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Characteristics
of
Rational Functions

Success Criteria

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

To identify the key characteristics of rational functions from their
equations and use these characteristics to sketch their graphs

Prior learning: Polynomial functions

Characteristics of Rational Functions

Adding, subtracting, or multiplying two polynomial functions yield

another polynomial function. How about dividing two polynomials?

Example:

1. 𝑓(𝑥) = , 𝑥 ≠ −1,

2. 𝑓(𝑥) = ,𝑥 ≠ 0

Dividing two polynomials create a new function, called Rational Function.

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Rational functions
( )
Rational functions can be expressed as 𝑓 𝑥 = ( )
,
where 𝑝(𝑥) and 𝑞(𝑥) are polynomial function and 𝑞 𝑥 ≠ 0

The graphs of rational functions vary greatly, for example:

x+1 x2 + 16 (x – 1)(x – 2)
f (x) = g(x) = h(x) =
3x – 3 x2 + 4 x–1

Characteristics of Rational Functions

1. Domain
2. Range
3. x-intercepts
4. y-intercepts
5. Discontinuity - Vertical Asymptotes
6. End behaviour
a. Horizontal Asymptotes
b. Oblique asymptotes

Discontinuity with rational functions

Rational functions often have one or more discontinuities.

The break or discontinuities in a rational function occurs where the function is

undefined at that point.

The function is undefined at values where the denominator is equal to zero.

These values must be restricted from the domain.

Being Undefined at a point means the point is not in the domain of the function.

In this unit we study the removable and infinite discontinuity.

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Asymptotes

A rational function can have vertical, horizontal, or oblique asymptotes.

Removable discontinuity

Removable discontinuity occur when the numerator and denominator

have a common factor.

The common factors can be canceled, however the function is still

undefined at that point.

(𝑥 − 1) (𝑥 − 2)
𝑓 𝑥 =
(𝑥 − 1)

𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 2 ,𝑥 ≠ 1

Example - Removable discontinuity

𝑥−1 𝑥−2
𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑥−1 𝑥−3
𝑥−2
=
𝑥−3

The function is undefined at x = 1 and x = 3.

There is a common factor (𝑥 − 1) which

will be canceled out.

There is a point discontinuity at x = 1.

There is hole at 𝑥 = 1

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Removable discontinuity definition

( )
A rational function, 𝑓(𝑥) = ( )
, has a hole (point discontinuity) when 𝑞(𝑥) and

𝑝(𝑥) have common zeros, and the common zeros have the same order.

A rational function 𝑓 𝑥 = has a hole at 𝑥 = 𝑎 , if =

( ) ( )

This occurs when 𝑝 𝑥 and 𝑞 𝑥 have common factor of 𝑥 − 𝑎 .

≠ 0, is called indeterminate.

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Infinite discontinuity

Infinite discontinuity is a point which the value of the function

approaches to infinity.

𝑥 +4
Example: 𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑥−2

𝑎𝑠 𝑥 → 2, 𝑓 𝑥 = ⇒ 𝑓 𝑥 → ±∞

𝑥 = 2 is the vertical asymptote.

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Infinite discontinuity

( )
A rational function, 𝑓(𝑥) = ( )
, has infinite discontinuity,

1) when 𝑝 𝑥 and 𝑞(𝑥) have distinct zeros.

2) when 𝑝 𝑥 and 𝑞(𝑥) have common zeros and the order of the common
zero in 𝑞(𝑥) is higher than the order of common zero in 𝑝(𝑥)

(𝑥 − 1)
Case 1: Distinct zero: 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥≠3
(𝑥 − 3)
(𝑥 − 1)
Case 2: Common zero and higher order in q x : 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥≠1
𝑥−1

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Vertical Asymptotes - Definition

Vertical asymptotes of a function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is a vertical line 𝑥 = 𝐿, such that

lim 𝑓 𝑥 = ±∞
→

(𝑥 − 1)
𝑓 𝑥 = ,𝑥 ≠ 3
(𝑥 − 3)

lim 𝑓 𝑥 = +∞
→

lim 𝑓 𝑥 = −∞
→

VA: 𝑥 = 3

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Example: Infinite discontinuity with distinct zeros

A rational function of the form has a vertical asymptote at 𝑥 = 𝑎,

if 𝑞 𝑎 = 0, but 𝑝(𝑎) ≠ 0

Example: 𝑓 𝑥 =

𝑥−2 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = 2
𝑥 = 2 is the vertical asymptote

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Example: Infinite discontinuity with common zero but different order

when 𝑝 𝑥 and 𝑞(𝑥) have common zeros and the order of the common zero
in 𝑞(𝑥) is higher than the order of common zero in 𝑝(𝑥).

