammer pressure in pipes 4s convenient for use in solving many problems which, with analytical methods, would require considerable time end lsbor. Ih gen- eral, the method involves the plotting of sets of simultaneous equations Felating flow or velocity to head, and taking the form of a series of straight lines and a series of pareboles, the straight lines represent- ing the pressure due to the direct end indirect vater hammer blows end the parebolas representing discharge through the turbine gates considered. during the disturbed regimen as © series of orifices under varying heads. The orifice relation is given by equation (14) and, assuming that the Penstock from turbine to forebay is uniform in thickness and disneter as illustrated in Figure 11, the water hammer equation 1s given by: Mee eee S 2 (2k) Btijo ~ Bu, ~ - 2 Bajo ~ May) 6 where Hag, = head, in feet, at the gate end of the penstock ta at time t1 = head, in feet, at the forsbay end of the penstock Bie taj2 /2 interval) Yat, = velocity, in feet per second, at the gate end of the penstock at time ti. eto. Using the zero subscript to indicate initial conditions, and lover case letters primed to indicate head, velocity, otc., in terms of relative values, thus - v — = Se ee (25)Bice a i; eh £,= Time at 1¥ iatom pt‘then equation (14) becomes - vi =n! Var (26) and equation (24) becomes - B'Bea fo ~ Diag = - 2p ("Bea /o - V'Aey) (27) Baty - Bn = 2p (a, - vB) 2 whore f ts the yermster as given by equation (8). To solve equations (26) end (27) graphically, diagram as illustrated by Figure 12 is constructed. The family of parabolas starting from the origin is first constructed. One parabola is made for each interval of time (or fraction of interval). In the diagram the curve-y' = 1 gives the relation between h and v for the initiel gate opening as in equation (26), the curveryt = (1 - 2) =1-2= 2-1 sor the gate opening at the ond of the first interval, ete. From 6 the point (1, 1) a line of slope ( - 2p) is drawn which intersects uct J at Aty. This line rerresents the first straight line of equation (27). Then a line is drawn through At with a slope of (+ 2p) which intersects the line k=l at Besa, eto. The coordinates of the points At,, Ata, ete., indlcate the Ieadl andl vetee! ty ead tt (cx athe turbine end of the penstock at the end of intervals 1, 2, ete., and the coordinates of the points Biz/2, By, ete-, indicate the head and veloc ay cad ib cee HO Mc’ 105 ay Team PO ersten ce Tien ards eee Z, 23, ote. the pressure-time curve for the turbine end of the pen- stock 18 obtained by plotting the values of head at the points At,, Aty, Ato, ete., against 0, 2b, 4, ete. seconds respectively. Where friction is an appreciable quantity in relation toa ee ae io ‘ | } Sone fo) ny aS > | ie Fl } es meg a sf Ge ANB ene Fe | ee g® et |e na i n 0 —— y AL < fis (Fe i ZL Vs wl w me ey ee 8 5 cS} l rd fae ea11. 21. the total head on the turbine, 1t should be taken into account. This my be done graphically by assuming the friction acts as though 1t was concentrated st one or more points along the pipe. The greater the number of points selected for concentreting the friction, the greater the accuracy obtained. Usually it is sufficiently accurate to assume ‘that all the friction is concentrated at the gate or valve. Figure 13 illustrates the method of taking account of friction on the assumption that it acte at the turbine end of the conduit. The parsbolas represent- ing the discharge-head relations for the various gate positions at inter- val points during the closure are first draw and then the line OA te dyawn below the X axis by the amount of the friction lose in the conduit. ‘The diagram is then begun at the point C which is located on the X axis and directly above the point B which is at the intersection of the para- Dols for the initial gate opening and the friction curve. The line DC ie drewn through C with the elope of -2/ and then the line EB ie drawn Delow DC by the amount of the friction loss. This line intersects the parabola for the end of the first interval at F. A vertical Line through F intersects DC at the point G which gives the velocity and, head conti - ‘tions at the end of the firet interval. The same procedure is followed for succeeding intervals as shom by the diagram. Yumerical Examples Example 1 (Pressure rise with uniform gate motion, friction neglected) Assuming uniform gate motion and a straight line relation be- ‘tween gate opening and discharge, fini the rise in pressure at the tur- Dine 1f the penstock velocity 1s reduced to zero with the following Anitial conditions and physical constants