Example: 𝑓 𝑥 =

𝑥−1 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = 1
𝑥 = 1 is the vertical asymptote

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Horizontal Asymptotes- - Definition

As the value of 𝑥 approaches infinity in two direction, 𝑥 → ±∞, the

value of 𝑓(𝑥) approaches 𝐿, then, 𝑦 = 𝐿 is a horizontal asymptotes of 𝑓 𝑥 .

lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿
→±

Example: y =

as 𝑥 → +∞, 𝑦 = ⇒ 𝑦 = 0 from below

as 𝑥 → −∞, 𝑦 = ⇒ 𝑦 = 0 from above

then, 𝑦 = 0 is the horizontal asymptote of 𝑓(𝑥)

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Finding equations of horizontal asymptotes

Horizontal asymptotes of rational functions depend on the degree of the

numerator (𝑛) and denominator (𝑚), and the leading coefficients of
numerator, 𝑎, and denominator 𝑐.

𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 +⋯.
𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 +⋯
To find horizontal asymptotes, use the following criteria:

If 𝑛 < 𝑚, graph has a horizontal asymptote at 𝑦 = 0 (the 𝑥-axis)

If 𝑚 = 𝑛, graph has a horizontal asymptote at 𝑦 =

If 𝑛 > 𝑚, graph has no horizontal asymptote.

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Example - Horizontal Asymptote

𝑓 𝑥 = ⇒ HA = = 2

𝑦 = 2 is the horizontal asymptote

4𝑥 + 2 4
𝑓 𝑥 = ⇒ HA = = 4
𝑥 −4 1
𝑦 = 4 is the horizontal asymptotes

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Oblique Asymptote - Definition

Oblique is an asymptote which is neither horizontal nor vertical, but

slanted (sloping). A rational function has an oblique asymptote only when
the degree of 𝑝(𝑥) is greater than the degree of 𝑞(𝑥) by exactly 1.

𝑝 𝑥
Example: 𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑞(𝑥)

𝑝 𝑥 =𝑎 𝑥 +𝑎 𝑥 +𝑎 𝑥 ⋯

𝑞 𝑥 = 𝑏 𝑥 +𝑏 𝑥 +𝑏 𝑥 ⋯

𝑛 ∈ ℕ, (𝑛 = 1,2,3,4 … . )

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Finding Oblique Asymptote

To determine the oblique asymptote we need to apply the long division.

Example: 𝑓(𝑥) =

Long division gives us:

𝑝 𝑥 𝑥 +4 5
= = 𝒙−𝟏 +
𝑞 𝑥 𝑥+1 𝑥+1

the 𝐪𝐮𝐨𝐭𝐢𝐞𝐧𝐭 of the division is the equation of the

oblique asymptote, that is,

the obliques asymptote is: 𝒚 = (𝒙 − 𝟏)

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Practice 1: Determine all the discontinuity and asymptotes for 𝑓 𝑥 .

Justify your answers.
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 2)
𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥 − 1 (𝑥 − 3) 𝑥 − 2

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Summary

 The quotient of two polynomial functions results in a rational function which often has one or
more discontinuities.

 The breaks or discontinuities in a rational function occur where the function is undefined. The
function is undefined at values where the denominator is equal to zero. As a result, these
values must be restricted from the domain of the function.

 The values that must be restricted from the domain of a rational function result in key
characteristics that define the shape of the graph. These characteristics include a
combination of vertical asymptotes (also called infinite discontinuities) and holes (also called
point discontinuities).

 The end behaviors of many rational functions are determined by either horizontal asymptotes
or oblique asymptotes.

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Practice
Text: Page 262, Q # 1-3
Use Desmos to verify your answers

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Sol – Practice 1: Determine all the discontinuity and asymptotes for 𝑓 𝑥 . Justify your answers.

( )( )
𝑓(𝑥) =
( )

The function is undefined at 𝑥 = 1, 𝑥 = 2, 𝑥 = 3,

zeros of the denominator.

There is a hole at 𝑥 = 1,
same order common zeros.

There is a vertical asymptote at 𝑥 = 3,

distinct zero in the denominator.

there is a vertical asymptote at 𝑥 = 2,

order of the common zero is higher in the denominator.

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