given. Also, plot the pressure-ratae time curve to cover the duration of closure and the first few after- waves. L = length of penstook = 805 feet Vos penstook velocity « 8 fest per second Hig= head. = 160 fect T = time of closure = + seconds @ = 35220 feet per second From equation (1) =, . ale [== = .5 seo., from equation (9), © ib ‘end fram equation (8), (rage Sessa sie 77° apes (2) Solution by Allievi chert for maximum pressure rise (Figure 4). ‘The maximum pressure is found by obtaining the value of Z@ when © = 8, and f = 2.5 and, from equation fo), is Ho + Bmax. = 1-365 x 160 = 218.1 ft. ‘The maxinnm pressure rise is therefore - hmax. = 218-1 - 160 = 58.1 ft. or 36.36. This pressure ocours between the 5th and 6th intervals as determined ‘by the $ lines on the chart. : (2) Solution by graphical method (see Pigure 14). Compute the parabolas determined by equation (26) for values of Y! of 1, .875, «75, «50, 375, «25 and .125. These curves are marked Ody Ah 2h eto The series of straight lines are drawn with alternate slopes of 45 and -5 and intersect the parabolas and the line h = 1 at the working points. The points 1, 2, 3, 4, etc., indicate the values of h at the turbine at the end of intervals 1, 2, 3, 4, ete., respectively. The maximum pressure is shown to be1.565 x 160 = 218.4 ft. and the miximm pressure-rise is - 218.4 -160 = 58.4 ft. or 36.56. ‘The mximm pressure is shown to occur between the Sth and 6th inter- vals. Figure 15 has been prepared to show the relation of pressure at the turbine ani time during, and for a short time after, the gate closure. ‘The time and pressure values are taken from the upper set of working points of Figure 1¢. It should be noted that the pointe 8, 9, 10, 11, ete. are for conditions immediately following the gate closure and show the afterwaves of the pressure diagram. Example 2 (Eres: with non-uniform gate motion, friction With e rate of gate closure ani a discharge-gate relationship, as shown in Figure 16, find the mximm pressure rise at the turbine for full load thrown off in 2.66 seconds, assuming a flow of 600 cfs corresponding to full load, a head of 200 ft. operating at the turbine, and the following penstock conditdons: Section of penstock 1 2 3 4 Diameter, a, ft. 9 9 8.5 8 Length of section, ft. 100 200 300 400 Thickness, e, in. az 3/4 3/4 3/4 afe 216 lt 136 128 "a" from Figure 2 2625: 2990 3050 5100 Area, eq.ft. 65.6 63.6 56.7 50.3 Velocity for Q = 600 cfs 9.44 9.44 10.58 11.95 ‘From equation (3) - Vo = 300 x 9.44 + 500 x 10.58 +400 x 11.95 = 10.78 ft/sec TOO From equation (6) - 2000 = 100 4 120 + 300 . 400 a 2ez5 2980 “3050 ‘3100 Average "a" = 3005 ft/secG\| Sila ‘laS.~ anil had s a ol cae 4 rial Roar ela toro) Jo pea vr eo;2] = 2000 = pe = - #8 0.685 see 4 ‘The values of 7/1 (see equation 26) are first obtained for as many points along the gate curve as desired in order to plot the pare- Dolas shown on Figure 17. These values are obtained as follows for every half interval of time during the closure. ‘Time Gate Opening % ots f Tnterval Sec. (From Pig.16) (From Fig.16) v © ° ° 100 800 1.000 forces 9% 586 1975 1.0 lees a0 542 302 1s 1.00 63 455 .787 20. eas 46 335 1588 25 pees 29 210 1350 3.0 2.00 6 108 1180 Be ee 5 35 1059 4,0 2.66 ° ° 000 With these values of 7” the family of yarabolas as shown my be drew and then the streight lines of slope plus and minus - 5005 x 10.78 2P= ere zo = (5-026 ere drawn ‘The mximm pressure is shown to be - 2.525 x 200 = 505 ft. The mximm pressure rise is 305 fb. or 1534. Tt should be noted that if the Allievi Chart is used to deter- mine the pressure rise by using the “net equivalent time" of gate closure as show in Figure 16, and as discussed 1n section (6), we obtain — fiesta 3005 x 10.78 Cie acer = 42-068 Ps wast vise of 400 ft. (instead of 505 ft.) which ie considerably on the safe side = 2,514 and a pressure @ for design purposes.(ee i bake ol ol a5 ae [x79 carey ad rodol"s14 ‘OES ~ ANIL cot TUT (I roar TS ET r UT oa a at N tN = (soe Ee) ca 8-25- Example 3 (Pressure drop with uniform gate motion and friction Assuming uniform gate motion and a straight line relation Detween gate opening and discharge, find the fall in pressure at the turbine if the penstock flow 1s increased from zero to 600 cfs 1m the case of the turbine installation described in Example lo. 2. Assume T = 5,66 seconds for the opening stroke of the governor. ‘The maximum fall in pressure my be found by obtaining the value of 2? in Figure 5 for the proper values of © and P . In this case Ox 3:08. = 5.5 ami f = 1.515. 2% is therefore 0.58, the minimum pressure .58 x 200 = 116 ft. and the fall in pressure 64 ft. or 42%,